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THE
- JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
INDEX AND TITLE PAGE
VOL. 51
NOS. 1 & 2
Price Rs. 3-0-0
ZANTHSON gS
AUG 24 1954 }
% LIBRARY A
MADRAS
PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
1954
INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER
The contents of these two parts should be arranged in thé
following order when they are being bound :—
Title page oes er
Contents of Nos. 1 & 2 of Vol. 51
List of contributors cco
List of plates... aan
Index to illustrations
Index to species ee:
To follow frontis-
piece in this order.
| To go at the end of
ie | _ the two numbers.
THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
EDITED BY
SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, ph.p., and H. SANTARAY, s.J,
VOL. 51
Nos. 1 & 2
Containing 39 black-and-white plates, 8 maps,
58 text figures and 5 photographs
Dates of Publication
Part 1. (Pages 1 to 340) ... December, 1952
5. tee (ee atp 341 to 530) ... April, 1953
LONDON AGENTS
MESSRS. WHELDON & WESLEY LTD.,
83/84 Berwick Street,
LONDON, W. 1.
PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS
“1954
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 5&i
No. i
THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’s WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND
NATIONAL PARKS. By HE. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.z.S.. (With
LOLI DLULES, \aomen itty Paes oe eee Bo nate ee
SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF INDIAN CULTIVATED AND
WASTE LANDs. By M. D. Lister.. eee ae
STUDY ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE eR cone AND
NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS. PART IIT: Mollusca (contd)—
Scaphepoda, Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda. By A. M,
MorE BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS,
AMBQYMNig — IByy Site Iain CeayordiS, TOI), (REWG)) acon sansscoune cone
THE GENUS oa LINN IN INDIA. PART II. By N. L. Bor.
(With eight plates and twenty-five text LIQ UVES). vor reecee ree
Tur History oF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY.
Part II. Birds. By Sir Norman Kinnear, c.B..
On SOME DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF Cavanx Haalite Car &
WAL BynowV. bapal, Mise, and No Waghu Prasad. m.Se.,
Ph.p. (With a plate and tour text £18 UVES)... .00.0-.0r +00 ananee
Tup LINALOE TREE (Lursera delpechiana POISSON): AN
INTRODUCTION INTO THE FLORA oF INDIA. By Lt-Col.
R. W. Burton, 1A. (Retd). (Wath a plate)... Soria
KASHMIR REVISITED. By W. T. Loke. (With six A eos
NoTES ON THE CRAB FISHERY OF THE CHILKA LAKE. Sy
S. Jones and K. H. Sujansingani. (Wzth five text
HETIAES) Jase, 02D 860 SO 000.9000 055 oh 00000 440000 00 ;
On A CoMMON SPECIES OF Curcuma OF BOMBAY AND
SALSETTE ISLANDS. By H. Santapau, s.J. (W2th a plate).
SysteMATICS AND EcoLocy or INDIAN PLANTS OR WHAT
CAN WR DEMAND OF A MODERN Frora? By C. E,
le WietS Omen (UUc UNL DUQVES).ecnacgah wertteryiccens seelsee modes en
A Fisuinc HotipAy In NortH GARHWAL. By A. St. J.
| Macdonald. (With a plate and three text MAps)...0.00.0..00+
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF GYMNOSPERMS IN
EASTERN NepaL. By M.L. Banerji. (With a map)......
Witp LirE RESERVES IN INDIA: UTTAR PRADESH. (U.P.).
By T. N. Srivastava, A.I.F.C..
PAGE
DO
©)
42
61
104
111
116
IAN
128
USS
ay CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51
THE CONTROL OF AQUATIC VEGETATION WITH ‘2, 4-D’. By
R. Srinivasan (Hydrologist) and P. I. Chacko (Biologist).
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA. By
uncer Wall ota (W2E2 <ScacLeC raid OULU CS) partes tasted eee tart
A NOTE ON somE NATURAL BARRIERS IN BuRMA. By
J. M. D. Mackenzie, 1.78. (Retd). (W7th a map)....10+0.0
FINN’s BayA (Ploceus megarhynchus HumME). By Humayun
Acialalire ee eee PPOHReCCHFA2DHFOHBCAEOSGeo oFooHonsOH teHtTHL0 eG 82009490 $86 eee 200 Oo
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY.
PART Ms > By Hi: Santapaus Saimesce eee cece eer eer
REVIEWS :—
1. Some Game Birds of West Africa. By W. A.
loayupogyery, (els se\,)hos
2. ‘ Pambugal’ (Snakes). ‘By ML Beaabarsndenes
(MTR GE) oi dite See ce ote Cette. tees bee she tareseeneee
3. Bees: Their vision, chemical senses and language.
By Karlvion) PrischieGVisakee Coy ei ermcnrenttte cist st
4. The British Amphibians and Reptiles, By Dr.
Mei eoikaay Sraaytle, Oo 104 dls) ooqssono000 sa0b00 005000000
Additions to The Bombay Natural History Society’s
Oillosieyene Saves AN ouSteISE, IDS 4a50000000000n00006c00000000000600.006
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
1. Possible occurrence of the Snub-nosed Monkey
onthe ee in Assam. By E. P.
Geer, « secaisete sbisoeneotnccememaattn es 5080500
2. Riotous Deen of aang bear iene
UP SEIS) 5 SEXP IRS (Co MORES. 55.0000 doo p05 000009050000000
3. Cases of unwounded Gaur or Indian Bison (Bzéos
gaurus) charging. By R. ©) Mornish ve....cee
4. Wild Buffaloes and Tame. By R. P. Noronha.
(HYGHB B. (PREDED) o120.000000000 000100000000 006.090 490000 2600000
5. What is the best means of control and destruction
of Flying Foxes as Sees oe : ?
By E. P. Gee.. ae rec rere
Our Vanishing Wild Life. By F R. e Reet eeEres |
7. Bird ee across the Etnalayes By C..H.
Donald... Ro eRe Sn Ona MAAHGNnt Gant OCTe
PAGE
164
170
189
200
205
260
260
261
262
263
10.
Hac
Exo
od)
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51
Birds nesting on telegraph wires. By F. N. Betts...
Muscicapa westermanni indochinensts. A synonym
of M1. W. australorientis. By S. Dillon Ripley...
A New Bird for India—Montifringilla davidiana
potanint (Sushkin). By Col. R. Meinertzhagen.
The Indian Cuckoo— Cuculus micropterus micropte-
vus—in Ceylon. By W. W. A. fe an F.L.S.,
Mabe OsUretytercs cs acs: ;
A granivorous Green Pigeon. By B. Subbiah
The Great Indian Bustard. By Farid H. B. Tyabji.
Overwintering of the Chukar Partridge (4lectoris
graeca) in Nevada, U.S. A. By Glen C. Chris-
tensen. (Wzth a photo).... PETE OO TER
Arrival dates of Fantail and Pintail Snipe in Burma.
BAY dls Oy LEU BAIS, TCE, (CREWE) codoaodoos66 coedousos
Extermination of Snakes upsets balance of Nature.
By E. P. Gee..
Extension of Range of the Fish Rasbora labiosa
(Mukerji). By M. R. Ranade, M.SC..
Growth of Catla in tanks. By C. V. Kulkarni.
(UY GUE B HOVE) 0.000.000 506 000 600000 950.596.000065003 000000 006
A remarkable case of Albinism in the Freshwater
Eel,. Anguilla bengalensts Gray. By S. Jones
and V. R. Pantulu..
Murrel vs. Cobra. Adee IBS SMO IN JONAS cee couasn0 00
Taste or Smell in Salmon. By Et-Cole Re. W.
Burton, 1.A. (Retd)... ; Sadeenaieseese ds
The Mani-jal of the Chilka Lake—A special net
for Beloniform Fishes. By S. Jones and K. H.
SUeMeNwe!, — (UVALG PCH) 05 cdboponnteoooebees Cbs
On the development and parental care in the
Potamonid Crab, Paratelphusa~, (Barytelphusa)
jacquemoniizzt (Rathbum). By P. I. Chacko and
S. Thyagarajan. (With four text figures).........
A note on the Parasitic Isopod Cymothoa eremita
Bruennich. By C. K. Kuriyan. (With two text
HET TAD) 00,3 na Sten eoer DOOR OO NC OTL ARE CCRT CEES SAE ENCE
Y
PAGE
271
BIE
273
274 |
275
276
277
280
280
281
282
285
287
287
288
289
29]
vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51
25. An unusual Royal Chamber with two Kings and
two Queens in the Indian Mound-building
Termite, Odontotermes obesus(IRambur) | lsoptera:
Family Termitidae]. By M. L. Roonwal, m.sc.,
ph.p. (Cantab.), F.N.1., F.Z.S.1. and S. D. Gupta,
MSC. OWL Ria PL Ate) a Prete selon: wetsitins nae Nnre eee
26. On an interesting association of Ophiuroids, Fish
and Crab with the Jellyfish Rhopilema hispidum.
By N. K. Panikkar and R. R. Prasad. (With a
27. An unusual He cee of Moringa olettera
Lamk. By M. 8S. Chandrasekhar. he. a
photo)... Peatiaigt cteh seeker teotosmate nen
28. Gessiea win aes in eee and @aldered
By R. N. Sukheshwala, (With a photo)...........
29. Gleanings..
Annual Report of’ The Bo aLcas Natatats History séciers
for the year ending 3lst December, 1951
PAGE
6295
Catalogue of Books in The Bombay Natural History
Society’s Library. Part VII-—Natural History...........
A Bibliography of Big Game Hunting and Shooting in
India and the Hast. [Published in Vol. 49, No. 2
(August, 1950) and Vol. 50, No. 1 (August, 1951)].
Addenda. By Lt.-Col. KR. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd).......
INGGCIEACE, eral (COmTIG@EMCA s55 356 100000006 060006 600040000000 cod 000 208
Errata.—The Genus Poa Linn. India. [Published in
WO! SO: (GS AUG MSE, LUIS || conicob05 dod bee edbbc0 600 654 900 000 066
No. 2
Tar Lire History OF THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED
RHINOCEROS (2X. wztcornis ee Bynes Gee aA
c.m.z.s. (With a plate)... Ueiuls Ceo Re ae eee
NoTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY. By H. Santapau,
SomsE Brrp ASSOCIATIONS OF INDIAN BUILT-UP AREAS. By
M. D. Lister... TIPO OR CS EIN A RI or Pee ARI A. 6
Mugil poecilus DAY, SAME AS Wen ik pieces “By
T. V. R. Pillay. (With @ plate)... eee artes
Tur BIoNOMICS OF TABANID LARVAE ean By Nawab
H. Khan, msc. (Alig.), Ph.p. (Massachusetts), F.R.E.S.
CAE Ce iSO) /LICITES) Rebccb hep nepiandtooog6 CopdeansnRoOOREa bon Goo 9aee 6900900
Dod
338
Ssh
384
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51 Vil
PAGR
A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA. PAR? JIL.
LEA IMIG Jelo WAV Avitioncledl Ades | (UV) @ (DIGIA2)) codon bcoosapoodonenes ee)
PLANTS FROM EAST NePAL, PART I. By M. L. Banerji.
CHGLN GE SRELCNNILAD) ere tracntncs sec ncatewesmectcotte vetoes cwcveccey 407
NOTES ON SOME RODENTS FROM SAUDI ARABIA AND KuUwalIr.
By Desmond Vesey-FitzGerald, M.B.E., B.SC.......0c.02s0000: 424.
STUDY OF THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE KARWAR COAST AND
THE NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS. PART IV: ECHINODER-
MATA AND OTHER GROUPS. By A.M. Patil, m.sc.......... 429
Cerciaphis emblica Sp. Nov. (FAM. APHIDIDAE)—A NEW
APHID Pest ON Eyneblica officinalis. By G. A. Patel,
Ph.D. Sasi and H. L. Kulkarni, m.sc. ae ee
a plate)... mM es aes R AER eels Sa : 435
VEGETATION OF THE DeLHt ‘ RIDGE’. By Sunil ae
VICEDESR DEANS Chee tee re A aeRO, ketenes aes 439
SOME INTERESTING METHODS OF FISHING IN THE BACK-
WATERS OF TRAVANCORE. By K. Gopinath. (Weth two
WEEE TOBUI TAS) 5.000000 800 600050000000 0Ab5G030B0000 soo ued S010)
A CHECKLIST OF yore OCCURRING IN THE manee! rane
OF BARODA, IEP Ula IR, INBNMANGVKE, WiGKCrdsocoopacoodconbounndedce LIAZ
REVIEWS :—
1. A Pocket Book of British Moths. By George E.
ElydewER En sale Alirey RRs tans | 475
2. A Coloured Atlas of some Vertebrates from
Ceylon, Vol. I, Fishes. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala.
(CNS): Sane ahs Fe ities ey 415
3. Name this Insect. spe Bric . Fitch Daglish, Gt Ie
Culiineyy \Bedscdee. ce 477
4. The EWeSiilanige Vol. I. Birbal Sahni Memorial
Volume, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany,
Lucknow, India. (K. A. Chowdhury).............. 478
5. Big Game of Malaya. By E. C. Foenander.
(R.W.B.)... PRET eo ak tei 2 480
6. West Bengal Gcmnmnetelat Timbers, ‘ Their carne
fication, Properties and Uses. By K. Ahmad
ChowGhithyapErayy DiSCeHnNelee (OscGn)rensesecacts | 480
7. Wild Flower Studies in Colour and Pencil. By
Bessie. Ds Inglis. (H. Santapau, S.J.)...0........0.. 485
8. Plant Hunter in Manipur. By F. Kingdon-Ward.
(lil, Se VaNGATOF Ny (Solio) nconce messes couuce bac SnObee A: Soon ose Reema 616,
Viil
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 5]
PAGE
5. Malayan Wild Flowers. By M. R. Henderson.
(H. Santapau, s.J.)... Rela iel ara eihes eee EEE OO
10. Adventures of a Some S “Wile. By messes Bor. |
(Hi Santapat, Sa) cecscsa cence. 4dhie Ya..dosk ee eee ene Oe
11. Useful Plants of India and Pakistan. A Popular
Handbook of Trees and Plants of Industrial,
Economic and Commercial Utility. By J. F.
Dastur, F.N.I.. aut onl ee OO
12. Medicinal Plants of lagi and teen. By Ve Rc :
Dastur, F.N.I. (H. Santapau, s.J.)... cabsniara peel e®
Additions to The Bombay Natural History Fah re
IEW ofeelions? SHOE) ONCOL IE, WEIS I..05 cdo conta cboanennennscoosvcqeco asl
Miscellaneous Notes :—
1. Notes and Observations on the Snub-nosed Monkey
(Rhinopithecus roxellanae). By Editors......... 492
2. How do the Larger Felines secure nimble ae
By Randolph C. Morris.. os 493
3. Unrecorded sounds made by Tice aa wild Dee
By Randolph C. Morris... i 494
Wild Dogs. By Capt. K. Bos wall, 1 Ad M. C. (Reta), 495
Remarkable behaviour of a Cow. By F. R. Golds-
chmidt, D.Ssc.. dine tei. 497
Red Benes “By aan C. iene sce R ee 497
7. How iong do the Small Bats (Microchiroptera)
live 2d: By JSalinipAlietien ts tase eect cere 498
8. On the stranding of a Whale at Jambudwip on the
Bengal coast about 19 years ago. By S. Jones 499
9. A note on the Dholpur Wild Life Sanctuary, Raja-
sthan. By S. Szafranski. ati a sketch map
and (wo plates)... siants naeuae eivs. vee O00
10. The ‘ Mighty eet isa! ahageiae Predator’. By
| Wt Cola. Wa buttons teAe(INCiC))repescarecer ene 503
11. ‘A History of Shikar in India ’—A Correction. By
t= C OlpRe We DU lOn ral. Ala (ING LG) searertie erent tte 504
12. The Jackdaw Golaneile) in Uttar Pradesh.
3 By (Mrs.) Syamala Murthy... ei 505
13. Koel mimicking Golden Ayecile., By. ars aoa
AV Al, codes hie eeles ite coe net cations i 505
14. The Great Indian Bustard. By Lt-Col. R. W. Bak
TON, TAs (Retd).cs eres cceece see teneeecenere see see sec eee 506
Wo
16.
17.
18.
WS)
20.
eae
22's
23%
24.
25.
26.
Ade
28.
20:
Feeding habit of the Indian Pond Heron (Ardeola
GONTENTS OF VOLUME 51 ix
PAGE
ees IT Ko Wile URIDINE) Seco.goa665005 00600000 CU
Rednecked Phalarope near Delhi. By H.G. Alex-
ander.. RRR SLCC aL Gaon a eae ceeunsictn HOOT
Occurrence of the Smew [ Mergellus albellus (Linn.) |
in West Bengal. By S.@-: Law, Ph.D...........<. 508
Stray Bird Notes from Mysore. By C. Brooke
WALO atlases eretsarrecc ids aks oe en bick Vain S cates ace ecinar eee 909
Additional Mysore State Bird Records. By C.
BOOK ee WOE torenamodatee coche icaetins cccittneeicene LO
A Python containing a full-grown, undigested Lun-
_goor. Capt. K, Boswell, 1.A.mM.c. (Retd)........ 510 —
Some more notes on Uvopeltis meacrolepis (Peters)
with special reference to specimens from Maha-
bleshwar ies Ghats, ees By V. K.
Chari.. Est as BE HO Conse hocls ron 2
The Tadpole of ae leithii Ee “By V.K.
Chari and J. C. Daniel. (Witha plate)............ Sze
Notes on the Lepidoptera of Assam. By T.,
Norman.. TAO Et AROSE B Aon SOC ROO PEG DUI BOREARC ERS CEP: Pimms fs)
A novel ete 1 of Heer eee “By R. M.
Aldworth.. SOORRARBCHocD nee COC ERROR SORER TIER CRATE no! Wi
ws vatiae : on an association between tise flies
(Diptera ; Tabanidae) and Cicadas (Homoptera ;
Cicadidae), with a note on the mating of Cica-
das. By C. Brooke Worth.. Seaaees 518
On the habits of Indian Bresid Spiders eerie
sarasinorum Karsch. By T. V. a esa
BA. (With a plate)... Bh bon eaecone Sal
A note on the effect of The ata the Eee of the
substratum on the settlement of Barnacles. By
G. K. Kuriyan and S. Mahadevan. (With a text
WATT Cia! Ch. PUM obec oacea soo benncenee ne oor ose 522
A new species of Polygala from Burma and a new
variety of P. hyalina. Wall. ex Hassk. By S. K,
IIUR@RISSS CUYVGE GL UGE) soonee «6.0 500060 000008 O60 s6e 524
GE AiNMeISAG wrealesatte bee's iy diverse see ed owed Ra des ORs [8 S26
ING DH SWAIN INIA SH ee aerate tee teak Westie tern i eiincs otc ciate ciscetiny ~.. 529
SRR ACIIA teaieie dtr acet ccelseiidisn Sd slackodieoa de
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
VOLUME 51
Nos. i and 2
PAGE PAGE
ABDULALI, HUMAYUN, Finn’s Burton, Lt.-Col. R W.,1.A, (Reta),
Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus Taste or Smell in Sailenen 287
Hume) 900 ooo UD ee The
ALDWORTH, R. 3, A novel ‘Mighty Jeep’ is 3, (Shocking
method of cnnilioation Hornets 517 Predator’ 503
ALEXANDER, H.G., Reduecked Spiga @ seer 9 SUL ae
Phalarope near Delhi 507 history of Shikar in India’
ALI, SALIM, How long do the — A correction - 504
Small Bats DA ONT aie :
live? 46a": later a oanlen been
ARA, (Mrs) Tess, coe mi "nile eateaseearen Bue
ing Golden Oriole 505 | CANZILE, Sir Krity, 1c,s,
BANERH, M. L., Ohserentiees (Retd), More Butterflies of the
on the distribution of Gym- Khasi and Jaiutia Hills,
nosperms in Eastern Nepal. PASEO “Grp Ot So con
(With a map) ... Mae .. 156 | CHACKO,P.1., THyvacaRasan,
, Plants from S., On the development and
East Nepal. PartI. (With parental care in the Pota-
a sketch map) 407 monic Crab, Paratelphusa
BAN, S, W, MGey end Fran (Barytelphusa) jacguemontit
sap, R. RAGHU, M.Sc., Ph.D., (Rathbun). (With four text
On some developmental sta- figures) * vee --. 289
ges of Caranx kalla Cuv. & 7 ——-, Séé SRINIVA-
Val. (With a plate and four SAN, R. CHANDRASEKHAR,
text figures) 111 M.S., An unusual inflores-
Berts, F. N., Birds decane on cence of Moringa oleifera
telegraph wires 271 Lamk. (With a photo) 236
Bor, N. L., The Genus Poin CHARI, V. K., Some more notes
Ding in Tendle. Pait II. (With on Uv opeltis macy olepts
eight plates and twenty-five (Peters) with special reference
text figures) a es 61 to specimens from Maha-
BOSWELL, Capt.. K., 1.A.M.Cc. bleshwar (Western Ghats,
(Retd), Wild Dogs soo OG Bombay) ene
ae ey /i\ AG DAN DHIG Oey
Python containing a full- The Tadpole of Rana leithii
grown undigested Lungoor... 510 Boulenger. (Witha plate)... 512
Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W., 1a. CHRISTENSEN, GLEN C., Over-
(Retd), ‘The Linaloe. Tree wintering of the Chukar Part-
(Bursera delpechiana Pois- ridge (Alectoris graeca) in
gon). An Introduction into the Nevada, U.S.A. (With a
Flora of India. (With a plate) 116 photo) a 277
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PAGE
DANIEL, J. C., see CHARI, V.K.
DONALD, C. H.,: Bird mig-
ration across the Himalayas.
Editors, Notes and observations
on the Snub-nosed Monkey
(Rhinopithecus roxellanae)...
(Gia, 1M Jo, WitoNon uigzdss) Ablavs
management of India’s Wild
Life Sanctuaries and National
Parks. (Wuth four plates)...
—— , Possible occur-
rence of Snub-nosed Monkey
(Rhinopithecus roxellanae) in
Assam ate See Ane
——-——-—-—,, What is the best
means of control and destruc-
tion of Flying Foxes [ P/evopus
giganteus (Brunn.) |
——— , Extermination of
Snakes upsets balance of
nature 400 509 ay
ae , The Life History
of the Great Indian One-horn-
ed Rhinoceros (f. unicornis
Linn.) (With a plate)
Gos.DSCHMIDT, F.R., p.Sc., Re-
markable behaviour of a Cow
Gopinath, K., Some interesting
methods of fishing in the back-
waters of Travancore. (With
two text figures a 500
Gupta, S.D., .Sc., see ROON-
WALL, M.L., m.Sc., Ph.D-
(Cantab.), F.N.I., F.Z.S.1.
Hewetson, C. E., Systematics
and Ecology of Indian Plants
or What can we demand ofa
modern Flora? (With two
DICES) Pree 3 d00 rh
HIGGINS, J .€:, 1.c:s. (Retd)),
Arrival dates of Fantail and
Pintail Snipein Burma
Hora, Sunder Lal, Recent ad-
vances in Fish Geography of
India. (With sixteen figures)
JONES, S., and SUJANSINGANI,
kK. H., Notes on the Crab
Fishery of the Chilka Lake.
(With five text figures)
—, Pantulu, V. R., A re-
markable case of albinism in
269
492 |
264
280
341
497
466
140 |
280
170
128
| KHAN,
the Freshwater, Eel, Anguilla
bengalensis Gray f
—, Sujansingani, K. H.,,
The Mant-jal of the Chilka
Lake—A special net for Belo-
niform Fishes. (With a plate)
JONES, S., On the stranding of a
Whale at Jambudwip on the
Bengal coast about 19 years
Ago ap 306
NAwAB H., M.S¢.,
(Alig.), Ph.D. (Mass.), F.R.
E.S., The Bionomics of Taba-
nid Larvae (Diptera). (With
wo plates)
| KINNEAR, SiR Norman, C.B.,
268
The History of Indian Mam-
malogy and Ornithology.
Payot, IL, LEUREIES s6¢
| Kirkpatrick, K.M., Feeding
habit of the Indian Pond
Heron (4rdeola gvayit)
KULKARNI, C. V., Growth of
Catla in tanks. (With a photo)
| KULKARNI, H. L., mse. (Agri.)
wae IPAaine, (Er UNo, “aeaiy
(Cornell) wes 500 600
KURIVAN, G. K., A note on th
Parasitic Isopod Cymothea
eremita Bruennich. (With two
text figure)
er , MAHADEVAN,
S., A note on the effect of
light and the colour of the
substratum on the settlement
of Barnacles. (With a text
figures and a plate)
Law, S.C., Ph.p., Occurrence
of the Smew [ Wergetlus albel-
lus (Linn.)] in West Bengal...
ListER, M. D., Some Bird associ-
ations of Indian cultivated and
waste lands Pe eh
LoKE, W. T., Kashmir Revisit-
ed. (With six plates)
MACDONALD, A. St. J., A Fish-
ing Holiday in North Garhwal.
(With a plate and three text
MLDS Vine 007
RI
PAGE
285
288
499
104
291
022
509
19
121
145
xii
MACKENZIE, J.M.D., _ 1.5.S.
(Retd). A note om some
Natural Barriers in Burma
(With a map)...
MAHADEVAN, S., see KURIVAN,
G.K.
MEINERTZHAGEN, Col. R. Anew
bird for India—Montifringilla
davidiana potanini (Sushkin).
Morris, R. C., Riotous behavi-
our of mating Bears Ue
SUS UYSINNS)
———_—__—— , Cases ere unwotn-
ded Gaur or Indian Bison
(Bibos gaurus) charging
——————, Our vanishing
Wild Life ab zee
eee , How do the larger
Felines secure nimble prey ?...
5 UP saig OOO Cle!
sounds made by Tiger and
a st ee
Wild Dog Se pet. es
——— — Red Porcupines.
MUKHERJEE, SUNIL KUMAR,
pD.sc., Vegetation of the Delhi
‘Ridge’
A new species of Polygala
from Burma and a new variety
of 7. hyalina Wall. ex Hassk.
(With a plate) 080
MurtHy, (Mrs.) SYAMALA,
The Jackdaw (Corvus mone-
dula) in Uttar Pradesh
NormMav, T., Notes on the Lepi-
doptera of ‘Resou 200 500
Noronha, R. P., Wild Buffaloes
and Tame. (With @ photo)...
PANIKKAR, N. K., PRASAD,
R. R., On an interesting asso-
ciation of Ophiuroids, Fish
and Crab with the Jellyfish
Rhopilema hispidum. ee
a plate) .. Sie
PANTULU, V.R., see Toxmae, S.
PaTtEL, G. A., Ph.p. (Cornell)
and KULKARNI, H.L., M.Sc.
(Agri.), Cerciaphis emblica
Sp. Nov. (Fam, Aphididae)
Anew Aphid Pest on Amblica
officinalis, (With a plate)...
PAGR
189 |
-
273
265 |
266
268 |
493
494 |
497 |
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PaTiIL, A. M., M.Sc., Study of the
Marine Fauna of the Karwar
Coast and Neighbouring
Islands ... Me of ik
r) eee
PEOEELeS, Wie Wit VAS Ss rerrses
M.B.O.U., The Indian Cuckoo
Cuculus muucropterus microp-
terus—in Ceylon
PILLAY, B. SUBBIAH, A Giant
vorous Green Pigeon... 500
——_—_—_—. -— ., Murrel vs.
Cobra
| Gee AM, Wee R., ‘Mugit pores
lus Day, same as Mugil tros-
cheli Bleecker. (Witha plate).
PRASAD, R. RAGHU, MSc., Ph.D.,
see BAPAT, 8. V., M.Sc. oe
5, SAB
PANIKKAR, N. K.
RANADE, M. R., M.Sc., Exten-
sion of range of the fish Aas-
bora labiosa (Mukerji)
| ———————, A Checklist of
439
5 24
266 |
295
434 |
fishes occurring in the fresh
waters of Baroda css ace
RIPLEY, S. Ditton, Muscicapa
westerinannt indochinensis. A
synonym of WZ. w. australor-
ZEMLES ses 600 400
ROONWAL, M.L., MSc., iD.
(Cantab.), as dey Fi ZS dey
Gupta, &.D., m.se., An un-
usual Royal Chamber with
two kings and two queens in
the Indian Mound-building
Termite, Odontotermes obesus
(Rambur) [Isoptera: Family
Termitidae]. (Witha plate)...
SANT4PAU, H., $.J., On a coms
mon species of Curcuma of
Bombay and Salsette Islands.
(With a piate) ob di
Contributions to
the Bibliography of Indian
Botany. Part Il is 4
——————, Notes on _ the
Acanthaceae of Bombay ..
| SRINIVASAN, R., and Chacko,
P.I., The control of Aquatic
Vegetation with 2,4-D’ ...
7
PAGE
29
429
274
275
287
378
281
472
272
135
205
349
164
SIRUAVACIDATIA, MBG INS, ZNeltaisGloh
Wild Life Reserves in India :
Uttar Pradesh (U.P.)
SUBRAHMANYAM, T. V.,
On the habits of Indian Eresid
Spiders Stegodyphus sarasino-
SUJANSINGANI,
IDLVABUI se AR TDs lessen |
Great Indian Bustard
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PAGE
160
B.A., and Kuwait
VESEY-FITZGERALD, DESMOND,
M.B.E., B.Sc., Notes on some
Rodents from Saudi Arabia
WORTH, ©. BROOKE, Stray Bina
notes from Mysore
(Witha plate). 521 —-———————, Additional
see | Mysore State bird records ...
——————— , Observations
Horse-flies (Diptera ;
SUKHESHWALA, R.N., Geologi- | on an association between
cal landmarks in Bombay and |
(Withaphoto) ... 297 dae) and Cicadas
SZAFRANSKI,S., A note on the
meee Wild Life Sanctuary,
(With a sketch
map and Hate plates)
Tabani-
(Homop-
tera ; Cicadidae), with a note
on the mating of Cicadas ...
| WYNTER-BLyTH, M. A., A
500 +=Naturalist in the North-West
THYAGARAJAN, S., see CHACKO, | Himalaya. Part III.
a plate
(With
xili
PAGE
424
509
510
518
393
JEN STP. OFF PIL AUIES
VOLUME 51
Nos. i and 2
PAGE
The Management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks
Plate I. A scene in the Hailey National Park, Uttar Pradesh-
. Cheetal. Hailey National Park, U. P. A) \ 8
Plate Il, Annual burning off of elephant grass. Kaziranga Wild )
Life Sanctuary, Assam |
A view of the Bhutan Hills. North Kamrup Wild Life f 7
Sanctuary, Assam ve J
Plate III. A herd of Gaur. Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary, Travancore. 8
Plate IV. Great Indian Rhino. Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary ... 9
The Genus Poa Linn. in India.
Plate I. Poa palustris Linn ane 66
Plate Il. Foa alfigena (Blytt) Lindm. - 67
Plate Ill. fPoa asperifolia Bor. Photograph of elton in elon,
Kew. a ie
Plate IV. foa7aunsarensts Bor. Photograph of holotype in lent,
Kew. eee a
Plate V. Poa gamblet Bor. Photograph of holotype in Herb.
Kew. a} 86
Plate VI. Poa poophagorum Bor. Photograph of holotype fn
Herb. Kew aa 87
Plate VII. oa pbhariana Bor. 88
Plate VIII. Poa koelzii Bor. Photograph of holotype in Elenid.
Kew. ol 82
On some developmental stages of Carvanz kalla Cuy. & Val.
Plate. Photo 1. Post-larvae and juveniles of Caranxz kalla
Photo 2. Juveniles of Caranx kalla aa 112
The Linaloe Tree (Lursera delpechiana Poisson) :
Plate. Bursera delpechiana Poisson, Vern, Mexico, Linaloe. Pho-)
tograph of female tree on the Tatgunni Estate, Bangalore, |
to show the pruning. joo fp
Bursera delpechiana Poisson, Vern. Mexico, Linaloe, |
Leaves and berries of the female tree BRAN
Kashmir Revisited.
Plate 1. Male Bluechat (Larvivora brunnea). Chandanwari 9,000 ft.
Female Bluechat (Larvivora brunnea). ‘The bird wien | 122
took no notice of the Stuffed Owl! Pahalgam 7,(€00 ft.
Plate Il. A pair of the Largecrowned Willow-wren (Phslloscopus
occipitalis). Chandanwari 9,000 ft.
Jerdon’s Accentor (Prunella s. jerdoni) with nest in depen : Mae
juniper. Astanmarg at 11,000 ft.
Plate III], The Terminal Moraine, Astanmarg, 11,,000 ft.
Author and Salim Ali. (Note Salim Ali’s cow-eaten gat) y ee
LIST OF PLATES cy
; PAGE
Plate lV. Male Paradise Flycatcher re 25
Plate V. Pheasaut-tailed Jacana and nest coo AG
Plate VI. Chandanwari, 9,000 ft. Lidar Valley, Kashmir, ‘The home j
of numerous typically Himalayan birds and wild flowers. J Ned
On a common species of Curcuima of Bombay and Salsette Islands.
Plate. Photol. Curcwma inodora Blatt. Showing the whole plant, )
This Specimen was collected in the typical ioca-
lity of the plant | 136
Photo 2. Curcuma pseudomontana Grah, Part of the plant
showing the double character of the spike; the
leaves have been removed in mounting aa
Systematics and Ecology of Indian Plants or What can we demand of a
modern Flora?
Plate I, (1) Polygonum plebejum wa 142
(2) EHvolvulus nummularis (Linn,) Bid
Plate II. (1) Nymphea Stellata—Limnanthemum cristatum— Sac-
clolepsis interrupta association aS 143
(2) Cleome chelidonit
A Fishing Holiday in North Garhwal,
Plate. 1. ‘The Lake from south bank showing the boat house and |
scar of the great slip from Maithan Mountain that
* formed the lake Ep
2, Looking down the Birhigunga from above the lake, seen |!
in the background ate Ee
3. A morning’s catch of trout :
4, The boulder-strewn bed of Birhigunga below the ate
and up which the approach path runs a
The Manié-jal of the Chilka Lake—A special net for Beloniform Fishes.
Plate. Ja. The Mam-jal in operation if
~ Ib. One ‘link’ of the Mani-jal : oe ! 288
An tnusual Royal Chamber with two Kings and two Queens in the
- Indian Mound-building Termite, Odontotermes obesus (Rambur)
[Isoptera: Family Termitidae].
Plate. The royal chamber (top cover of chamber removed) of Odon- \
totermes obesus (Rambur), dug from a mound in New |
Forest, Dehra Dun, on 20th May 1950, showing the dupli-
eation of the royal pair in the chamber. There are 2 kings
and 2 queens instead of the usual 1 king and 1 queen, } 294
(Natural size).
Letltering.—c., cavity of royal ae ; h., hole leading
into royal chamber; k., king; q., queen ; s., surface of
royal chamber.
J
On an intetesting association of Ophiuroids, Fish and Crab with the Jelly- }
fish Rhopilema hispidum. |
Plate. Photo l. Aspecimen of Rhopilema hispidum with the ophius }
roids, fish and crab associated with it. |
Photo 2. Four specimens of Ophicenemis marmorata, j
‘The Life History of the Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros (2. uxzicor-
nis Linn.)
Plate. Great Indian One-hotned Rhinoceros (Ahinoceros unicornis) ,., 342
295
xvi LIST OF PLATES
| PaGké
Mugil poecitus Day, same as Wugil troscheli Bleeker.
Plate. Fig. 1. Lateral view of Wugii troscheli Bikr. x 4/5. |
Fig. 2, Ventral view of the head A/ugil troscheli Blkr. «4/5. aS
Fig. 3. Lateral view of Mugil poecilus Day. (from Day,} -
1878) x 4/5. J
The Bionomics of Tabanid Larvae (Diptera).
Plate I, Funnel assembled. !
Funnel in parts. \ 386
Fig. 1, Funnels used for obtaining larvae from the Soil.
Plate Il, Fig. 2, Effect of soil temperature and saturation on ae 388
population,
A Naturalist in the North-west Himalaya,
Plate. Crossing the Margan Pass. \ 398
Wadhwan Valley. Avalanche damage,
Cerciaphis emblica Sp. Nov. (Fam. Aphididae)—A New Aphid Pest on
Emblica officinalts.
Plate 1. Cerciaphis emblica sp. nov.
}
Fig. 1, Head alate viviparous female. |
Fig, 2, Cauda ,, . . |
Fig. 3. Cerci (setae) alate viviparous female. |
Fig. 4. Fore wing female. eae
Fig. 5. Hind wing female.
Fig. 6. End of abdomen, apterous viviparous “female.
Fig. 7, Head, apterous viviparous female,
A note on the Dholpur Wild Life Sanctuary, Rajasthan,
Plate I. Sambar Hinds.
A good Stag. Dholpur Wild Life sancitatsn \ 502
Plate Il. Aherdof Sambar. Dholpur Wild Life Sanctuary 500 lls}
The Tadpole of Raza leithii Boulenger.
Plate. Rana leithii Boulenger.
1, Open mouth-disc showing the serrated edges of the upper |
and the lower mandibles of the beak, x 22, |
2. Open mouth-disc showing the beak and dentition, x 22. ¢ Sl2
3. Two-legged stage of the tadpole, x 2. (a) Dorsal view. |
(6) Ventral view. (¢) Lateral view.
On the habits of Indian Eresid Spiders Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch.
Plate. Diagram illustrating Migration of Eresids Joy
A note on the effect of light and the colour of the substratum of the eetes
ment of Barnacles.
Plate. 1. Block with white paint
2. Block without paint.
3. Block with red paint,
4. Block with black paint. j
A New Species of Polygala from- Burma and a New Variety of FP:
hyalina Wall. ex Hassk. i ages
Plate. Polygala carnosa Mukerjee, sp. nov. \ 50
P. hyalina var. pusila Mukerjee, var. nov.
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
Alectoris graeca
Photo...
Ali, Salim, see ae) W. T
Astanmarg, 11,000 ft., The
Terminal Moraine
Plate III. eee
Barnacles, Effect of light and
the colour of substratum on
the settlement of
Text Fig.l] ... os
Plate vas
Buffaloes, Wild seek vane
Photo
Burma
Map ...
Bursera Eien anal
Plate
Caranx kalla
Plate
Text Fig. 1
Text Fig. 2
Text Fig. 3
Text Fig. 4
Catla catla
Photo 500
Cerciaphis emblica
Plate I.
Chandanwari, 9, 000 ft. Lida
Valley, Kashmir
Plate VI.
Chilka Lake
Map. Fig. 1
Cleome chelidonti
Plate II. (2)
Curcuma inodora
Plate : Photo 1
— pseudomontana
Plate ; Photo 2
Cymothoa eremita
Text Fig.1 & 2
Dholpur Wild Life Sanctu-
aries
Sketch Map ... vee
2
VOLUME 51
Nos. 1 & 2
PAGE |
| Evoloulus nummularis
277 | elateplen((2)
|Fish Geography of India,
| Recent advances in
| Text Fig. 1. Dipnoan fish
12d Ceratodus
| (Neoceratodus
| forstert)
ee | Fig. 2. Map. Present-
Bae | day distribution of the
| Dipnoan fishes
1 Fig. 3. Continents of An-
| gara and Gondwana
during the Upper Tri-
191 | assic ea ees
119 Fig. 4, Ganoid fishes of
India. (a) Lepidotus,
W2 (b) Zetragonolepis, (c)
112 Dapedius, (d) A Pycno-
113 dont fish, (e) apes
113 teus eee
114 Fig. 5. Map-probable area
of Deccan Trap and
993 distribution of fresh-
water fossil fish bearing
436 beds of Triassic, Juras-
sic, Cretaceous and the
Eocene periods
127 Fig. 6. Fossil Eocene
fishes of India. (a)
128 A Osteoglossid fish, (b)
Polyacanthus, (c) Nan-
143 dus, (d) Pristolepis, .
Chela 200
136 ;
Fig. 7, Maps—'Transgres-
136 sion of the Bay of Ben-
gal during the Eocene,
992 Mipjcede and Pliocene
periods 90 tes
Fig. 8. Siwalik Gulf of
5060 the Pliocene 3
PAGE
142
17]
17]
172
172
173
RViii
Fig. 9. Fossil Pliocene
fishes of ~ India- ° (a)
Silurus, (b) Chrysich-
thys, (c) Mystus, (qd)
Rita, (e) Bagarius, (f)
Clarias, (g) Hetero-
branthus (nh) Ofht-
cephalus cae 900
Fig. 10. Map. The Indc-
Brahm River during the
early Pleistocene
Fig. 11. Map—Dismem-
berment of the Indo- _
Brahm River during the
Pleistocene ... 900
Fig. 12. Physiography of
the Garo-Rajmahai
Gap. (a) Present-day
condition, (b) During
the. height of a Glacial
period 500 tee
Fig, 13, .Map—Lower
courses of the Ganga
and the Mahanadi dur-.
ing the height of a
Glaciai period (Hypo-
thetvcal) a Gmer nes
Fig.- 14,. Map~ of India:
showing route of migs
tation of the Malayan
fishes and places of in-
vestigation in connec-
tion with the Satpura
Hypothesis — On =
Fig. 15. Maps—Pre-tilt
and Post-tilt drainage
of Peninsular India ..,
Fig, 16. Map—Dispersal
of the Western Ghats
fishes as a result of the
tilting of the Penin-
suia dee ae
Fishing inthe backwaters of
‘Travancore
Ges: talon eeeeres 00
Text Fig. II. 900
Garhwal, North, A Fishing
Holiday in:Guhna Lake
Plate : ‘edo ede
PAGE
177
180
180
183
184
185
467
4€8
146
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
ANexte ion eles. abo
Text Fig. 2 eao eco
Text Fig. 3 See
Gaur, A herd of, Periyar
Wild Life Sanctuary, Tra-
vancore
Plate III. sata soe
Geological Landmarks in
Bombay and Salsette~
Photo 600 600
Hailey National Park, Utta
Pradesh
Plate I. cae eee
Jacana, Pheasant-tailed, and
nest
lateave ie “G00
Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctu-
ary, Assam
Plate Ul gaagik pomene ieee
Konkra kharvia. The crab
trap of the Chilka Lake
Text Fig. 5
Larvivora brunnea
Plate I,
Limnanthemum cristatum
PIES Jb (UY) G00 300
Loke, W. T. & Ali; Salim:
Plate III. este
Mani-jal of the
form Fishes
Slate spl ace Osan a0
Margan Pass y ape aes
Plate wae
Moringa oletfera
Photo toe 505
Mugil poecilus
Plate Fig, 3... on
troschelt
Plate Fig. 1 & 2 as
Nepal
Sketch Map ...
———., Eastern
Sketch Map ... tio
Neptunus pelagicus
ANSe ye URNS G90
Nymphea stellata
Plate II. (1) abe Be Fare
_ 298
hilka Lake— ~~
A special net for Beloni-
130
143
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS xix
Odontotermes obesus
‘Plate’
Ophiocnemis marmorata —
Plate. Photo 2
Paradise Flycatcher, Male.
Plate IV.
Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa)
jacquemontit
epee Iie Uy IN TOOL, IY one
Phylloscopus occipitalis
Piate II.
Poa alpigena
Plate II,
— alpina
Text Fig. 32
— amoena
Text Fig. 29
—— angustifolia
Text Fig. 19
— araralica
MextsBiowl
— aspertfolia
Plate III. a00
— bactriana
PRex GSE oon Ole 600
—- bulbosa
Text Fig. 38
—— burmanica
f >: del hs (oY
— calliopsis
Text Fig. 31
— compressa
Text Fig. 21
—— eleanorae
Text Fig. 26
— falconeri
Text Fig. 23
— gamblei
Plate V.
—— gammicana
Text Fig. 25...
—— plabriflora
“ade [ie BH) coo 500
~— hirtiglumis
Text Fig. 33
—— jaunsarensis
Plate LV. wee ae
—— koelzit
Plate VIII. we
PAGE
294
if
PaGE
Poa lahulensis
Text Pig. 17 °::. a 66
—— lilwinowiana
Aes IMIG WG doo 50 64
— ludens
Wee JENS As) ‘G00 He 84
— nitide-s piculata
AGE Ie, HE ac Bh 78
— pagophila
Text Kio. 22. .... BH 75
— palustris
Plate I. aCe 500 66
— phariana
Plate VII. a oF 88
—— poophagorum
Plate VI. 5 ei 87
—— pratensis
Mextekiiovr2 Oe me: 500 73
—— rhadina
Abeexte ID, SD) G60 600 89
—— sinaica
Wests IMI, BY coc CAS a 99
—— sterilis
AbSeste LM, WES Go 600 61
— fibetica
| WERE, VOI BS coc se 95
— trivialis
AS y88 LER WS} 606 5c: 68
Poly gala carnosa
Plate Sat a 524
————- /yalina var. pusila
Plate see es 524
Polygonum plebeyum
Plate I. (i) “os a3 142
Pyunella s. jerdont
Plate II. ee 600 123
Rana letthit
Plate see 508 §12
Rhino, Great Indian, Kazi-
ranga Wild Life Sanctuary
Plate IV. eke tae )
Rhinoceros unicornis
Plate a0 oe 342
Rhopilema hispidum
Plate. Photo 1 a 295
Saciolepsis interrupta
Plate II. (1) ... S00 142
Sambar, A herd of
Plate II. AAS 6050 503
pe
i PAGE |
Sambar Hinds
Plate I. ees 590 502
Scylla serrata
WGERE IG, Boo 306 129
Text Fig. 4 Nolz-jai fo
catching are 500 131
Stag, A good
Plate I. see ie 502
Ex INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
Stecodyphus sarasinorum
iate I. Sees
Tabanid Larvae, Bionomics
of
Plate I.
Plate II.
Wadhwan Valley
Plate
PAGE
921
Abies
Abies densa
/-——-- pindrow
- spectabilis
-——-- webbiana
Abisara chela
Abraximorpha davidii ...
-Abutilon indicum
Acacia | aap
Acacia arabica ...
eburnea
farnesiana
leucophloea
~———— modesta ...
senegal
Acalypha indica ...
Acanthopneuste nitidus
Acanthospermum hispidum
Acanthus
Acanthus Premanatensie
Achyranthes aspera
Acomys dimidiatus
—-—~-— russatus
‘Aconitum ay
Aconitum baJfourii
———-— napellus
———-—— spicatum
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Be BIECI5O
RNBSH 157
156, 158, 159, 398
157
157
peeGk OUI 4G
SSEE So 1'06
3 boo
: 425, 440, 459
20, 372, 442, 449, 463
RY i a)
Be 449
Acridotheres ginginianus .
—-— tristis
Adelura 600
Adhatoda ... 60
Adhatoda vasica ...
Adonis chrysocyathus
Aegithina tiphia
Aerua javanica
lanata
tomentosa
Aethiopsar fuscus
Aetobatis
Agyrtria boucardi
Alauda gulgula
Albizzia lebbek
Alcedo atthis
Alectoris graeca ...
440, 442, 449, 463
440, 442, 449, 463
440, 442, 449, 463
459 |
24
142
be 367
350
441, 458
427
428
409
414
414
414
OS
25, 375
126
far High) 367
441, 442, 456
126, 405
374
ww. 458
458
458
25
433
190
25, 309
. 449
26, 376
277
3 eco
= AF f. %
PAGE
Alectoris graeca chukar — > UG
Alhagl camelorum 448
——— maurorum 448
Allotinus drumila 47
———-— horsfieldii continentatlis 48
—— EGU UStanereeals multistrigatus 47
Aloidis Si)
Alternanthera seaeils 458
—- --—— triandra ... : .. 458
Althernanthera philoxeroides cdo dG
_—— -—— repens 116
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius 448
Amaranthus spinosus 458
-—— viridis 458
Amathuxidia amythaon ~~ 47
Amaurornis phoenicurus 27
Ambassis nama .., a5 474.
—-—— ranga 474
Amblyceps : 187
Amblypharyngodon: mare 473
Amblypodia abseus 1% 516
--—— ammonides elira .. 516
———_- --—— anarte.. 916
——- —_ Cuinepars) Bieeue} ‘Inaiéng 55
——_————— (-—_— = Jad orea 34
———_ --—— (——-——-) aedias agnis... 54
-—— {——-—_) yenda-
va see Soe wes iG 54
-—— _(——-- —) agnis 54
——--—— (——-- ——_) amon ariel . 55
——-——- (——_--__) ammonides ». 55
—- —— ( -— -——) ———-—- elira 55
-—— (——-——) anniella arte-
gal Be tS en See “es sac OSS
-—-~- (————:—) areste areste 55
———_-—— _ (——— -—) ariel eS)
—_—_-—_— (___-—_-—) ——- ariel 55
—— (————-—) asoka 59
——_-—-— (———--—) bazaloides o4
——-— -——-— (————--—) camdeo cam=- ....-
deo : oo ere er 54
-—— (—-—--—) centaurus .
pirithous ae 54
pick eis eas ey emnenci: we 99
xxii
PAGE
Amblypodia (Arhopala) diardi 500 55
-—— (——-——-) cumolphus
eumolphus ase ase O08 O00 34
—— (—____-) —___—
hellenore 500 O00 ae ee 54
ee —— (—_———-) fulgida Eve 55
—_-——- (——- ——-) khamti 600 54
———_—-—— (—-_——-) denea malay lot
—__-——— (—_—_—--) opalina wee O4, 59
—- (_—-——) paraganesa
zephyretta- ... es oe 500° | ED
(——-——-) paramuta.... 54
—-——— (_—-- ——) perimuta peri-
Ta C1 ees sent ss eee isasl teen oe
- -— (—— -——-) silhetensis ... 04
——-— (———) ——-———
adcrea 00 908 a 54
+ a Sendava goss OM
~—-=—-~— ariel ariel ... a0 516, 517
———-—— arvina ardea 506 516, 517
——-—— bazaloides cn nee 16
———-—— centaurus 516
——_———— dispar diluta foo. cen, OLD
—-—-— eumolphus | 60C 516
——_—-—— paraganesa Q00 516
———-~— paramuta 516
————-— perimuta 516
—_———_——- silhetensis nc! ang SoH LD
——_-—-——-_ Spp. a0 aes 516
Amphilophis pertusa ... 200 «. 460
Anatinella ace dee 600 e009 39
Andrographis paniculata 359
Andropogon annulatus ... 463
_— --— contortus ... 008 461
———--— foveolatus 463
——--——— halepensis 460
-—— monticola 460
Andropogon pertusus 460
Androsace aoe 400 : 126
Aneilema scapiflorum ... 506 ener 2
Anemone .__... 900 ann 409
Anemone elongata 411
—_—--—— obtusiloba 405, 411
a — SUieSP- OMAlOCAT-
pella oe ace 500 411
—— polyanthus ... 400 411
rivularis 411
——-—— rupicola ane 411
——-—- vitifolia o00 411
[MaeasViley door ond a0 433
Anguilla bengalensis S00) ao Ae)
INDEX OF SPECIES
Angulus 006 :
Angulus rubra ... 500
——— (Tellina) rubra
Anhinga melanogaster
Anilocra .. “00 eee
Anisomeles indica 500
-—— ovata
Anogeissus pendula
Anomia achaeus
Anona 000
Anona reticulata
Anser indicus
Anthus cupestris
— hodgsoni :
richardi (richardi)
— (rufulus)
eee
Apatura chevana 500
Aphis
Aplochilus imenene
Appias nero galba _
Araucaria ore
Araucaria bidwillii _
Arca complanata
—— granosa we
—-— pilula
—-— rhombea
—-—ftortuosa ...
Ardeola grayii
<= (piel
Argemone mexicana
Argya caudata «+e
malcolmi ....
Aristida hystrix ...
— setacea
Arletta vardhana
Artamus fuscus ...
Artemisia nilagirica ...
——-—— tridenta . 500
——-——- vulgaris a.
Asphodelus tenuifolius
Asteracantha ,
Asteracantha foneifolal
Astropecten
Astur badius
Asystasia en 300
— roseatus Sopher
28,
23,
23,
24,
ro. ake
30
30
30
30
377
-507
443
374
374
461
461
49
374
489
279
451, 489
459
367
351
430
27, 377
Asystasia poromencclena Arytios
— —~-— dalzelliana
——-—— gangetica......
—-———. mysurensis
| ——-—-— violacea.
ege -9Q0
364
364
364
364
364
364
INDEX OF SPECIES
ari kt} PAGE
Athene brama 376
‘Atylosia elongata ... 446, 464
Aurelia aurita 296
Azadirachta indica 440, 446:
Azadirchta 500 440
Bagarius 176
Balaenoptera pentarastnata 500
- edeni . ; ~~ 000
———- —_—— indica... 500
- - musculus... 500
Balanites 440
Balanites pee nuaen 5 we 445
—-—— roxburghi 440, 442, 445, 463
Balanus ... * 523
Baleria buxifolia 361
——— courtallica _ 362
——— cristata 361
——— cuspidata ... 361
——— gibsoni ... ose 362, 363
——— gibsonioides 362, 364
——— grandiflora 362
——— involucrata v, elata 361
——— lawii 500 s0 Spt opus ON
——— longiflora... ee 361, 364
——— (montana) ices) 361
——— montana .. 362, 363
——— prattensis 362, 363
——— prionitis O00 361, 456
——— sepalosa ... 362
——-— strigosa v. eeeinohe ee 361
——— tomentosa 351
Balistis 467
Balsamodendron 442
Bambusa arundinaceae 483
——-—— bambos 488
Barbus (Puntius) amphibius ... 473
(- -) bovanicus ... 473
—-- (- 2) GO, ~~ | gap 473
——— (- -) chrysopterus 473
—————(< -) conchonius 473
—-——- (-—-—--) hexastichus 473
———-- (-———_-) melanostigma 473
——- (-——_-) parrah 500. aS
——— - (-———--) puckelli .. '... 473
——-— (-——---) sarana 473
—-— (-——.) stigma 473
473
—-— ticto ‘te aes
165, 166, 167, 168
——--—— sarana
————= 5 ple 281.
——— - (Tor) sp, > 473
Barilius barna. 4 73
Butea frondosa...
monosperma
Butorides striatus >
Buxus sempervirens .,.
440, 442, 447, 463.
“ Xxiil
PAGE
Barilius bendelisis aaa N Ese 281,473
Barnea 000 as Bars : 38, 39
Batrachus .. . 483
Beguina we 32
Berberis ... a bs : 422, 423
Berberis angulosa seen mates 423
———— aristata ane : 422
—_——- ——-— yor, affinis so 1423
—_——_ —-— ur, aristata wow 423
——$——— ——_---~ yay, ceratophylla .,. 423
——_-—_—— —-—. yar, floribunda se 423
—__-—— ——-— var. normalis 423
———-asiatica | ‘Coo 422, 423
———concinna = ,,, 423
—— —— insignis oth 9990 423
—-——. umbellata A22, 423
Berberis wallichiana ... 422
pals. — war, aioriivialis 423
—-—— ————_ var. pallida 423
BiboOs aurusiearscei et 266
Bidens pilosa 451
Bindahara phocides aces 60
Blainvillea latifolia x 45]
= —— rhomboidea ae; «, - 45]
Blepharis asperrima 456, 464
-— boerhaviaefolia 350
———-— maderaspatensis 350
-—molluginifolia 456
Blumea 50 488
Boerhavia diffusa 441, 457
-—— repens seer 457
Borassus flabelliformis 21, 22-372
Boswellia 442
Bothrinia 49
Bothrinia Gromaciee 49
Brachiara ramosa 461
Brachydanio rerio 473
Brachypternus bengalensis 26, 375
Bubulcus ibis 28,377
Buceros nepalensis 107
Budorcas taxicolor 189
Bullia 500 34
Burhinus Seaieaen ue 27; 377)
Bursera Aeacelilé
Bursera délpechiana 5 SR.
— serrata 116
Butastur teesa 27;
Bel.
510.
489
xxiv
PAGE
Buxus wallichiana 489
Cacomantis merulinus ... 26
Calacanthus dalzelliana sek 359
— — grandiflorus 359
Calandrella brachydactyla 25
Calligonum ‘ as 424
Callophrys leechii 500 504 53
Callosciurus 600 300° ogg 193
Callosciurus erythraeus - ... 196
== —— crotalus 196, 198
—_—_-. ——__ - ——- kinneari 196, 198
———— —magarum 196, 198
————-——. macclellandi 196
-——_--——. macmillani oll, Wey Les
TH eATS Ce enee 196
_- bellona 198
SSS SS mearsi 198
SSS virgo 193, 198
——_—--——- pernyi 193
———~—— pygerythrus haere 198
—_-—_-——- rufigers ... sat 196
—-——_ ——— adamsoni 198
——-——_ ——_——- opimus 198
-———_--——. similis owensi 198
———-——— sladeni 196
—-—--——-— careyi 196, 198
—_—_— fryanus 196
—_—_—— haringtoni 196
——_—_-—— ——— millardi 196, 198
—_——-—— -——— rubex 196, 198
—-—— shortridgei... 196, 198
—--— sladeni 198
———_—— - stevensi 198
——_—_——_ (Tamiops) riecclellena ah 108
——__—__ (-— ) manipurensis... 198
Calotropis procera 441, 453
Caltha - 409
Caltha palustris 405°
- — var. normalis 413
Canis aureus 372
Capillipedium ... 306
Capillipedium planipediceliatu 306
Capparis ... ; 300 we 442
Capparis Senate .. 441, 442, 444, 463
sepiaria 444, 442, 444, 463
Capra sibirica skyn >» Ry
Caprimulgus asiaticus ... 26
——— macrourus 376
—_——_——- monticolus aes 510
Caranx
-———- hippos... ee oye
112, 292, 295, 433, 467, 471
467
See
a
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Caranx kalla 00 eae 171, 114, 295
— — trachurus 295, 296
Cardanthera anomala ... 350
—_——— iptevernintile 350
Cardia vs - §0
Cardia argiolus Shae ol!)
binghami 50
dilecta si 50
huegelli oreana . 50
jynteana 50
——— victoria es 50
Cardiospermum halicneabera 446
Cardita pe Oe
Cardium 6 36
Cardium coronatum 36
Carissa carandas ay «. 489
- spinarum 441, 442,453, 463
Carterocephalus dieckmanni ... 196
Carvia 356
Carvia callosa 356, 359
Cassia fistula... 440, 448
occidentalis 448
—-— pumila ... ood 500 wo. 448
Castalius ananda 48
— caleta decidia 48
——-— elna noliteia 48
———— ethion ethion 48
————— rosimon rosimon 48
Catachrysops lithargyria 51
—— ———— strabo 51
Catapoecilma elegans major ... 38
Catelysia opima 5 35
Catla catla 166, 167, 168, 284, 473
Catreus wallichii ei is 150
Caudulus 600 aac ae 29
Cedrus 506 990 555 STaRUSS
Cedrus deodara 156, 158
——— libani var. deodara 156
Celastrina A Sid 49
Celastrus senegalenels 441, 442, 446, 463
-— spinosa — 446
Cenchrus barbatus 461
—— —— biflorus 461
——— catharticus . 461
—_———. ciliaris ‘ 441, 461
——_—— setigerus O0k 461
Centrocercus urophasianus. ... so CAKE
Centropus bengalensis av vee 3/6
-——-—— sinensis vee 26
Centurus uropygialis 189
Cephalandra indica nee ore 450
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Ceratodus Bat ie ides ple baby
Cerciaphis bed 435, 437
Cerciaphis emblica 435, 437
Cercomela fusca 1s owe ee STA
Cereus giganteus are 500 eyo wed BQ
Ceriornis macrolophus 150
Certhia familiaris hodgsoni 126
Cervus hanglu ... 400
Ceryle rudis ; 26, 376
Chaerophyllum wflewenn | 399
Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus 400
Chama 37
Chara zeylanica 164
Charadrius dubius 28
—- leschenaulti 508
Charana jalindra indra 57
——---— mandarinus 57
Charybdis annulata 296
Chela bacaila 473
—-— clupeoides 473
Chenopodium album 458
Cheritra 909 505 50 58
Cheritra freja eee a wee 58
Cheritrella truncipennis 58
Chilades laius laius sh a. : 50
Chilasa clytia clytia var. commixtus... 43
Chiloscyllium 433
Chirocentrus dorab 292
Chlamys a cocyiites 31
Chliaria kina cachara 08
— othona 58
Chlidonias leucopareia 28
Chloris tenella 462
——-— virgata 462
Chrozophora rottleri. 276
Shrysichthys dso. 176
Chrysocolaptes Pitiacmeratus
Chrysopogon montanus
375
441, 460
Chrysops ee _ 387, 388, 389
Chrysops callida . 387, 388, 391, 392
Cimicifuga ars sa Sas 409
Cimicifuga foetida 414
Cinclus cashmeriensis _ 110
——-— cinclus cashmeriensis — 126
-———-— pallasi ... eee OE Git «ainsi OO
— —-— sordidus . 110
Cinnyris asiatica 26, 375
Circe see S00 35
Circus aeruginosus — 27
macrourus 27
--—— melanoleucus 27
a
XXV
PAGE
Cirrhina mrigala vo. 284, 305, 472, 473
reba ... 165,. 166, 167,168, 473
Cissampelos Ho 419
Cissampelos pareira i... 421
Clarias... ae fae RS ‘Dow earscA)
Clarias pecreenne 286
Clematis 500 506 408
Clematis acuminata .... af boo CU)
———— ——-. - var. alien 410
Clematis buchananiana ei) 409
— —_ —__—————_ sub- sp.
buchananiana var, rugosa 410
—_——— — -—— Sub-sp.
—-——-— — var. vitifolia ... 410
———— connata 000 409, 410
——— dentata .- 410
——-—-—. vouriana . . 409, 410
———— grewiaeflora 4(9, 410
——~—-— montana ni 409
———— ———— sub-sp. Horna lig
var. incisa -- 410
———— montibus 500. 410
———— napaulensis -- 409
—-—— tortuosa a... 409, 410
Clamator jacobinus | 26, 376
Cleome chelidonii too 144
— viscosa Ey 441, 443
Clerodendron phlomidis 456
Clupisoma garua Pay eee ee 473.
Cnicus arvensis 452
——— wallichii ean 452
Coccinia indica 441, 450
Cocculus <a a 500 we «419
Cocculus hirsutus ... 420, 442, 443, 463
— laurifolius ane . 420
Ene ee leoeba ce oe 442
——— mollis «- 420
— villosus wot, ~ aver A43
Colaptes chrysoides mearnsi ... .., 189
Colias edusina ... escent oes) 591809
Columba leuconota Pet irre it ACG)
-—- livia aS afl, BI2
Commelina benghalensis » - 460
——_——— nudiflora 460
———-—— Oe, i -- 460
Copsychus saularis bv 24, 374, 407
Coracias bengalensis _ 26, 376
Corchorus acutangulus we 445
——=——=——— Aesttans «. ¢.. 441, 445
———-—tridens . .. mea OES
/—————trilocularis .. ..,.. .. 449
xxi
Cordia myxa —
Cordia rothii
Cortusa matthioli
Corvus leucocephalus
—-— macrorhynchos ...
——-— paradisi ...
— splendens
Corydalis ruataefolia ?
Coturnix coturnix hiew
Crataeva religiosa
Crateropus delesserti.
Crematogaster
Crossandra iafundibaliformis wen
—— undulaefolia
Cryptomya 200
Cryptostegia camaiion,
Cuculus micropterus ...-
-- poliocephalus —
Cupressus
Cupressus faneiodial
> --— torulosa..
Curcuma 60
Curcuma aromatica. ...
Curcuma inodora
—— neilgherrensis
——— pseudomontana
Curetis acuta dentata ...
- bulis
- saronis gloriosa
Cursorius coromandelicus
Cuscuta hyalina
Cyanea 50
Cyanea capillata
Cyanosylvia suecica ...
Cymothoa
Cymothoa eremita
—— indica
Cynoglossus- «.
Cyperus fen zelianus °
e—irla > ene? *?
-—- rotundus
-——-subcapitatus ..
--tuberosuS ~~ «.
Cyprinus carpio ... :
Cypsiurus batassiensis ...
Cyrestis theodamas ganescha...
Pactyloctenium aegyptium ...
Daedalacanthus ae.
—— micropterus ‘
---———+—- concanensis...
pic ——— teenies MONTANUS” “oye
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
. 454 |
454
126
105
_ 23, 374, 401, 509
. 104
23, 374
399
27
443
-105
301
361
361
er 87
441, 453
275, 376
274
126
3° 158
156, 158
156, 158
135, 136, 139
137, 138
- 137, 138
2.735
136, 139
53
53
53
510
454, 464
295
295, 2°6
24
292
291, 292
Se 992
433
460
460
441, 460
460
460
eee lGd
26, 376
dG
» 4627
> *354
07358
~ 354, 355
|
BAGE
Daedalacanthus montanus var.
concanensis . 355
—— ——_-- —— >nervosus. 355
——— - —__-—— _ purpurascens 355
-———-———_ roseus Be eos)
Daemia extensa ... .. 441, 453, 463
Dalbergia sissoo . ah 372
Danio (erecncanio} rerio 281
—- malabaricus 473
| Dapedius ..... .. 173
Decaisnea insignis 421
Decalisnea 421
Decapterus 471
Delias descombesi jeueocantuer var.
vasumitra : - 44
— eucharis ... 500 19743
Delphinium : - 409
Delphinium Assia | 413
—-——— conocentrum 413
—-- -—— elatum. ah . ~ 413-
—— + -var.incisum ... 413
——_—--.——- - - var. ranunculi-
folium 413)
—---—— vestitum 3 413)
Dendrelaphis tristis - 216
Dendrocitta vagabunda ... - 23, 374
Dendrocygna javanica ... 28
Dendrophthoe falcata 459°
Dentalium sf ane 29°
Dentallum octane ularann (dae ee 29
Desmodium pseudo-triquetrum 448.
--—— triquetrum - 448
Deudoryx epijarbas amatius .. 58
-— hypergyria aes - &
- Diadon : 467)
Dianthera debilis ; 367
Dicaeum erythrorhynchum ... ©... 375
Dichanthium annulatum . 463°
Dicliptera cuneata ss 500 366.
—---— ghatica © «. 450 366
—— -—— leonotis O00 355”
——-——- micranthes 365
——-—— zeylanica 365-
Dicrurus coerulescens ... ~~ 24~
———— macrocercus ... 24; 375
Digera arvensis 457"
Digitaria marginata- ... 461.
IDS Ge tc co
Dilipa morgiana -45-
Dillenia AURCATMaes Hance. 415-
-indica «. atu -Gho — 415~
INDEX OF SPECIES xvii
Dillenia pentagyna |... « «> «.' 415 | Equus onager indicus ... aes 337, 504
Dipteracanthus ... ... Pole seem colon aE raAGTOStisue mies BE ms ae = 445
Dipteracanthus dej ectus ws. ws ..002 | Eragrostis ciliaris var. brachy stachya, - - 462
——— —— longifolius ... we 002 | ——-—— nutans Son ue con 462
——~ ——— patulus.... ... »- 392 | ————-— stenophylla ... i coo. CRY
—— ROR sory Bee .. 392 | ——-—— tenella O00 ceed fahiscr end?
Dioscorea Be cee seeding ene .» 306 | Eranthemum ... esr oes son
Diospyros montana. ..) -..../ «;. - 452 | Branthemum bicolor .... :%..- -<..s ° (365
Diplodonta | eee 3 Poe 32 capense ... acs soon OOD
Discophora Fontitiontalis continentalis Aa er OY CONCANENSIS =. | SOD
Dodona adonira inode Sion cd? || areas malabaricum =... .... 365
—-—— egeon ww ise ater 24 /) | apne Ota MUM s ns tree 304507309
— _ eugenes .. neh it a ON SS WE VOSEIN Go 354, 355
——— henrici foneieameaen 60 ao ) 47 | ZT TT Purpurascens «.. “co GSN)
Donax ... cn Beneyiesyel ais3ie0 || a7 a roseum ... ... 354, 355
Donax meaenatee Poke ica ceases ipailndd Eremopogon fOVEolat US His asm atese net G3
—-— scortum ... . ..... ss: - ++. 33, 34 | Eremopterix grisea... ove og 25
Dosinia ... be ae) ws as” 35 | Eriboea eudamippus eudamippus ©... 45
Dremomys ee foftey Seid men 9G |) Buca sativa ee tee peer 5 806
Dryobates mahrattensis .«. - ..e--375 | Erythrina indica eee one ¢ 489
DV ONIStCSMEMMEecE eur cee Seem TOs min ca variegata ... we - 489
Dryonastes caerulatus «. v.. =—...—197 |; Dy ED orientalis. 489
—+——— galbanus ..... ... 194, 197 | [Shes COMNOES og acne nor a oo | HEIL
B= TUACONIS: yc ede we wee 197 |) ORBLE cirteryy chee} gisteeeg eae 261
Oe sannio:. .. 500) 1, SOP) Esomus danrica ... coe res ei atrayo
Dryophis nasutus ©... 0 eee 261 Etroplus suratensis, 4... _ 469, 470
Dyschoriste vagans ... 0... e354 Euchrysops cnejus ww. ws ws, 1
Webolium ...., 01 sihesi doloead -—see--367 -—— pandava pandava eee
Echinopsechinatus 1. 0 4.0 4 451 Eucurcuma cco ee ees 136, 137
Egretta alba 208 S00 deren ace 28 Eudynamis scolop aceus “4 26, 376
a - garzetta .. aA ie oe = 9g | Eumyiasthalassina ... oo oust G4
Bhretia 0.0 ec eee ce ce’ wy 459 |, BUPhorbia barnhartii .. ww... 489
Ehretia laevis ... ....° «.. 440, 454, 463 ———clarkeana sr) ost 2.11459
Eichornia crassipes _... oa Sepeeg G7 | ae hirta woe eee AAT, 459.
————-— speciosa ee BELLE, tem iesel . = CEO to sce ED
Elanus caeruleus .... fa ue 27 Euploea SEIS 009, Gt ee » 196
Eleusine aegyptiaca .. ... . ~462 | oT Elugib we ee ee 196
——-—— verticillata. ..- ww. 462 PIE ET EUG anosia . oP “gs 45,
Eliomys melanurus ...- ... =. 428 —, juli appiades foo 7 tee | 1196;
Elymnias patna Bho og eee tC AR OE xiphiones . sw.» 196
ee pealii ... ) aeeee awl 44 ST ENESEN RE ogo) od ss poe ES)
een VASHOCV Aa ss NeEC eae 47, || a Feeley recta | (eerepyyeericay deen 40
Blytraria wo ee oo we ee ae eo 850. | Everesdipora oe a ie as 49
Bitrate, acailisnm mm: sam Ratan nes 25350) | moun inn ob orides 35 FO gon OD BL AY.
———— crenata KP Wipe Te4 Ob) Gee kala **2 cite ese 49
Emblica officinalis .... ... eeoeAsh || Esk. parrhasius assamica ere ween 49)
Endopogon integrifolius .. ... ne BEB. Evolvulus alsinoides_... Heck plasty
Enhydrina rae: a gree Nee So) | Re nummularis Hoo) eo) eon
Ephedra alata 0.0. 6 te! en 424 Fagonia cretica 00. | weavers | cn 445
—_-——_ gerardiana war. iL neasiee >) 9156: | Falco jugger .. oe Jones: tee 8 een 26)
Eptesicus fuscusfuscus = 13. % 7...) 498 | Ficus infectoria ...... a. Wee gos Spe eA
Garrulus gularis (= eGarnulie adele
xX Viii
PAGE
Ficus religiosa 372
——- rumphii 141
-—— tsiela 141
Filipedium . 306
Francolinus pondicerianus Bl BOC
Franklinia rufescens ; 24
Fritillaria j oe ZG
Fritillaria roylei ... 400, 405
Gadus aeglefinus 296
——— callarias .. ap 295
—— merlangus 295, 296
Sp. we ee UO
Gafrarium 35
Gagea lutea ee eee 200 396
Galerida cristata 25
~Gantelbua 32
Gantelbua urens 383
Gardenia latifolia 142
Garra mullya ° 473
“latus)" <.. O80 105
— leucotis iencotta 194
———-—. —-—-—. oatesi 194
—-———. ornatus o Garrulus bispe:
cularis) 500 we 105
— virgosii le Renna Temeae:
HEXEES)) a0 o06 105
Gastrana ... 33
Gelasimus sf. 33
Gennaeus hamiltonii 150
Gentiana ... COC eee — 407
Gentiana carinata 399, 405
Gerbillus cheesmani 424
———— dasyurus 425
———— nanus (= arabicdiyl 425
Gerydus boisduvalli assamensis 47
Glaucidium radiatum 376
Globicephala macrorhyncha 499
Globicephalus indica °... 499
Glossocardia bosvallea. ... 451
— — linearifolia 451
Glossogobius giurus 474
Glottis nebularia O08 28
Glyptothorax - .. °° | 500i 304
Glyptothorax aratnaliensia 606 w. 304
Gobius striatus ... 4... 68g) 474
Gomphrena globosa 458
Gracilea royleana 462
Gracupica burmanica ... ae 7x8)
Grangea maderaspatensis -- .. oo 143
Grevillea ... tes Re Ae see COD
\
———————————e
INDEX OF SPECIES
_PaGE
Grevillea robusta
Grewia asiatica
118
489
- betulaefolia 441, “442, “445, 463
- populifolia 445
Grus grus Oil
—— leucogeranus 270
Gymarchus wwe see 300
Gynandropsis gynandra 443
- pentaphylla 443
Gymnorhis xanthocollis 25
Gymnosporia montana 446
- royleana 446
Gymnostachyum canescens pon Ot
Halcyon smyrnensis 26, 376
Haliaetus leucorypbus od 27
Haliastur indus ... 27, 377
Haloxylon sp. ees 496
Haplanthus neilgherryensis ... shail)
-—— tentaculatus 360
-_— var, neesi-
ana bod 50 a #6021360
— -->— var. neil-
gherryensis. .. — ... sa seen OU;
- —-- — var. :
plumosa 500 yen Oianses so» 360
——- verticillatus 360
Heliophorus androcles androcles 53
——— epiclesindicus.. ... 53
Heliotropium eichwaldi . 454
-- strigosum 44], 454
Hemichelidon sibirica gulmerei 126
Hemigraphis 352, 254
Hemigraphis crenata 353
crossandra 353
os dura 353
a elegans ... 500 353
—_—— latebrosa S354)
—_—__——_-_ —_ -——- var. ebracteata -353
—_—_——_ ——_ —— —-— var. heyneana. 353
rupestris ... 353
Hemirhamphus gaimardi 288.
Herpestes mungo 200 sos 372
Heterobranchus ... O06 00 sop l2te
Heterophragma qireehiloaiion: 142.
Heteropneusteus fossilis 472
Heteropogon contortus 441, 461
Heterostomata ... se een) 286
Hibiscus micranthus 441, 444
— solandra 444
Hidari bhawani S00 SA to Old
_Hierococcyx varius a ant 26, 376
Hipposideros:
Hipposideros fulvus
Hirundapus nudipes
Hirundo daurica
— flavicola
— smithii
— —— filifera
Hitcheniopsis
Holarrhena Pacidyaenienes
Holboellia
Holboellia latifolia
Holothuria atra :
Homonivalis fabulosus
Horaga moulmeina
, —- ONVX onyx
Hy drilla 500
Hydrilla verticillata
Hydrophasianus chirurgus
Hygrophila angustifolia
- polysperma
——— quadrivalvis
salicifolia
serpyllum
————— stocksii oh
————— undulata...
Hymenodictyon excelsum
Hy percarius wynei
Hypoestes 56 Sco
Hypolycaena erylus Hit ivantee
lanthia cyanura ... 5x on
Janthocincla cineracea cineracea
——e
— ee es
is ee ee
——= styani
Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus
Indigofera cordifolia... 500
== enneaphylla
— ~— hirsuta 500 oe
— linifolia
Ipomoea hederacea
———- pes-tigridis
Iraota timoleon timoleon
Tris sp.
Isognomon oS 600
Ithagenes 505 oe
Ixobrychus cinnamomeus ono
Jaculus jaculus ... 500
Jamides alecto ‘
: -—- eurysaces
-———- bochus bochus
———-celeno celeno ..
———-e Cleodus pura
164, 165, 166, 167,
PAGE
499
498
104
SVS)
25, O10),
25
375
136
453
421
422 |
430
403
58
38
165
168, 169
27
ee el
350, 351
350, 351
350, 351
350, 351
350, 351
eo 2 SBI
142
400
367
58
401
194
194
27
447
447
447
sen 47
we 455
441, 455
Set asf o3
426
31
197
509
428
52
52
51
ae ole
51
INDEX OF SPECIES
Laternula
ERIK
PAGE
Jamides coerulea da 52
- kankena wee 52
———- ———- pseudelpis 52
— - pura pura sce Sl
Jatropha gossypifolia 459, 464
Juniperus be seoie, LOO
Juniperus maaranate «. 156, 158, 159
———- pseudosabina 156, 157
—— - recurva 156, 396
——————— — var. densa .. so UES
-———- var, squamata .. 157
——_—-—- squamata 156
Justicia adhatoda Res 456
- betonica 366
SSS var. tamosissima 366
———- diffusa 367
- gangetica 364
———- infundibuliformis 361
— pectinata eae 365
———- procumbens 367
———- prostrata 367
———- rosea 6 855
simplex 367, 456
- verticillaris B00 360
———- verticillata 360
Kadsura Coon. cleee 417
Kadsura roxburghiana... 417
Kigelia pinnata eer 405
Kydia calycina ... 265, 266
Kyllinga triceps... ~ 441, 460
Labeo ariza wes 473
bogeut... a0 tee AT
calbasu es 472, 473
——— fimbriatus 165, 166, 167,168, 473
—-—gonius .. .. ane 473
-——— kontius 473
——— nigripinnis 185
—— porcellus 5 473
—— — rohita .. 234, 286, 473.
Lampides boeticus 506 51,399
Lamprometra 431
Lanius collurioides 600 : 24
——— cristatus 24, 374
——— excubitor 24
—— nigriceps 24
——— schach 240
——-— ——-- (caniceps) coo | ON)
——— vittatus 06 24
Lantana indica oO 456.
Larix griffithi 157
40
XXX
PAGE
Lathyrus aphaca .. .. . 447
Laubuca laubuca 473
Launaca nudicatlis 452
Lawsonia alba 450
——-——-- inermis 450
Leiognathus sf. 467
Leiopicus mahrattensis 26
Lepidagathis bandraensis so OS)
—————- cristata “456, 464
SSeS grandiflora > 7359
Lepidocephalichthys guntea~...~ 281, 474
—— —-——— thermalis 474
Lepidosteus ees Nee 173
Lepita 46
Leptadenia eticulate 453
Lerwa lerwa 150
Lethe armandii inatean 44
—- vindhya 44
Letcas cephalotes 457
—— diffusa 457, 464
Libitina ae ae tee B89
Libythea narina rohini 46
Lilium backerianum igh)
——— macklinae Cae Ore 195°
——— primulinium ... 500 “195
——— wallichianum 195
Lima ees on a 32
Limenitis danava mA He 7 4AS
Limnanthemum cristatum 143
Lingula 500 500 | 431
Lobivanellus indicus ... "28, 377
Logania massalia 500 48
Loligo Soares
Lophophoris Fane EA ge seal 90
Loranthus longifiorus ... ~ 459
Loxura atymnus continentalis 56
Luffa acutangula var. amara... 489
Luffa amara See eat Sate: — 489°
unulicardiacgs essa arse alee nO
Lutraria des ees 000 eOTOS
Lycaenesthes emolusemolus .. .. 51
= lycaenina lycambes ol
Lycaenopsis bes os nose EE ton MRO
Lycaenopsis albocaerulea one 506 50
— argiolus 515
= —- sik kima . 516
———-——- (Celastrina) 500 405 49
(es OBIE <° 515
Rae ge ale cerima Bile, 516, 517
a a CCYX eae yon WIG)
Sain ete haraldus coe OO 600
nn a
—$—$—<——
INDEX OF. SPECIES
PAGE
Lycaenopsis lavendularis placida 50
—————- marginata 49
—————- melaena parishii sas 49
—————- musina musiniodes ... 49, 50
—————- puspa gisca 49
—————-- tanarata 515
——_—_—_—- aus Pca ~ 49~
Lycium a ee 425°
Lycium europaeum we 455-
Mackenzia integrifolia 356, 358
Macoma " eee 33
Mactra 5 Woe BE 01g
Maerua arenaria 441, 442, 443, 463
Magnolia 415, 416
Magnolia eameeelti 415, 416°
———— sphenocarpa 415, 416
Mahathala ameria | 54
Mahonia 900 000 422
Mahonia acanthifolia ... 423
———— nepalensis 423
Malacocincla sepiaria abbotti 374
Malvastrum coromandelianum ~ 444—
tricuspidatum 444
Mangifera indica 22, 371
Manglietia ah ALS
Mangelietia insignis 416°
Manis longicaudata 300
Marmota caudata 400
Martesia mrece 404 38, 39
Martynia diandra -... 441, 455 -
Mastacembelus armatus 474
pe pancalus : 474
MatutalvictOnigi, a0 Sect mmol od)
Meconopsis e - 407
Medicago ano on 425, 427.
Megalaima asiatica ~ “376
haemacephala 376
—- zeylonicus 375
Megisba malaya sikkima 49.
Melanocenchris royleana 462°
Melia azadirachta paerelia gi 372, 446
Melilotus alba» 446
= indica | 446
——- parviflora’ ... . . 446
Melurus ursinus 265:
Membranipora nese 431
Meretrix : Bi os 34, 35
Meretrix meretrix 500 “35.
Mergellus albellus | “508°
Mergus mergus orientalis . Soo CNS)
Meriones sot aps UM ROSEY condor
PAGE
Meriones buryi ... + 426
— erythrourus 426, 427
Meriopes «- 426
Meriopes crassus 427
Merlangus vulgaris 296
Merops orientalis 26, 376
- superciliosus ... | 26
Metopidius indicus 27
Meyenia oar 367
Michelia 500 415
Michelia champaca 416
— excelsa secina ct l6
——— kisopa 416, 417
— lanuginosa 416, 417
Micranthus 354
Micropallas whitneyi 189
Microparsus eee 436
Micropternus F : 301
Micropus affinis 600 26, 376
Miliusa 141
Miliusa velutina 14]
Milvus migrans ... 27
—— = (govinda) 377
Mimosa hamata .. 300 449,
Mirafra Se ica 25,
~~ erythroptera 25
Mitragyna parvifolia 450
Modiolus . i 30
Mollugo nudicaulis . cae 450
Molpastes cafer 23, 374
——-—— leucogenys ... 23, 374
Monechma bracteatum: 367
—— debilis ve 367
Montifringilla adamsi . Sp tn
n= = Himatordt: . 273
—_—— —---—+ brandti ... 273
_ ———- aridreyana 274
ee — brandtion. 273, 274
—_—_— — haemato-
pygia se - 273, 274
= —— incerta ... 274
2 ee = intermedia 274
ee margaritaceae. 274
=_ += pallidior... 273, 274
I -pamirensis ... 274
a Walter 273
——__—_—_—— dayidiane ios 273°
= = —- potanini 273
= —_—— ruficollis 273
Moringa 8000 on 449
Moringa oleifera =
INDEX OF SPECIES
J G00 CD
XEx1
PAGE
Mota massyla.3. ase Pao ee
Motacilla alba (duihanensis) .. 25, 375
—_———— (personata), 25, 375
= citreola adn 25
———— ——— calcarata goo ID)
———-— leucopsis 25, 375
25, 104, 375
Mugil cunnamboo mi 379
——-poecilus 378, 379, 380, 351, 382, 383
——- seheli iss eer 292
——-troscheli ...378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383
Munia sistonyotille 66 29
Muscicapa parva 24, 374
—_————- variegata (=Sivastrigula). 104
————- westermanni australorientis. 272
———- —-indochinensis. 272
Mycalesis anaxias See 46
— annamitica watsoni 44
——-——. gautama charaka a0 44
———— intermedia ) need
-————_ khasia khasia... 44
——— malsara 46
——_—-—. malsarida 46
— mamerta mamerta 44
——— misenus 46.
— —-—— nicotia ... 3 se dee
Myiophoneus czeruleus ~ 401
Myrobalanus bellirica ... AOS
Mystus ., 50) aces oD a IIe
Mystus bleekeri ... mere
Cavasius ..» hs 473
--—-—- seenghala 00 ore, AUS
Mytilus 50 00 “30, 32
Mytilus viridis... |... ee ea BUF
Nacaduba aluta coelestis 5380
-— berce gythion 53
———-— dana 53°
a HOO evoke 83
——->—— hermus 52
ee ett TADO) ce 52
ee UTA (53.
—_—_-.—- ————. euplea ca
ey Sune pisse eee
_- merguiana (eicie) 500 52
——-—-— nora nora . Sec 53
——_—— pactolus continentalis 52,
— vajtuva ona 82.
INAGUIAE cvs nar ese ete OU 29
Naculana ... ° © «os oy 29.
WajaS an coos. ove 168
&¥x1i
PAGE |
Najas graminea 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169 |
Naravelia rh ae 408
— zeylanic 410 |
Narcine 8 433 |
Natrix piscator .. 261 |
Nelsonia ... ... 367 |
Nemachilus botia 474
-—— dayi es est ven ATE
—-— denisonii 304
Neophron percnopterus _ 26, 377
Neopithecops zalmara ... 49 |
Neptis ananta ochracea 45 |
anjana nashona 45 |
—— — aurelia ap — 45
heliodore sattanga 45
——- paraka .. 500 45
———radharadha ... 45
——— yerburyi sikkima Ae 906 45
—— ———— yerburyi of 45
Neptunus pelagicus : 129, 130, 131
Nerocila XD
Nettapus coro randelanes 28
Neuracanthus spherostachyus 364
Nilgirianthus .. ane 65 355
Nilgirianthus asper 356, 357
———-— barbatus ... 356, 387
—— ——-—- ciliatus ... 356, 357
——-—- ——— heyneanus 356
ea ray. nersii.,. . 357
——lupulinus ... 356, 357
eee membranaceus... 356, 357
—-~ ——-—-— reticulatus a00 356, 357
————-——- warreensis ...-. 356, 357
Niphanda cymbia cymbia B06 AF hod 48
Nissa . o.. aes 000 50 39
Nitella actiinata aes . 164
Notopterus notopterus... 291, 472
Nucifraga carryocatactes 401
Nyctatus noctula . 498
Nympheza 400 165, 168
Nymphaea rubra 165, 166, 167, 168, 169
—— — stellata 900 143
Ocimum americanum 44], 457
———— canum oe 00 ve = 407
——-=—. sanctum AZ oy: 457
Ocypoda sp. 600 400 600 ace. LAK)
CORIO S ISS obestis 293
—— —— redemanni 294
GEnanthe opistholeuca ... 390 24
Oenopopelia tranquebarica — 27, 377
Oikopleura 500 900 500 ose Bae
4.72
Ompok bimaculatus
INDEX OF SPECIES
Ompok macropthalmus
Ophicephalus marulius
—————— punctatus
—-—-———— Striatus ...
Ophiocnemis marmorata we
Ophiothrix aa 9010 oe
Opuntia dillenii
Oriolus oriolus kundoo...
—————— Kan thornus 200
——~-— ————— ceylonensis
Orpetium thomezum
Orthotomus sutorius
Osphronemus gorami
Ostrea ne
Ostrea bicolor ...
——-—- crenulifera
——— madrasensis
Otinotus oneratus
Otocompsa jocosa
Otus bakkamoena
—— sunia es aes
Ougeinia pase
Oxygraphis ss
—— -—--- polypetaiaee
Panicum ramosum
Pantoporia kanwa phorkys
Paphia
Papilio polytes Hector
——-— ——— romults
Parabzena 50 200
Parabena sagitata
Paratelphusa USandpinees)
. 441, 450, 454
Pack
472
474
474
eco 287
295
429
375, 505
375
275
441, 462
375
164
31
31
31
31
305
23, 374
376
376
141
409
412
461
45
36
43
43
419
419
guerini eee 291
ES aEEEEEEe (—-———)
jacquemontii 289
—.—_-———- Sh, 500 600 129
Pareronia (Valeria) avatar avatar ... 44
Parkinsonia aculeata ... 900 .- 448
Parnassius hardwickei ... 500 ao oH!)
Parus major 600 374
Paspalum sanguinale 60 .. 461
Passer domesticus . 25, 375, 509
Pastor roseus 375
Pedicularis 405
Peganum hamala 442
Pennisetum cenchroides 461
—-- typhoides ... 491
Pentalonia 20 436
Pergularia extensa 453
Pericrocotus erythropygius 500 24
———-_-— peregrinus 24
' Periopthalmus ... etamees 433
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Peristrophe wee a eS”,
Peristrophe picealyauratal 441, 456
Perotis indica... 500 508 jobs NO
latifolia ... ia O00 mae 402
-Petalidium Boe oa ae boc nth
Petaurista sybilla 50 eet iso ad 8S
‘Phalacrocorax niger... a8 3 28
Phalaropus fulicarius ... ace esr O04
————— gardneri ... 58 eee LOS
Phasianus humic burmanicus trea O4
cae humice ane ware 14
—purcrasia ... ce 500 AOD
we wallichii hae ve soe) LOS<
Phaulopsis a a a. soo OE!
Phaulopsis dorsiflora... O60 aay Oe
Phlocomyzus see re a he 436
Phoenicopterus ruber... S60 ee S10
Phoenicurus frontalis ... ae 126
-—— ochrurus “94, 370
Phoenix sylvestris 20 AD) ll
Pholas ah 500 ae 50 Clap CL)
Pholas orientalis ... a fe an 39
Phorostoma Sp. .o. Sas _ a eters)
Phylloscopus affinis 600 600 joo) ZAG)
—_————_ humii tee aCe 375
-———— —— jnornatus humei mA ZO)
a occipitalis 606 Sen teas)
a trochilus ... at ae a).90)
Pica bottanensis et 4 e104
Picea, morinda 156, 158
—- smithiana ... 600 Ses soo lists)
—-spinulosa ... Wty Uist)
Picus vittatus ... of, a icy = OO
Pieris brassice ... wes See en 1399
Pimpinella 306
Pinna 500 nor ae a doe 32
Pinus wa eee aoe eee soeuy MalOi/
Pinusexcelsa .. Eee Ay Beihai’ Loi
—- longifolia 6 505 o60 dle
——- roxburghii 500 So odo SY
——-— wallichiana sists Bi ooo aS a
Pithecops hylax vas O66 ne 48
Placenta placenta OME ei se areal ah SO
Plastingia margherita margherita ... 515
Plecotus auritus re 0 tis 498
Pleocaulus ee Kes si OOO
Pleocaulus ritchiei 00 000 356, 358
Plesmonum margeritiferum ... Aviaeaimes 7
Ploceus atrigula(=p. burmanicus) ... 200
—-— burmanicus oo. 200, 203, 204
= manyar oye BAC 590 AUN
3
XXxili
PaGE
Ploceus megarhynchus 200, 201, 202, 203, 204
- passerinus 201, 202, 203
——-- ————_-——. [=burmanicus] 201
- philippinus 29, 200, 203, 204, 271
—-— —— ——— burmanicus 503 AU
(Eipasseninus) same eee 203
——— - ———— — philippinus cco | AAU
- rutledgii oes 3645 Sone ADIL
Pluchea lanceolata .. 442, 451, 463
Plumbago zeylanica ... as eset, AOd
Poa eee 000 adc 000 505 Sie)
Poa alpigena 00 ans 500 ooo (8), Gil
—- alpina was 500 Pe O06 gi
—-~amvoena 500 5a S00 506 85
—- angustifolia ... & 500 500 70
—- annua? 600 oor Be 87
—- araratica 62, 63, 65
—-asperifolia ... we 506 50 71
—-attenuata- ... see ». 8/7, 88
—-bactriana ... 300 500 98, 102
—- bulbosa si «. 91, 100, 101, 102
—-— —— var, elanata... 101, 192
—-burmanica .. 50 boo bc 82
—- calliopsis Ace 60 ses O09) G0, 338
—- compressa cs at he)
—- eleanore 605 500 500 S80 80
—-— falconeri ae ane 000 300 76
—-~ flexuosa 600 606 606 560 79
—- gamblei wae fs om ee 85
—-gammieana ... 300 Vie 79
—- glabriflora 000 97, 102
—-—hirtiglumis ... see 500 on 93
—- jaunsarensis ... me 900 500 72
—- keelzii 500 ose oe 500 94
—-lahulensis ... abi oe ie 65
—- litwinowiana 64, 65, 88, 95
—- ludens 50 81) CS)
—-— nitide-spiculata $06 206 Bee 77
—-pagophila ... a5 .. /9, 83
—- palustris S08 900 500 01 66
—-phariana .. 400 ese G0), 09, 338
—- poophagorum ane .. 87, 88
pee - var, lanata S00 69
—- pratensis 500 606 71, 72, 84, 85
—- -—_—_—__-——_ angustifolia ai 70
BOE - var. alpigena 500 69
—-pseudopratensis ... 200 560 83
—- rhadina 08 a0 a, 600 89
—- serotina i 500 aa 506 66
—-— sinaica 300 200 ose 99, 102
ZXxiV INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Poa sterilis fae ae ...61, 63, 64, 65
—-tianshanica ... cK wes woe 95
—-~ tibetica nae ay) ees 95
—- - var. atsralata ae ths 96
—- trivialis ais ees no (OY, (88
—- — (var. flat) ae «» 67, 68
—-variegata... Ze o06 600 91
Podocarpus O06 Ay aog alate)
Podocarpus Macro pnaine Jon cate ap OO
—— —-——. var, maki. 158
— —_——- neriifolia ... ah 156, 158
Podophyllumemodi__.. 600 400, 405
Polycarpzea corymbosa 000 we = 444
Polygala ... 000 bes 000 ace TOCe
Polygala carnosa a; tae aris) 45)
—chinensis ... .. ... 444
— furcata f55 500 Wes ol 24
—— hyalina sc 060 500 WE
—_—_—_— - vay. pusila ... Adon SPS)
—lacei ... 506 eat 100 OLS)
——— emorannblar ap 60 POS
— ——— var. glaucescens ... 524
Polygonum 500 coo, and sco. CANS
Polygonum plebejum ... 500 ooo Gh
-—— monspeliensis ... occ eas
Porana paniculata 000. 000 oe = 404
Poritia erycinoides elsiei pic on0 47
— phraaticawe.-mauamess 47
—_—— —— trishna 900 jet 47
hewitsoni hewitsoni ... ete 47
Portulaca quadrifida ... 500 w. «= 444
Pratapa ... 500 re “at eas 57
Pratapa cleobis ... ee S00 is 36
—cotyS ee 600 ae 56
-—ctesia ... ae ty; Bie 56
- deva 46 1G £8 on 57
- devalila ... oe Ses 500 010, OY
~ icetas extensa ... ar Peon 256
——- icetoides carmentalis ... a 56
— vidura pennicilligera ... is 56
Precistathitess ames. sa) eo nnemnes ape tS
Presbytiscus aun et ane score, 204
Presbytiscus avunculus eo 264, 265
Primula ... ots 206 ae so COZ
Primula denticulata ... op Gd, Bey
——--— filipes ... 960 a0 so6 IGE
——-—— nepalense 500 000 oo, AIS
————— rosea ao dst we = 405
ee sherrifiana ... 000 coo = OS
———— stuartii eee Se soo KOS
Prosopis ... see ays see 0)
Prosopis juliflora tee
———— spicigera
Prinia inornata :
Prunella strophiata jerdoni
Psammobia
Psammomys 500 008
Psammomys obesus
Psarisomus dalhousiae ...
Pseuderanthemum
Pseuderanthemum bicolor
Pseudergolis wedah
Pseudogyps Denzalensis)
Psilorhynchus 56
Psittacula eupatria 900
—— krameri
Pteria
Pteropus eaparasii
— giganteus
Puntius nigrofaciatus
—ACItGy uummece
Pupalia lappacea
Purshia tridentata
Pycnodus ...
Pyrrhocorax graculus
Pyrrhula aurantica ere
Ragadia crisilda crito
Ramphalcyon capensis
Rana
Rana beddomii
——- leithii
Randia brandisii
— dumetorum
Ranunculus 500
Ranunculus diffusus
ee pensylvanicus
———-—--— sceleratus ...
Rapala buxaria
——— dieneces nienecest
——— pheretimus petosiris
———jarbas .. eee
———- melampus
——— nissa 500 SO
—_—— —— rectivitta ...
——— refulgens ox
——— FOSACEA ew .
——— schistacea ee
——— scintilla ...
——— sphinx sphinx ...
——— suffusa suffusa ...
————— fATa 008 eee
malabaricum
440, 442, 148, 463
26, 376
26, 376 |
PAGE
448
24 |
126 |
37
425
425 |
272
354
365i
365
47
187 |
26, 376
31
3725
268
476
476
441, 458
279
173
400
110
44
376
514
513, 514
@Oe
... 012, 513, 514
489
489
409
412
412
412
59
59
59
59
59
.. 59, 60
60
59
60
59
59
59
59
59
INDEX OF SPECIES ‘XK
PAGE PAGE
Rapala varuna orseis ... sai 53 59 | Ruellia elegans var. crenata ... sos CON)
Rasbora buchanani a Ak .. 473 | ——-— longifolia a 3a tone 1230S
SS CEAGOMIHS — gos, 000 165, 473 | ———-mysurensis ... Sm Reese 2: 364
——--— labiosa caaec ... 261, 282,473 | ——--— prostrata var. dea, suo, OO
Rastrelliger wes de mt ... 433 | ——-— salicifolia ast oun Rn ol
Ratufa Sus ath Be oe .. 193 | ——-— tuberosa sai oe 351, 352
Ratufa gigantea ... we aC 193, 196 Nc eae undulata SOO. taro eae ool
ee felliiniess Ss 193,198 | ——-—urens_... Se RODS
-———-— ——_—_—. gigantea = ... 198 | Rungia parviflora var. Tyanalie ete G09
we I tring tee 193,198 | ——-— ————- var. pectinata ... 365
Rattus bowersi .. ... «s,s =: 197 | ——-— pectinata oooh) fot yt teens SOS
——— ——-— bowersi beh 194,197 | Saccharum arundinaceum _... 900 20
eine feaG. © ei. 194, 197, 198 | Sacciolepsis interrupta ... sas a. - 143
a mackenzici 194, 197, 198 | Saccopetalum ... : 903 ooo cleat
——— manipulus a 194, 197, 198 | Saccopetalum fomedtocan 600 «. 14]
——— nitidus obsoletus ia 194, 198 | Sagitta ... cos ove ve. wont 432
Rhanterium eppaposum ae owe, 2 425 Salmacis eee cos eee apo, ee)
Rhantheriumy ei, stoe see. oe 427 |) Salmo fario wee tee ee ee 145
Rhinacanthuscommunis_... ... 367 | Salsola foetida ... 500 Ot ses 409
So MASE, 65, Re .. 367 | Salvadora oe 500 so 440, 442
Rhinobatus ses tie wud .» 433 | Salvadora oleodis see Ser co LNCS)
Rhinoceros bicornis ... 900 .. 346 | ———--— oleoides se» 20, 440, 442, 453
—_—-—— sondaicus ... 600 poe.» eal -— persica «- 440, 442, 452, 463
ee sumatrensis ... 341, 343, 345 | Salvia aegyptiaca var. pumila woe = 457
——— unicornis ... 341, 343, 346, 348. plebeja_ ... eats ee «esp elas
Rhinolophus rouxi see ot .. 498] Sanguinolaria ... 600 OD 37
Rhinopalpa polynice birmana an 46 | ——--— (Soletellina) odo ie 37
Rhinopithecus ... .«.. . .. 264 | Sarcogyps calvus wee 26, 376
Rhinopithecus biete ... oe ... 265 | Saussurea lappa eh bag eee OF
ee alichiet =a . 265 | Saxicola caprata as 60 24, 374
— —- roxellanae 264, 265, 492 | Saxicoloides fulicata ... eae 24, 374
Rhinoplax vigil ... a3; Ax ... 299 | Schelichera trijuga 500 500 50g) dey
Rhipidura aureola + < ... 374 | Schistocera ee see eee eee |, 427
Rhizostoma 606 - 000 ... 296 | Schizandra ofr anc 066 Pee 17/
Rhododendron nivel et .. 195] Schizandra elongata ... a rere l7/
—————- -- —— macabeanum .:. sao WOE —— grandiflora cco, «coo EL
Rhopiiema hispidum... soo JIL, AIS, ALS || | ===> OIRO, Gon, cao «. 417
Rhus aus ai see ... 442 | Sciurus palmarum 506 ae see ode,
Rhyacornis Faleingen: aE ane .. 400 | Scoliodon oe co odo we 433
Rhynchosia minima _... ae 441,447 | Scyllaserrata ... 506 129, 130, 132
Rhyondon typus 600 sie ... 476 | Semnopithecus entellus cee . 404
Riparia concolor srs sa .. 375 | Sepia 400 900 G00) 1) ode ae 40
Rita ss oe or ie ee OMM Se piclliawaesss sds S00 the 600 40
Rohtee cotio sa Rts se e473 jl Serranus, —.. Ace 500 O06 i)
Rostratula bengalensis ... Bs sas 27 | Sesamumindicum ... 600 441, 455
Roxus roxana ... ee see eis 48 ' Sesili indica B00 Boon | ce eee.
Rwelliae ees se Cee EeECOMnSetaphis She rulers 435, 437
——-— crossandra an abc .. 353 | Setaphis horecinilecese 500 coe 435
Sea USAM ese fas Sachem reo? ap == ORUMOSAN MSH apeatl iene ese, muuees 435)
——-— dura Bes a His .. 393 | ————Iluteus ... 500 4 eee 435
=-—-— elegans .. oe eee ee 358 a Vitidis) ise) <0) “435, 436, 437
XXEVI
Setaria verticillata
Shorea robusta
Sida humilis
— - veronicaefolia
Siliqua
Siliqua radiata:
Sillacov> %.: as
Silurus > aes
Simiskina phalena Harterti
Sinthusa chandrana grotei
——— nasaka amba
Solea
Solen
Solen truncatus
Sorghum halepense
Spalgis epius epius
Spilornis cheela Yer es
Spindasis lohita eee eure
——-—— syama
— — — peguanus
Spizaetus cirrhatus.. ... 00
Spondylus ee or wee
Standella
Staurogyne 60 606 ‘es
Stegodyphus sarasinorum
Stephania
Stephania glabra
——-—— japonica
Stephegyne parvifolia
Stiboges nymphidia ~
Stomopneustes
Sterculia. urens
Streptopelia chinensis
-—— decaocta
———-—— orientalis
————--— senegalensis
Strobilanthes 500
Strobilanthes asper
——— barbatus
————E——————— callosus eee eos
———-——— ciliatus
——-—— — — heyneanus
—— —-—-—— ixiocephalus |
—————— lupulinus
_———__——_— membranaceus....
ee perfoliatus
reticulatus
scrobiculatus
a sessilis v. ritchiei
a ree warreensis
SIPEOMIAUCT Se murs oils 9s) | Salis estan
Shy Cpe OY
PAGE
461
37
367
521
419
420
420
450
46
430
142
pe BU
27, 377
yh, Bay
Mi, BG
142, 355
356, 357
356, 357
356, 359
356, 357
356, 357
356, 359
356, 357
SAS357
356, 358
356, 357
356
356, 358
356, 357
mo
INDEX OF SPECIES
Stromateus niger
Sturnia malabarica .
Sturnopastor contra. ... S66
Sturnus vulgaris
Suaeda fruticosa
Suasa lisides ateanlieteet
Sunetta
Surendra aiereetone um uuerec tom
-——— -— todara distoita
Sylvia communis icterops
Symbrenthia silana
Syntarucus plinius
Sypheotides indica
Tabanus 600
Tabanus atratus ...
388, 519, 520
387, 388, 391, 392
PAGE
292
24, 375
25), oS
24
459
58
35
55, 56
55
24
46
48
510
———lineola ... 386, 391
—-—-—-— melanocerus ... 391, 392
——— — nigrovitattus ri As TOS,
———— quinquevitattus .. 386, 391, 392
———— reinwardtii oles 92
———— trimaculatus 389
—— viscaris (costalis) 387
Tajura buto 506: 57
——— cippus cippus 56 57
——— culta 57
——— diaeus 57
——— illurgis 57
——— illurgoides 37
——— ister 37
——-— jangala ravata 36
——— luculentus nela 57
——— maculata 37
——— megistia megistia 57
——— melastigma 37
——— thyia Ay 57
——— yajna istroidea 57
Talicada nyseus khasiana she 48
Tamarindus indica doo. Bs
(Nainanixee... Roe 442
Tamarix gallica 489
———— troupii 489
Tamiops toe OG
Tapes 300 aC 606 36
Taraka hamada Wemdee 48
Tarucus ananda 48
——--— dharta 48
Tatera 50 560 O00 424
‘Tatera indica ... 424
Taxus baccata 200 SUSY
Tchitrea paradisi Digs es Mieaows a OMe
Tecoma undulata — .«. Jp aD
INDEX Of SPECIES XXXV ii
Pion. PAGE
_ Trochalopteron erythrocephalum ery-
Tecomella undulata ... 440, 442,455, eS fe aes 1990 Atte = 794
Tectona grandis 000 mrt? See ee paces Heoidblon LOA
Teinopalpus imperatrix imperatris Es | ——.__-_— phoeniceum bakeri ... 194
—-——-. jmperialis imperialis ... 7 | Seay me
Tellina ff i 5 | ponni fer 500 se soo lH
ellna (Areopagia) capsoides 989 ‘Trollius Sen Cee 100
ge euse Haya ee ae 4,375 ‘Trollius pumilus 200 wor tee aS
Temenuchus pagodarum ves Z 430 \ Trygon ies aS: ve 433
Temnopleura ... nee “ S06 be reaen oa a son WE, IS, OD
CUA ea a4 oe ae | Peat onuincrmtene 3H 200 157, 158
——- villosa eae eG, GUMNOSae ee Fee a ee OY
‘Teredo see 900 a oe 294 | Tubiflora sr. Eee ee OO 350
Termes redemanni vas oe i ret | GPenpbiteloran araavcilic oe ie 350, 456
pecoinalia etic Ks s * 449 _ Turdoides somervillei ... 606 500 23
Terminalia arjuna 000 ok a 439 Ines —— ——-——_(terricolor) + 374
=> WaT US SE ea ea 439 Turdus citrinus amadoni coe ess) O04
a es ee ee 449 | Turnix maculatus 506 sas 506 27
— glabra auc aa 41 489 | ——— suscitator x si 606 27
He aint Sates "173 ‘Tylosurus strongylurus Me ee 285
Tetragonolepsis wis 2. 150, 396 | ‘Tyto alba aGY comin et are
Tetraogallus himalayensis 4... Ley, 433 Unona ee oes G0 noo allt}
eee coe ove eer tee ies | WaGne ASP OlOE ies ae 35 “a 418
Thalictrum one ves oo ote : 26, 376
; 26 | Upupa epops 400 ec vee ,
Thalictrum chelidonii ... 000 411, a | Gee " BS 142, 459
—- foliolosum ... 500 te ;
é a 600 60 25
OL una tol uiinnnee 411, 412 | Uroloncha eee oe 509
= WAI cod 800 on ee | oe ie eat eee ea
See sg. es 7 53 Wropeltissmacnolepismssiem ne ae a S12
icles ss Pisss))| Valeriana wallichii) 9 .. 405
Thelepaepale ... a ve ee 56 | Vauisneea eS = ee 165, 168
ine Chepale sxlocephala) a. os "467 | Vallisneria spiralis ... | ...164,165, 166,
Therapon spp... ve tee aes 49 | 67, 168, 169
Thunbergiacoccinea ... 2 se S83 5 167, 168,
——~ erecta ad a eek oo | Vanessa cardui S06 | 005) cg)
picherra Bete Ne" a 56 493 | ———-- cashmiriensis ... : ee 399
me ewes = 2 as S 436 | Varuna litterata see ses » 129
Toxoptera 504 oes 500 eae - 36
Tragia involucrata of 600 489, 490 a bee Nee nee ass rise oO ae
Tragus biflorus 506 vee vee a cus ae fi Ge iat 36
Dri Pe areas b Rs ie 433 | Vernonia cinerea 506 fone con HU!
“ees ee shes = ie ... 450 | Viburnum foetens tea ee es 396, 405
gan ae cee 450 | Vicia sativa var. angustifolia we = 448
me ees | Vi San Bs es xo BE
ane ——— portulacastrum .. .. 450 — a ae NG, Gh
4 i | <n oon oon coo )
Tribulus terrestris es we. 142, $41, 445 Me cHola neiee pene Rete 6G
Etelnorees ine ete borrias ae a i Volutarella divaricata ie teed Uist oe 40S
Trichosanthes cucumerina ... ... 450 | 2 306
Tridax procumbens ... .. 142,454 | Vulpia Oe Site
: Soe a 79
Tringa hypoleucus ite eee ae £8 | Wallago attu eee too ooe 47
a ochropus aa aa o 28 | Wrightia tinctoria ch a00 =» 403
aimiettal bactran 445 | Xanthium strumarium 00 441, 451
€ © eoe eos e6e e : a 6
Fa “ ree rhomboidea gee 7p eee 445 | Yasoda tripunctata 929 oo8 9
KXKVIii
Ypthima baldus iF
— similis affectata
Zeltus etolus
Zilla spinosa
Zizeeria gaika
-—_———- karsandra
———- lysimon
——_—- maha maha
———_— otis otis
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
44
44
58
425
50
50
50
50
50
PAGE
Zizyphus. ae am ee eA CO,
Zizyphus jujuba Pyne ayo ADD
———— lotus eee, he we 442
——-—— nummularia 20, 441, 442, 446, 463
——--— rotundifolia ... a0 fog LD
Zornia diphylla Nee cas eae
Zosterops palpebrosa ... 6. ++ 379
Zy gaena Kp sane Cs)
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME Sl, No. 1
THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL
“ParKs. By E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. (With four plates) G00
SoME BrrRD ASSOCIATIONS OF INDIAN CULTIVATED AND WASTE LANDS.
By M. D. Lister Ae aoe alse ie ¢
STUDY OF THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE KARWAR Coast AND NEIGH-
BOURING ISLANDS. PARTIII. By A. M. Patil, M.sc.
More. BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS, ay Sir Keith
Cantlie, 1.c.s. (Retd.) So 600
THE GENUS Poa LINN. IN INDIA. PART II. By N. L. Bor. (With eight
plates and twenty-five text figures) iJ.
THe History OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY. PART II. By
Sir Norman Kinnear, CB. as
ON SOME DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF Cavanxv kalla Cuv. & VAL. By
S. V. BapatT, M.Sc., and R. Raghu ae M.Sc., Ph.D. (With a plate
and four text figures) i. Ye ay oie
THE LINALOE TREE, ‘(Bursera anda Potsson) : AN INTRODUCTION
INTO THE FLORA OF INDIA. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.)
(With a plate) .. 665 eee 500 eee
KASHMIR REVISITED. By W. T. Loke. (With six ee vr 500
NOTES ON THE CRAB FISHERY OF THE CHILKA LAKE. By S. Jones and
K. H. Sujansingani. (Wzth five text figures) S00 os:
On A COMMON SPECIES OF Curvcuma OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS.
By H. Santapau, ss. (With a plate) vhs wd os
SYSTEMATICS AND ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PLANTS OR WHAT CAN WE
DEMAND OF A MODERN ELORA ey C. E. Hewetson, 1.F.S. esi
two plates) es Se0
A FisHinc Horipay In NoRTH GARHWAL. By A. St. J. Macdonald.
(With a plate and three text maps).
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF Be Heese IN EASTERN
NEPAL. By M. IL. Banerji. (With a map) : Gc
WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA ;: UTTAR PRADESH (U. we By Il. N.
SRIVASTAVA, A.I.F.C. a;
THE CONTROL OF AQUATIC VEGETATION WITH ‘2, 4-D’. By R. Srini-
vasan and P. I. Chacko 2c eat: Gee
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA. ee Sunder Lal
Hora. (With sixteen text figures) Be
A NOTE ON SOME NATURAL BARRIERS IN BURMA. By Vo ils 1D Neon
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FINN’S BAyA (Ploceus megarhynchus HUME). By Heal A Abduiali
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN Borany. Part II, Sy
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REVIEWS :—
1. Some Game Birds of West Africa. By W. A. Fairbairn. (H. A.) ...
2. ‘ Pambugal’ (Snakes). By M. Ekambaranadhan. (V.K.C.) a6
3. Bees: Their Vision, Chemical Senses and Hane nape: By Karl von
Frisch. (V.K.C. ) oe 506 500
4. The British sneer ree and Reptiles. By “Dr. Malcolm Smith.
(C.D.J.)
ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY
PAGE
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1Y
29
42
61
104
11
116
1z1
128
135
140
145
156
160
164
170
189
209
205
260
260
261
262
263
ii , CONTENTS OF VOLUME 5l, No. 1
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
1. Possible occurrence of the Snub-nosed Monkey (Akinopithecus roxell-
anae) in Assam. By E,. P. Gee (p. 264). 2. Riotous behaviour of
mating bears (Melursus ursinus). By R. C. Morris (p. 265). 3. Cases of
unwounded Gaur or Indian Bison ( Bib0s gaurus) charging. By R. C. Morris
(p. 266). 4. Wild buffaloes and tame. (With a photo). By R. P. Noronha
(p. 266). 5. What is the best means of control and destruction of Flying
Foxes [Pleropus giganteus (Brunn.]? By E. P. Gee (p. 268). 6. Our
vanishing wild life. By R. C. Morris (p. 268). 7. Bird migration across the
Himalayas. By C. H. Donald (p. 269). 8. Birds nesting on telegraph wires.
By F. N. Betts (p. 271). 9. Muscicapa westermanni indochinensis—A sy-
-nonym of 17. w. australorientis. By S. Dillon Ripley (p. 272). 10. A new
bird for India— Wontifringilla davidiana potanini (Sushkin). By Col. R.
Meinertzhagen (p. 273). 11. The Indian Cuckoo—Cuculus micropterus
micropterus—in Ceylon. By W.W.A. Phillips (p. 274). 12. A granivor-
ous Green Pigeon. By B. Subbiah Pillay (p. 275). 13. The Great Indian
Bustard. By Farid H. B. Tyabji(p. 276). 14. Overwintering of the Chukar
Partridge ( dlectoris graeca) in Nevada, U.S.A. (With a photo). By Glen C.
Christensen (p. 277). 15. Arrival dates of Fantail and Pintail Snipe in
Burma. By J. C. Higgins (p. 280). 16. Extermination of snakes upsets
balance of nature. By E. P. Gee (p. 280). 17. Extension of range of the
fish Rasbo;a labiosa (Mukerji). By M. R. Ranade (p. 281).. 18. Growth of
Catla in tanks. (With a photo). By C. V. Kulkarni (p. 282). 19. A
remarkable case of albinism in the Freshwater Eel, Anguilla bengalensis
Gray. By S. Jones and V. R. Pantulu (p. 285). 20. Murrel vs. Cobra, By
B. Subbiah Pillay (p. 287). 21. Taste or smell in Salmon. By Lt.-Col.
R. W. Burton (p. 287). 22. The Mani-7al of the Chilka Lake—A special net
for Beloniform Fishes. (Wzth a plate). By S. Jones and K. H. Sujansin-
gani (p. 288). 23. On the development and parental care in the Potamonid
Crab, Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) jacquemontii (Rathbun). (With four
text figures). By P. 1. Chackoand S, Thyagarajan (p. 289). 24. A note
on the Parasitic [sopod Cymothoa eremita Bruennich. (With two teat
figures). By G.K. Kuriyan (p. 291). 25. An unusual royal chamber with
two kings and two queens in the Indian Mound-building Termite, Odon-
totermes obesus (Rambur) [Isoptera: Family Termitidae]. (With a plate).
By M. L. Roonwal and S. D. Gupta (p. 293). 26. On an interesting
association of Ophiuroids, Fish and Crab with the Jellyfish Ahopzlema his-
pidum. (With a plate). By N. K. Panikkar and R.R. Prasad (p. 295).
27. An unusual inflorescence of Moringa oleitera Lamk. (With a photo).
By M. S. Chandrasekhar. (p. 296). 28. Geological landmarks in Bombay
and Salsette. (With a photo). By R. N. Sukheshwala (p. 297). 29. Glean-
ings (p. 299).
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE
YEAR ENDING 31ST DECEMBER 1951
Tur HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1951 a.
APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARIES’ KEPORT COVERING THE
PERIOD JANUARY TO JULY 1952 Baa
STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
CATALOGUE OF BOOKS IN THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY. PART VII—NaTuURAL
HISTORY
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING IN INDIA AND THE
EHast—ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA, .. Are woe see
ERRATA
PAGB
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
1952 VoL. 5l No. 1
THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES
AND NATIONAL PARKS
BY
E. P. GEE, M.A., C.M.Z.S.
{IVith four plates)
CONTENTS
PaGEs
INTRODUCTION 1
NATIONAL PARKS IN OTHER COUNTRIES 3
(1) BRITAIN 3
(2) vU.s.a. 4
(3) AFRICA 5)
(4) CEYLON 6
_NaTIONAL Parks IN INDIA 6
(1) UTTAR PRADESH 6
(2) BOMBAY q
(3) MYSORE 8
(4) TRAVANCORE-COCHIN 8
(5) ASSAM 8
(6) KASHMIR 9
A NationaL Park Poricy ror Inpia Se Be ats ae: 9
(1) EXPLOITATION aa ae ag a ay 10
(2) INTERFERENCE WITH NATURE ane 4a Jes ese 12
CONCLUSION abe ee ae a et es 15
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ag a = it te 17
REFERENCES cee fis ae oe oa =) 17
INTRODUCTION
The gradual extermination of wild life in India has now reached
a stage when it is of the utmost importance that the exact status of
wild life sanctuaries should be reviewed, and the feasibility of
creating national parks considered. The administration of these sanc-
tuaries, formerly ‘game. reserves’, has up-to-date been entirely in
the hands of the Forest Department, under whose jurisdiction they
naturally fall.
2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Here it should be stressed that a strong, independent and separate
department, adequately officered by men of sound training and a
natural aptitude for the work in hand, is the best means of ensuring
the really successful organization .and administration of India’s wild
life sanctuaries and national parks. The possibility of some State,
perhaps Bombay, succeeding in creating and financing a separate Wild
Life Department should not altogether be ruled out.
But while it would be eminently desirable to form a separate and
independent ‘Wild Life Department’ to control the management of
all sanctuaries containing valuable wild life, shortage of funds and
personnel as well as other considerations may render it necessary that,
for the present at any rate, the State Forest Departments should
continue to administer these sanctuaries. Strengthened by supple-
mentary staff to perform the extra supervisory duties entailed by the
preservation of wild life, and with the necessary directives from the
Central and State Governments, it should not be impossible for the
State Forest Departments to perform effectively the task of wild life
conservation in addition to their other work. By this system the
problems of dual control are eliminated, and the difficulties of a sepa-
rate Wild Life Department working alongside the Forest Department
with inevitable duplications will not arise.
It is sometimes difficult, however, to reconcile the functions of the
Forest Department, which might seek to exploit the timber and other
revenue-producing resources of the forests, with measures dictated by
the necessity of preserving intact places of great faunal and scenic
value. With this difficulty in view, a step forward has recently been made
by the proposal to create Wild Life Advisory Committees to advise State
Governments on measures to be adopted for the preservation and
control of wild life, and for the creation of national parks.
A start has already been made at the Centre by the constitution of
a Central Board for Wild Life, presumably to advise the Central and
State Governments, to coordinate measures and to collect information
and the like. Each State in turn will, it is hoped, form its own com-
mittee to advise the State Government, as at the Centre. As these
committees will consist of non-officials as well as officials, the personnel
would be properly representative of the people of the country and its
best interests. |
It is to be hoped that each important State of the Indian Union
will be able to create the post of ‘Wild Life Warden’ or ‘Wild Life
Officer’. This person should be of a status not lower than that of
a Divisional Forest Officer, and not under any D.F.O. but responsible
to the head of the Government Department himself. It would be an
advantage if he resided at the main, sanctuary or national park of the
State, and not at the city headquarters of the Government.
There is some uncertainty in certain circles as to whether the utili-
zation of forest and other resources is permissible within a sanctuary or
national park. It will soon be the duty of Wild Life Advisory Com-.
mittees in India to make decisions on this point, and to advise their
Governments on all matters pertaining to sanctuaries and national parks.
With the object of resolving doubts, avoiding controversies and making”
the decisions of Advisory Committees easier, it is necessary to examine’
carefully the different aspects of sanctuary and park management and’
INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES & NATIONAL PARKS 3
their possible good or bad effects on wild life in relation to the country’s
interests. Measures for the preservation of wild life in general and
matters relating to finance are beyond the scope of this paper, and
have therefore not been dealt. with.
The exploitable resources of India’s existing or potential national
parks include timber, fuel, thatch, building posts, cane, grazing and
fodder ; mineral resources; water for hydro-electric schemes; catching
of wild animals such as elephant and rhinoceros; and fishing. There
are in India two viewpoints on this question: one is that the sanctu-
aries and national parks should be entirely sacrosanct, and that no
form of exploitation or interference would be justifiable under any
circumstances. And the other viewpoint is that this source of revenue
should be tapped and the bulk of it utilized for the upkeep of the park
concerned. Bas
An analysis of the experiences of other countries in this matter
would not be out of place here, and might even be of some assistance
to us in India in the conservation of our rich and varied wild life and
in the management of the places in which it is found.
NATIONAL PARKS IN OTHER COUNTRIES
(1) Britain. Owing to the comparative absence of wild animal
life in Britain, the national parks of that country take on a mainly
scenic character. They are usually ‘areas of outstanding natural
beauty’. Perhaps the best general definition of Britain’s national
parks is that given by John Dower: ‘An extensive area of beautiful
and relatively wild country in which, for the nation’s benefit and
by appropriate national decision and action, (a) the characteristic
landscape beauty is strictly preserved, (b) access and facilities for
public open-air enjoyment are amply provided, {c) wild life and buildings
and places of architectural and historic interest are suitably pro-
tected, while (d) established farming use is effectively maintained.’
Established farming, in other words agricultural exploitation, 1s active-
ly encouraged, because much of the beauty of rustic Britain is actually
due to the handiwork of farmers and others.
The machinery devised by the National Parks Commission under
the 1949 Act ensures that in national parks and other chosen areas
‘the defacement of the countryside can be prevented unless there are
overriding reasons to the contrary. Such reasons, before being accept-
ed, will have to be given the closest consideration by all concerned.°
Very few of the areas proposed as national parks in Britain hold
valuable timber forests. In Britain national parks are proposed by
the National Parks Commission, constituted under the Act of 1949,
and proposals are laid before Parliament. An actual national park
is planned and controlled by the County Council of the county in which
it lies; but a proportion of the members of local planning authorities.
are nominated by the Minister of Town and Country Planning, to
ensure that wider and national interests are not overlooked. Grants
of money are made from the national exchequer for national park
development. The fifth national park, on the Pembrokeshire coast of
Wales, was established in March 1952.
In. 1949 the Nature Conservancy was set up by Royal Charter,
and the first- nature reserve under its jurisdiction was established in
4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
November 1951—an area of 10,450 acres at Beinn Eighe in Scotland.
Nature reserves were clearly defined by the London Convention for
the Protection of African Fauna and Flora of 1933, and are areas
of natural history interest placed under public control but closed to
all forms of human activity except by special permission.
In addition, ‘The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest
or Natural Beauty’ has existed since 1907, and owns and preserves
a great number of places of exceptional interest and beauty for the
enjoyment of the people.
(2) U.S. America. Inthe U.S.A., a very much larger country,
the national parks are vastly more extensive and on a much grander
scale. They are mainly ‘primeval’ and scenic in character, and are
created by Acts of Congress. They are usually ‘Areas of national
significance distinguished by superlative natural scenery, set aside
for preservation as nearly as possible in unimpaired condition and
dedicated to the use and inspiration of the people.’
With regard to commercial exploitation, the National Park System
advocates ‘Protection of resources that are now being used for their
highest purpose—the inspiration and enjoyment of the American
people—against any commercial exploitation that cannot be justified
on the basis of need so pressing that the economic stability of the
country, or its existence, would be endangered unless such use were
permitted.’ When there was an effort in the U.S.A. to legislate for
the reduction of the r1ooo square mile Olympic National Park so
that the forest resources could be tapped, Secretary Krug declared:
‘I am convinced that such forest as that which gives Olympic National
Park such outstanding distinction must be preserved, if future genera-
tions of America are to have the privilege of savouring fully and
deeply its wilderness grandeur.
Many of America’s national parks contain timber forests, and
these are ‘kept in their natural condition as far as possible’. ‘Treat-
ment of forest stands is under the supervision of expert foresters.
There are many great waterfalls, but they are not used for power, as
there are more than enough waterfalls outside the parks to supply
the power needs of the country. Wild life is carefully controlled, and
the numbers of hoofed animals kept within the limits of the available
grazing, surplus animals being destroyed or removed where necessary.
These national parks are managed in a way that ‘developments in
the parks and nronuments shall be limited to those needed to accom-
modate the public and to permit visitors to obtain the fullest measure
of enjoyment of those features that give distinction to the areas. <A
corollary is that these developments shall intrude as little as possible
upon the natural scene, particularly if it be one of the extraordinary
quality’. Efforts are being made to reduce the existing grazing cover-
ed by permits, and to eliminate the private holdings within the National
Park System. In all cases, the ultimate interests of the people of
the whole country are taken into account, and this is illustrated by
the measures taken to reduce the area of the 1289 square mile Joshua
Tree Monument. In this park a third of the area was to be relinquished,
in order ‘to consolidate and retain the lands important for their rare
desert flora, scenic and geological interest; and to delete lands in
INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES & NATIONAL PARKS &
which mineral values are believed to outweigh those for which they
were Originally included in the monument’, This reduction in size was
to have the effect both of simplifying administration by releasing for
mining lands better suited for that use, and of preserving inviolate
the sanctity of the monument against outside exploitation.
National parks in the U.S.A. are entirely national in character,
. being managed not by States but by the National Park Service, which
is part of the Department of the Interior of the Federal Government.
They are financed entirely by the Federal Government.
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service was established in
June 1940 by consolidation of the former Bureau of Biological Survey
and the Bureau of Fisheries, both of which agencies were transferred
at that time to the Department of the Interior. It is charged with
the enforcement of all federal laws concerning wild life, provides tech-
nical advice and conducts research and so on.
The Forest Service is responsible for the management of all national
forest resources including wild life. Through its Division of Wild Life
Management, it co-operates closely with Federal and State agencies
in the enforcement of game laws and in the development of suitable wild
life habitats.
(3) Africa. In the Union of South Africa and in East and
Central Africa the national parks are mainly faunal. The most famous.
of these is the 8000 square mile Kruger National Park of the north-
eastern Transvaal. This is under the National Park Board of Trustees.
of South Africa, and is probably the best known show-place for wild
life in the world.
In Kenya the objects of the Royal National Parks have been
admirably expressed by the Trustees in their recent report: ‘National
parks have been established in Kenya in the nature of a National
Trust, under authority of an ordinance, for the preservation of wild
animal life, wild vegetation, and objects of aesthetic, geological, pre-
historic, archaeological, historical or other scientific interest. We
recognise that as Trustees we have two main duties. The first duty is
clearly to preserve and safeguard all objects within a national park,
whether animate or inanimate, and as far as possible, to ensure that
the places forming this trust will remain unimpaired for the benefit
of future generations. Our second main duty is to develop our
national parks for the interest, advantage and enjoyment of the general
public. These two tasks are frequently in conflict, for the preservation
of any area would be greatly simplified by excluding all visitors from:
it, and we have continually to find a satisfactory balance between the
two. In this endeavour our decisions must naturally be influenced
more by the requirements of the future than by the immediate and’
often unjustified demands of one generation.’
As in the case of the U.S.A., the national parks of Africa are
usually vast in size... With the exception of the Serengeti National
Park of Tanganyika they do not contain much exploitable timber
forest or other resources; in fact the Tsavo National Park was
‘what remained after every conceivable interest in Kenya had the
opportunity of rejecting it’. And even now the possibility of pros-
pecting and tapping the mineral resources of this park has not been
6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEVY, Vol. 51
entirely ruled out under the terms of the National Parks Ordinance.
In the event of valuable minerals being found, it is possible that ‘the
economic claims for the production of minerals would probably prevail’
over the claims of game preservation, though the answer might be
found in an alteration of the boundaries of the park. The extensive
area of this 8000 square mile national park would easily permit of this.
With regard to the recently created Mt. Kenya and Aberdare
National Parks, it appears that certain powers relating to forest
management, water resources and fish conservation have been reserved
for the Forest Department. It will be interesting in later years to
see how this system of dual control works out in these mountain
national parks, and whether the national park system in Kenya can
succeed in withstanding ‘the changing demands of economic develop-
ment, and the changing policies of Government Departments’.
(4) Ceylon. Of all Asian countries Ceylon is probably the
foremost in the field of wild life conservation. Her Game and Fauna
Protection Society has for many years. been doing in an unofficial
capacity very largely what is visualized as the functions of the pro-
posed State Advisory Committees in India.
In Ceylon the various categories of wild life sanctuaries are clearly
distinguished. National reserves are divided into three kinds: (a)
strict natural reserves, e.g. Yala (149 square miles), Wasgomuwa
{112 square miles) and others; (b) national parks, e.g. Yala (60 square
miles), Rohuna (53 square miles) and Wilpattu (212 square miles) ;
and (c) intermediate zones, e.g. Wilpattu South (27 square miles),
Yala East {69 square miles) and others, Entry on permit is allowed into
the national parks and intermediate zones: shooting on permit is allowed,
under strict control, in the intermediate zones. In addition to these
national reserves there are a number of conservation areas, or sanc-
tuaries, mainly for the preservation of birds.
NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA
Though there are a great many sanctuaries in India for the pre-
servation of wild life, and many more reserved forests in which shoot-
ing of game is controlled by law (officially, at least), the concept of
national parks is still in its infancy. Nonetheless there is in India
a clear distinction between a wild life sanctuary and a national park.
Sanctuaries are formed by State Forest Departments and proclaimed
as such in Gazette Notifications, and can therefore be altered or abolish-
ed in a similar manner; though in actual practice substantial changes
are not usually made in sanctuaries without the sanction of the Ministers
concerned. National parks, on the other hand, are created by Acts
of the State Legislatures, and therefore possess the same degree of
permanency as in other countries. .
Here it should be mentioned that under the new Constitution of
the Indian Union all powers regarding legislation for the protection
of wild animals and birds are vested in the State Governments. The
Centre will only encourage, advise, assist, co-ordinate and so on.
(1) Uttar Pradesh. The chief national park in India in
existence at present is the Hailey National Park of. Uttar Pradesh,
PLATE I
JouRN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.
A scene in the Hailey National Park, Uttar Pradesh.
F. W. Champion
Hailey National Park, U.P.
Cheetal.
JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II
Annual burning off of elephant grass. Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary,
Assam.
E. P. Gee
A view of the Bhutan Hills. North Kamrup Wild Life Sanctuary, Assam.
INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES & NATIONAL PARKS qi
which was created by the U.P. National Parks Act in 1935, an area
of 125 square miles. This park is administered by the Uttar Pradesh
Chief Conservator of Forests under Article 6 (1) of the Act; and
though open to visitors is not much visited by the Indian public or
by tourists from abroad. Timber is extracted from it by the Forest
Department according to a working plan, by which mature trees of
certain species in particular blocks are felled in rotation. The revenue
from this exploitation amounts to Rs. 5 or 6 lakhs per annum.
In actual practice, therefore, the Hailey National Park is not
much more than a very fine reserved forest permanently closed to
shooting. The formation of a Wild Life Advisory Committee in U.P.
would be an impetus to the Forest Department in the management
of the place as a successful and popular national park. It seems
obvious that the decision as to which parts should be exploited for
timber, and which portions should be left untouched as ‘preservation
plots’ or unspoiled for their scenic and faunal interest, should not
rest entirely with the Forest Department, but should be decided only
after joint consultation with naturalists, scientists and understanding
members of the public.
It is improbable that the State of Uttar Pradesh would be willing
to relinquish the revenue from this park; and if a too strict adherence
to the principle of ‘no exploitation’ were to be insisted on, the park
would cease to be. A compromise, therefore, seems to be the only
solution. Either it should be possible to revise the Act, and to set
aside a smaller area of the greatest faunal and scenic value, and this
could be the new inviolate Hailey National Park in which there
could be no exploitation. The remainder of the area could then remain
entirely closed to shooting; and could continue to be worked by the
Forest Department, without much (if any) loss of revenue to the
State. Or else a clearly defined ‘permanent’ Forest Working Plan could
be inserted into the Act, restricted in order to give more prominence
to national park interests without loss of revenue. The primary object
of the park would then be to the preservation of the fauna and flora
and the improvement of the scenic and other amenities for visitors ;
and the secondary object the restricted utilization of timber resources.
Thus the park could continue undiminished in size, with the ‘preser-
vation plots’ legally fixed and sanctified for all time.
At present these preservation plots are each of only one square
mile in extent; and it would obviously be preferable from the wild
life point of view to allot larger areas of five, ten or even twenty
square miles as selected areas of natural vegetation in which the associ-
ated fauna could thrive undisturbed. An example of such an area is the
‘inner sanctuary’ of 22 square miles in the 310 square mile Venugopal
Wild Life Park of Mysore State.
(2) Bombay. In Bombay State some creditable progress. has,
been made by the passing of the Bombay National Parks Act 1950. But
the newly formed Kanheri National Park of only 9 square miles is lacking
in fine scenery and wild life. With its caves and carvings and close
proximity to the city of Bombay, it has the character rather of a
people’s park and a public monument. With afforestation and the re-
introduction of wild life which formerly existed there, it should in future
vears possess attractions of a wider appeal.
8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
A wild life sanctuary in the forests of North Kanara at Dandeli
has been established by the Bombay Government, and there were
proposals. to make this 80 square mile area into a national park. A
recent report, however, indicates that the area is greatly disturbed
due to continuous work, that wild life has become very scarce in
that district, and that after all the area may not be suitable for making
into a national park.
(3) Mysore. Although Mysore State possesses no national
parks, yet the Venugopal Wild Life Park of 310 square miles is a
potential one. Normal forest operations are allowed in the area, but
a significant factor in the management of this park is the maintenance
of an inner sanctuary or “sanctum sanctorum’ of 22 square miles,
which is completely sacrosanct. As a safe refuge for all species of
wild life, and as an area of natural and undisturbed vegetation, this
inner sanctuary should satisfy the demands of both naturalists and
scientists. 7
This park adjoins the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary of Madras
State, a small but attractive place of about 23 square miles. Here
is an opportunity for inter-State co-operation either in joint manage-
ment of a large national park, or in the effective co-ordination of all
matters affecting the two parks. It would be a very good thing if the
Mudumalai Wild Life Park could be enlarged.
(44) Travancore-Cochin. In this State the.Periyar Wild
Life Sanctuary is reported to be proposed as a national park. This.
artificial lake with its numerous creeks and surrounding hills is a
beautiful area of 260 square miles, and holds a considerable number
of elephant, gaur, sambar and other wild life. A hotel is being con-
structed, and motor launches are available for visitors to see the
sanctuary. The place is under a Game Warden, who is in turn under
the Forest Department.
Here again the existence of a Wild Life Advisory Committee is.
essential for the successful management of the sanctuary. The water
resources of the Periyar Lake are leased by the Madras Government,
who maintain the dam and other buildings there; but this ‘dual control”
does not appear to impair the value of the sanctuary as a possible.
national park—rather the opposite, as a number of visitors come from
Madras State to see the wild life so close to their borders.
In accordance with the conditions of, the agreement between the
Governments of Travancore and Madras, there is no exploitation of
forest produce, except a few minor items such as honey, cardamom,
etc., within the catchment area of the Periyar river, which forms
the sanctuary. A few hill tribes of aborigines uséd to live inside the
sanctuary, but these have been removed and given a colony on the
outskirts.
(5) Assam. The State of Assam possesses, on paper, the 800:
square mile Tirap Frontier Tract National Park. This is a remote
and inaccessible mountainous frontier region, but boasts of :primeval
scenic grandeur. It is mostly unexplored, and offers rich possibilities to:
enterprising naturalists, botanists and others. In fact its development
as a national park could with advantage be delayed until further~
PLATE IIT
“JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.
A herd of Gaur. Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary, Travancore.
ATENZOUCS OJIT PTIM SSULIIZeY ‘OUT ULIpUT yearyH
COD) “El “GI
AI SiVIg "90S “LSIE] “IVN AvaWwog ‘Nuaof
INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES & NATIONAL PARKS 9
surveys of the area have been made. It is part of the Centrally adminis-
trated North-East Frontier Agency, and its bordering on China and
Burma will present several difficult problems if it is opened up as a
national park. It was ‘created’ by a Gazette Notification and not by
any Act of a legislature. ;
Assam possesses two very fine wild life sanctuaries which are
proposed as national parks. One is the far-renowned Kaziranga Wild
Life Sanctuary of 166 square miles, main stronghold of the Indian
one-horned rhinoceros, and home of elephant, buffalo, swamp and hog
deer and other mammals, and countless birds of many species. Con-
siderable progress has recently been made in providing amenities for
visitors, such as accommodation, riding elephants, footpaths and the
like.
The other proposed national park is the North Kamrup (Manas)
Wild Life Sanctuary of 105 square miles, situated near the Bhutan
Hills. Here may exist slightly fewer wild animals and birds than at
Kaziranga ; but the river and mountain scenery is very pleasing indeed,
and all the attributes of a first-class national park are at hand. These
Bhutan Hills, in addition to providing the attraction of grand scenery,
contain the area to which seasonal migrations of many species of
animals take place from the sanctuary in Assam, and for this reason
their inclusion in the proposed national park is all the more necessary. In
fact if the Government of Bhutan would be willing: to contribute a strip
of mountainous and thickly forested territory adjoining the northern
boundary, then a larger national park, jointly controlled by Assam and
Bhutan, could be established which for a combination of fauna and
fine scenery would perhaps be unrivalled in the world.
In Assam a Wild Life Advisory Committee has actually been
formed, and is now. in the process of becoming officially constituted
and of having its functions and policies formulated. It will probably
consist of some 20 or 30 members, in order to include officials of all
the Government Departments concerned, as well as knowledgeable
and influential representatives of the public. A smaller Executive
Committee is proposed which would shoulder most of the work; and
a strong representative sub-committee will probably be set up for
each sanctuary. It is reported that an ‘Assam National Parks Act’ is
now being drafted.
(6) Kashmir. It should be possible to create in this beautiful
State, and perhaps also in the State of Sikkim and other States bordering
on the Himalayas, at least two or three scenic national parks of the
type found in the U.S.A. and Central (Alpine) Europe. Such parks
would contain the flora and associated fauna peculiar to these parti-
cular parts of the world at varying altitudes, as envisaged by H. G.
Champion, who also advocates a sanctuary or national park at a
suitable place in the western semi-desert zone. |
A NatronaL Park Po.icy FoR INDIA
‘The next year or two will see the foundation of a national park
system in India, in which the management of national parks may
be entirely in the hands of the Forest Department—advised, if not
10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
controlled, by Wild Life Advisory Committees consisting of both offi-
cial and non-official members. It is essential, therefore, that the
system should be founded on a sound basis, in which the interests of
fauna and scenery, as far as is consistent with the interests of India as
a whole, can be safeguarded for all time. - |
Geological, historical, pre-historical, archaeological and other such
national parks are not within the scope of this memorandum, which
deals primarily with faunal and scenic areas, priority being given to
those places which combine faunal with scenic interests. Those wild
life sanctuaries of India which have been tried out and proved to be
of success should be made into national parks as soon as possible,
in order to ensure that their status is legally secured for all time
before it is too late. In.the management of sanctuaries and national
parks, most activities fall under the headings of either exploitation
or interference with nature.
(1) Exploitation. It is advisable at the outset to define
the word ‘exploitation’. Exploitation can be used either in the bad
sense of ‘revenue-hunting’ and ‘squeezing’ everything possible out of
a forest into the exchequer of the State; or it can be used in the better
sense of sound forest management as laid down by, the principles of
good sylviculture. The first-mentioned type of exploitation by ‘revenue-
hunting’ should in all cases be rigidly avoided: such a practice would
hardly ever be justified at all in any wild life sanctuary or national
park. |
The problem with which we are concerned in India is whether the
forests of a sanctuary or national park may be ‘improved’ by forest
management, with limited selective felling and the like, or whether.
they should be strictly left alone according to the principle of “unspoilt
nature’. Some forests, it might be argued, at the lower altitudes of
a hot and humid part of the country are liable to become entangled
with weeds and creepers and crowded with dead and decaying trees.
At the higher altitudes, especially in South India, the forests are more
open and more closely resemble those of temperate climes.
It can also quite reasonably be argued that if forest operations
were confined to improving the forest by the making of fire-lines, the
burning of dangerous grassy areas, the cutting of creepers, the re-
moval of decaying trees and possibly the felling of a restricted number
of over-mature trees, then in many cases a sanctuary or park thus
managed might be preferable to one left severely alone to be at the
mercy of poachers. Primeval nature where beautiful and beneficial
to fauna and flora is a grand thing; but there may be occasions where
wild nature can be more beautiful and beneficial in theory than in fact,
especially in a tropical country. 2
But as a general concept sanctuaries and national parks should be left
entirely unexploited and undisturbed, presuming that by this the fauna
and flora will benefit. And it must be admitted at the outset that
the comparatively small size of such places in India, which do not
usually exceed a hundred or two hundred square miles in extent, is
strongly in favour of their being left entirely unworked by the Forest
Department. In many cases the forest operations could be done else-
where in neighbouring forests. The 23 square mile Mudumalai Wild
Life Sanctuary in Madras. State; where exploitation of timber is stilt
INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES & NATIONAL PARKS li
being done, is a case of a beautiful though small potential national
park Priel should be exempt from Cap OtealOn, and if possible en-
larged.
The arguments against exploitation of forest produce by the Forest
Department in sanctuaries and national parks are (a) that the strict
international concept of sanctity is violated, (b) that the value of the
original flora and fauna in their original state is lost to biologists,
(c) that the wild life is disturbed and {d) that poaching is done by
contractors and their labourers.
It has often been found in India, however, that if a portion of
forest is sealed off by the Forest Department as a sanctuary and left
entirely ‘undisturbed’, it soon becomes a paradise for poachers who,
in the absence of a strong and costly protection staff, can carry on
their profitable destructive illegalities with complete impunity.
It can be argued that the conditions peculiar to India may not,
as in the case of Uttar Pradesh, permit of an inflexible adherence
to the idealistic definitions of faunal national parks in the U.S.A. and
Africa as large areas to be kept entirely undisturbed by man, under
the control of a separate Wild Life Department. Some of India’s
sanctuaries and national parks contain valuable timber forests as are
not normally found in America and Africa, and their revenues wouid
be indispensable to the States in which they are situated.
If the extraction of this timber were to be done by selective felling
under rigid control and under a carefully prepared Working Plan,
with. suitable permanent preservation plots here and there where wiid
animals could retreat into perfect seclusion if they so desired, and
with due regard to the scenery of the area, it is theoretically feasible
that such a policy might not be detrimental to the wild life.
The actual disturbance to wild life in such places is not as great
as imagined: the entry of human beings into forests for firewood
and timber is a recognised part of the ecological situation of most
forests. R. W. Burton has described how he has met tiger, panther
and bear in blocks where contractors were working, and how a
tigress walked through the ashes of his camp fire. F. W. Champion
has also stated that deer would browse at night on the foliage of
freshly felled trees, and how tiger roamed at night the roads which
were full of human activity by day.
On the other hand, there is little doubt that such human activity
in the forest tends to make the animals much more nocturnal in habit,
and therefore less in evidence to visitors who would naturally want
to see them in daylight.
It would be necessary, of course, to demarcate carefully all areas
to be strictly and totally preserved in a national park and to specify
them in the relevant Act, in order to eliminate the danger from sub-
sequent changes in Forest Department policy. It would also be
necessary to include in the Act rigid rules against the carrying of
firearms, traps, poisons, etc., within the boundaries of a national park
by anyone except a park official duly authorised by the park authori-
ties.
It is well known: ay trees which have no commercial value are
often the ones which add most to the beauty of a landscape, and can
offer satisfactory cover to wild life. If, therefore, the Forest Depart-
12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
ment extract the commercially valuable produce of a forest there is
theoretically no reason why the wild life should necessarily suffer,
provided that all the precautions listed above are properly taken. It
has been found in practice, however, that it is extremely difficult to
take such precautions.
In any case such a policy of controlled and restricted exploitation
throughout a national park would detract greatly from its intrinsic
value as a national park, especially from the scientific point of view.
There can be little doubt that in such cases a preferable plan would
be either to eliminate exploitation altogether in the park; or else—
if the revenue has in previous years been realized and is vital to the
State—to divide the park and thus maintain sanctity in at least one
portion, with the exploited portion remaining as a buffer or inter-
mediate zone of reserved forest closed to all shooting, with the wild
life control in the hands of the park authorities.
It is evident. that each case must be carefully studied on its own
merits by the Advisory Committee, and decided accordingly. In the
case of any exploitation of forest produce already in practice in a
sanctuary of India, it would be only reasonable to expect that at least
a part of the revenue thus realized should be made available for the
- development and protection of the sanctuary.
A limited extraction of timber, thatch and such forest produce
would, of course, be permissible for meeting the actual needs of the
sanctuary or national park, should the occasion arise. This would be
a matter for the Advisory Committee or park authority to decide.
Another form of exploitation in sanctuaries in India is the issuing
of permits to graziers for grazing of domestic cattle. It is generally
agreed that such intrusion by domestic cattle is most undesirable. Not
only is it most- detrimental to the grazing potential of the sanctuary,
but also it is a means by which disease is spread with devastating
effect on wild animals. It should, therefore, be avoided wherever
humanly possible; and in any case compulsory prophylactic inocula-
tions should be done among the cattle in the vicinity of a sanctuary
or park. It should also be made compulsory for all owners of cattle
living in the locality of a park to report any outbreak of cattle disease
immediately to the appropriate authority.
A minor form of exploitation is the capture and sale of wild
animals to the zoos of the world. A few rhinoceroses, for example,
are caught occasionally in the Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary of
Assam. If the rhino population allows of this slight depletion of their
numbers, then the revenue brought in for wild life preservation, and
the interest created throughout the world in India’s rhino, might more
than outweigh any considerations of sanctuary violation.
Fishing is another kind of exploitation. Fishing for sport with
rod and line is permitted by most national parks of the world in their
rivers and streams. Certain portions of rivers could be reserved for
research purposes and as spawning grounds.
(2) Interference with Nature. In addition to the
utilization of sanctuary resources for revenue, another form of violation
of the strict concept of ‘undisturbed nature’ is intervention, or inter-
ference with nature. This may often be expedient, or even necessary.
INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES @ NATIONAL PARKS 13
One of these acts of interference with nature is the deliberate
burning off of grass and reeds in order to improve the grazing for
ungulates and visibility for visitors. This is very often advisable
and any temporary disturbance to wild life is probably offset by the
resultant advantage of the growth of young shoots of grass, which
are extremely palatable to hoofed animals. Rhino, buffalo and deer in
the Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary are to be found in burnt off patches
almost immediately after the burning, and seem to find even the ashes
of some edible value. It is reported that the cessation of burning in
the Jaldapara Game Sanctuary of Bengal has resultéd in an overabun-
dance of undesirable trees, such as khair, sidha, simul, and others, out
of place in such a sanctuary.
The time for burning should be carefully chosen: it is possible
that in some cases early or ‘cold’ burning might cause less destruction
to the young of wild creatures, especially of birds, and might also
reduce the risk of forest fires in districts where these are a danger.
If large areas are to be burnt off, this should be done as ‘patchily’
as possible. The preparation and early burning of firelines, of course,
are essential in forests where forest fires at a later period of the year
can be so destructive.
A point to be carefully borne in mind is that where some form
of human activity, such as the burning off of grass every year over
a period of years, has brought about an ecological situation, the
removal of that interference would be liable to cause a change in the
general situation which might upset the ecological equilibrium of the
place, with possible adverse effects on the wild life.
In most parts of India the reserved forests contain ‘Forest villages’
(as in Assam), or ‘Settlements’ of aborigines and “Revenue Enclosures’
(as in South India). These usually provide free labour to the Forest
Department in return for the land they occupy; and while the advan-
tages of this scheme for forestry work are obvious, the disadvan-
tages are equally apparent in those particular places where fauna is
of importance. It is reported that in the Chamarajanagar Wild Life
Sanctuary of Mysore, for example, the presence of settlers in posses-
sion of guns in the sanctuary has resulted in the depletion of the
deer. Only in very rare cases could their existence be justified in a
wild life sanctuary or national park.
Another act of interference with nature is the provision of artificial
salt-licks. This has been found beneficial to wild life in many coun-
tries: for instance in the Nairobi National Park of Kenya naturai
salt-licks have been augmented and others have been created.
The damming of streams and sinking of wells to ensure a supply
of water for wild life in the dry season is also often’ advisable. In the
Kruger National Park, for example, fifty successful boreholes and
wells have been established with windmills; and in some places drink-
ing points were crowded with animals within fourteen days of the
commencement of pumping. Dams with flat pan-like surfaces have
been sited in open country with good clear approaches. The local
ecology of the wild life thus becomes changed—to the advantage of
the wild life, as straying from the park in search of water is eliminated.
With regard to the damming of large rivers for hydro- electric
and irrigation schemes, this may be deemed unavoidable in the over-
14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. $51
riding interests of the State. Although there would be considerable
disturbance, though not necessarily destruction, of wild life during -
the construction of the dam and other works, the ultimate result
need not be disadvantageous to the wild life or detracting from the
scenery—as has been proved in the case of the Periyar Wild Life
Sanctuary of Travancore. Moreover the acquisition of the roads,
buildings and the like would be an asset to the park. If the water
of the Manas river in the North Kamrup Wild Life Sanctuary of
Assam were ever.to be impounded, the resultant lake in the Bhutan
Hills could be made to fit into the general scheme of a park with
satisfying results—both scenic and faunal.
It may also be necessary to interfere in the natural course of
events in the domestic affairs of wild life. For should any particular
animal or bird in a sanctuary multiply to undesirable numbers, its
increase might have to be checked in the interest of the wild life as a
whole. Where the ‘balance of nature’ has been upset by man, it
can be justifiably corrected by man. In the Periyar Wild Life Sanc-
tuary of Travancore, the number of sambar has declined due to the
increase of wild dogs. These pests must be ruthlessly destroyed.
Crocodiles in some places need to be kept under control. This forn:
of control has been found necessary in other countries: for example
in the Nairobi National Park 300 hyaenas recently had to be
destroyed.
In the Kruger National Park, the numbers of lion, leopard, hyaena,
cheetah and wild dog are kept within limits in order to foster the
increase of hoofed animals. In the national parks of the U.S.A.
the elk, mule deer, buffalo and others frequently have to be reduced
in numbers consistent with the amount of grazing available.
The same would apply to the flora of India—excessive encroach-
ments by water hyacinth, eupatorum, lantana, and suchlike destruc-
tive plants must be prevented if possible.
Conversely it may become desirable to introduce certain animals
and birds into a sanctuary or national park. It is strongly recom-
mended that in no case should a ‘foreign’ species be introduced inte
India’s wild life sanctuaries. The introduction some years ago of
zebra into the Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary was a mistake—fortunateiy
none of them survives today. There could be no objection, how-
ever, to the re-introduction of species which formerly existed in an
area. For example Indian cheetah, Indian wild ass, Indian lion,
brow-antlered deer and others could most advantageously be re-
introduced where they have now become extinct.
Afforestation is an act of interference with nature which may be
advisable in some places to remedy the much greater interference by
man in the past, which resulted in the disappearance of the forests.
The introduction of exotic species, unless their long-term effects are
known to be definitely beneficial to wild life, should be avoided.
Lastly there is a form of interference with nature which is usually
necessary in national parks and wild life sanctuaries—that of pro-
viding the means by which the place can be made accessible and
attractive to the public. It is essential that access roads be constructed
where non-existent, and that accommodation and suchlike amenities
INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES & NATIONAL PARKS 1a.
be provided. As far as possible these should harmonise with the
surroundings and general character of the park.
CONCLUSION
‘I have tried to represent factually and realistically the main facts
and problems confronting the nature conservationist in India today.
The chief lesson to be learnt from the countries of the West is that
strong action must be taken by a country to conserve its wild life at
an early stage before it is too late. With the exception of birds there
is very little wild life remaining in Europe; and even in the com-
paratively young U.S.A. several species of fauna have become ex-
tinct. or nearly extinct, owing to the tardy realization there of the
necessity of forming sanctuaries and parks.
The general concept and character of national parks in differer:i
countries vary to suit local conditions. For instance it has been
shown that the wild animals of South Africa and East Africa are
mainly outside the forests, in scrub and grassy country, and that
therefore a separate department controls the parks and _ sanctuaries.
there. In India, in a forest area, it is essential that one and the
same department should control both the wild life and the forests in
which it lives. Provided that the Forest Department of India, both
at the Centre and in the States, attain full understanding of and
sympathy with wild life, and pay due attention to the advice of
naturalists and others, there 1s no reason why this method of contrci
should not succeed.
F. W. Champion has observed that ‘There is no ‘sound reason.
why good forestry.and wild life conservation should not work perfectly
satisfactorily together provided there is a reasonable amount of give
and take on both sides . . . There is no doubt that the interests.
of good forestry and fauna conservation sometimes do tend to clash.
This is largely because there is only too often a lack of co-ordination
between the two’. In this connection, the broad principle advocated
by Keith Caldwell should be accepted, namely that in national parks,
when development seriously conflicts with wild life, then the interests.
of wild life should have precedence.
Another apt illustration of the differing circumstances in different
countries is the case of E. O. Shebbeare. As Conservator of Forests,.
and a great wild life conservationist of Bengal, he was against
a separate Game Department in India. Later, as Game Warden of
Malaya he was in favour of a separate Game Department. There
was nothing, he explained, contradictory in this: the main reason
was that all the sanctuaries in Malaya, unlike those of India, were
outside the forests.
India’s national parks will probably be mainly faunal, and India
must in due course evolve her own type of national park best suited
to the country and its peoples, and most representative of her fauna
and flora. In fact conditions differ very much even in the various.
States of the Indian Union; and varying factors relating to climate,
geography, politics, pressure of population, finance and the very fauna:
and flora themselves all have to be taken into careful consideration.
16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
It is not possible, therefore, to arrive easily at any detailed cut-
and-dried conclusions as to the exact lines on which the administra-
tion and management of sanctuaries and national parks in India
can be carried out. In all cases, however, extremist views are to
be avoided.
A few basic generalizations can, at the same time, be made ;
and these might form a broad foundation on which Central and State
policies might be based in India. In the first place, all Advisory
Boards and Committees should be widely representative of the public
as well as of officials, and should contain at least some persons with
expert knowledge of the subject.
Officers in charge of sanctuaries or national parks should be
specially selected for these appointments. And as the task of ad-
ministrating India’s sanctuaries’ and national parks will probably fall
on the shoulders of the Forest Department, the study of wild life
problems and wild life ecology should immediately be included in the
curricula of Forest Training Schools.
A great deal of publicity and propaganda needs to be done in India in
order to bring about a speedy realization of the need for nature con-
servation, and in order. to ensure the successful enforcement of laws
protecting sanctuaries, national parks and the wild life they contain.
In this respect it should be made clear that wild life includes flora
as well as fauna, since measures to protect forests and to prevent
soil erosion and other evils are more likely to find favour with the
public at the present time.
Actual ‘revenue-hunting’ should be rigidly ruled out where any sanc-
tuaries or national parks are concerned. Carefully planned and restricted
forest operations, improvements and ‘interferences with nature’ should
be permitted when essential, or when known to be beneficial to the
sanctuary or national park and its wild life.
Whenever possible, a national park or wild life sanctuary should
be separated from areas of human occupation by buffer zones, or
intermediate zones, of a suitable width, in order to allow animal
drift without repercussions on their numbers.
In all cases, therefore, when a problem arises as to whether some
specific form of activity or intervention can be allowed, the criterion
should be: Will the fauna and flora, and the, sanctuary or park itself,
benefit from this action in the long run? Left strictly alone a sanc-
tuary or national park may deteriorate: it must ‘be carefully watched
and actively managed by an efficient and knowledgeable controlling
authority.
India should not entirely overlook the advantages of placing any
important preservation area under the control of an independent and
permanent Trust, secure from temporary, political and other chang-
ing influences. This was advocated in the proceedings of the Inter-
national Convention held in London in 1933. The nomination of the
members of such a Trust, and of all Wild Life Advisory Committees
and of National Park Advisory or Controlling Committees, should not
be entirely in the hands of Governors and Ministers, but also in the
hands of well established societies, universities and such bodies. The
object, of course, is to appoint persons of eminence, independence,
experience, understanding and integrity to such positions.
INDIA*S; WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES. & NATIONAL PARKS 17
The ‘balance of nature’, especially the ups and downs of mamma!
and bird populations, must be accurately assessed, with the full reali-
zation that nature is never static but subject to constant change. The
ecologies of the plants, mammals and birds in each wild life sanc-
tuary Or national park all need to be intelligently studied: both the'r
inter-relationships among themselves, and the effects on them of all
the important factors in their environment. It is only on the result
of the study of the biological requirements of species, and of the biotic
communities to be preserved, that controls and adjustments in the
ecological situation of a place can safely be made by human agency
for the benefit of humans, without detriment to the wild life.
A matter of policy should in all cases be carefully and objectively
examined by the members of.a Wild Life Advisory Committee. Expert
opinion, whenever necessary, should be sought from biologists, ecolo-
gists, veterinary research officers and such persons, before any new
policy is determined or disputable action taken. The ultimate weil-
being of the sanctuary or national park and its wild life should always
be the foremost consideration. |
On all occasions when there is any doubt as to whether a sanc-
tuary or national park and its wild life will benefit from any spectite
action, then the general principles of ‘unspoilt nature? and ‘undisturbed
ecological equilibrium’ may be followed. In the discharge of their
duties great care needs to be exercised by the members of Advisory
Committees or Controlling Authorities, as these persons are respon-
sible to future generations as the Trustees of India’s valuable wild
jife.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following persons were kind enough to read this paper before
its finalization, and their suggestions as to its improvement are grate-
fully acknowledged: H. Abdulali, Salim Ali, C. L. Boyle, R. W.
Burton, Keith Caldwell, H..G. Champion, F. W. Champion, M. D.
(Chaturvedi, R. C. Morris, E. ©. Shebbeare and P.. D. Stracey.
REFERENCES
1. Brouwer, G. A. (1938): The Organization of Nature Protection in the
various Countries (Special publication of the American Committee for Inter-
national Wild Life Protection).
2. Burton, R. W. (1949): Wild Life Preservation: India’s Vanishing Asset.
I}. (BOW, ING tle SOG (EN =
3. Burton, R. W. (1949): Preservation of Wild Life in India. J. Bomb. N.
HH, Soc., 48 (2).
. o) Butcher, D. (1947): Exploring our National Parks and Monuments (New
7orlx).
5. Champion, F. W. (1951): Tropical Forestry and Wild Life. J. Faun.
IOS. SOG, Ge)
6. Chaturvedi, M. D. (1949): Preservation of Wild Life. J. Bomb. N. H.
Soc., 48 (8).
7. Cowie, M. H. (1951): Royal National Parks of Kenya
Director.
8. Drury, Newton B. (1946): The National Park Service—Annual Report
of the Director.
J Gee, BP (950): Wild Wife Reserves in India: Assam. “J. Bon.
IN, 16ls SOC, Gk) (UD).
2
Report by the
¢
18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol
Dil
10.. Great Britain (1950): National Parks and Access to the Countryside.
11. Hubback, T. (1938): Principles of Wild Life Conservation. J. Bomb.
N.. H. Soc., 40 (1).
12. India (1935): U.P. National Parks Act.
13. India (1950): The Bombay National Parks Act.
DAS SOP Pe Nis (Obi) ies ine aositonmeol am Nauune
World in 1950.
15> soandenberghs jean baum Loot) s
1EHOS, OCs, Bh (kiN,
16. Story, Isabelle F. (1941): Glimpses of our National Parks (Washington).
17. U.S.A.) (1946): Memorandum to accompany the Annual Report of the
Director of the National Park Service.
Ie}, WWaSof\s (CHI) 2
AS. Vincent, A.
Trustees. —
Protection throughout the
The Kruger National Park. J. Faun.
The National Park System—The National Park Service.
(1951): Royai National Parks of Kenya—Report by the
———
“hte
SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF INDIAN CULTIVATED AND
WASTE LANDS
t BY
M. D. Lister
I am including in this paper some bird associations which I found
occurring on both cultivated and waste ground during observations
at various places during the years 1942-1945. These were no organised
and exhaustive surveys, and the picture they give may well not be
comprehensive. I had to do my bird watching as and when and where
the eddies of the war allowed me, though by keeping as full a record
as circumstances permitted of the various birds seen, and in what
kind of habitat they were seen, | managed to build up fairly compre-
hensive lists for some of the places I visited.
I am dealing with both cultivated and waste land together, as
in many cases there is not such a very great deal of difference between
them from the point of view of a bird, and very often the two are
so interwoven as to be ecologically almost inseparable. Both are open,
with occasional trees and bushes. The waste land is usually covered
with grass and often weeds, even though the growth be only meagre,
while the cultivated land is either covered with crops, many of which
are low-growing and provide considerable areas of uniform cover,
or else are lying fallow or newly-ploughed. There are usually more
bushes and other similar cover on the waste land, and the vegetation
is often much more uneven than in the acres of similar crops. But
generally speaking I feel that the differences are not so great as they
would appear to be to the casual human eye.
I was under some disadvantage as far as the cultivated land was
concerned in not being able to find out for certain just what crops were
being grown; hor were representatives of anything like all the main
crops covered. The surveys made at Jessore and Dhubalia were in
every way the most thorough and comprehensive. By ‘waste land’
I mean, for the purposes of this paper, land which is not under any
form of regular cultivation, and the main characteristics of which do
not bring it into some other definite category, such as forest, scrub,
marsh, etc., though it may be used for the grazing of cattle or goats.
It is in fact a sort of residuary category of land left after eliminating
the other more definitely recognisable types of habitat.
DESCRIPTION OF AREAS SURVEYED
Note: The forest regions referred to are those adopted by H. G.
Champion (1936).
1. Ambala, Punjab. Upland portion of Indo-Gangetic Plain.
Dry Tropical Forest Region. Altitude about goo ft. A.S.L.
Period of survey: 6 July-1 August, 1942.
Cultivation: A fairly extensive, though indeterminate area was
covered, most of which was under crops or fallow, with a fair amount
20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Jesh, SKOCIUGI IN, Voll, Gil
of grass. I did not make a note of the main crops, but my impression
is that a lot of maize was grown. At that time there was a good
deal of flooding.
2, New Dethi, Punjab. Indo-Gangétic Plain. Dry Tropical
Forest Region. Altitude approx. 718 ft. A.S.L. Period of
Survey: 15 August-30 December 10942.
Cultivation: (a) Limits of vision along about 8 miles of the Agra
Road. Semi-cultivated, semi-waste land, the chief crop being maize;
this was harvested during the survey period.
(b) A section through cultivated ground about one mile long
on the north side of the River Jumna. I suspect that this was very
damp during the rainy season, as where it had not been cultivated
since the rains the surface consisted mainly of dried mud, smoothed
by water and already beginning to cake and crack. There were also
several small seasonal patches of shallow water, which were rapidly
drying up; these pools attracted Little Ringed Plovers, Sandpipers
and Pond Herons, and they were the regular drinking place of scores
of Ring Doves. Active cultivation was in progress on parts of this
ground, where ploughing, harrowing, etc. was being done with oxen.
J did not discover just what crops were being grown. This area
was covered only from October 16th to November 28th, while that
described under (a) above was observed several times between August
15th and November 28th.
Waste: This covered a considerable area, only about one
square mile of which was explored, and included the site of an old
village where the remains of the foundations of many houses and
small temples, tombs and piles of old bricks could be seen. The
surface of the ground was rough and stony, and in some places the
underlying sand cropped out. In a few places the top-soil appeared
to be alluvium and there some attempt had been made to cultivate
it. The largest cultivated patch was only of some ro-15 acres at most
and the crops seemed to consist chiefly of roots and pulses, with
a little intersown grain. It was impracticable to separate these few
small cultivated areas, and they have therefore been included under
_ the heading of waste land. T~wo channels, one very large, ran across
this area. Both were dry, the bed of the larger one consisting simply
of dry sand with a few patches of thistles and a little sparse grass;
the bed of the other being drying, caking mud, with here and there
a small pool of water, the favoured drinking places of a large number
of birds, especially pigeons and doves.
Most of this area was covered with poor, scanty grass with fairly
large clumps of bushes (? Zizyphus nummularia or Z. jujuba) and a
type of berberis, and thistles here and there. A fair number of trees
was scattered over the area, in some places more densely than others,
including Babool (Acacia arabica) and IJ believe Jal (Salvadora oleoides),
with a few palms (? Phoenix sylvestris). Some of these contained
colonies of Whitethroated Munias. In one part the dominant vege-
tation was a tall grass, some 8-10 ft. high, which I believe was
Sarkanda (Saccharum arundinaceum), much of which had already
been cut. This area was visited every few days on foot between 29
November and 30 December, and was explored fairly thoroughly.
BIRD ASSOCIATIONS, OF CULTIVATED G WASTE LANDS Zit
3- Okhla, near Delhi, Punjab. Indo-Gangetic Plain. Dry Tro-
pical Forest Region. Altitude about 7oo ft. A.S.L. Survey:
1 November 1942 only.
Cultivation: This consisted to a great extent of fallow and
ploughed land, with a little rough grass and a little very tall maize,
which was then being harvested. _Some ploughing and harrowing in
progress. Several small, shallow seasonal pools stood on this culti-
vated ground and these were clearly drying up. This area was divided
up by embankments.
4. Digri, Western Bengal. Indo-Gangetic Plain. Tropical Moist
Deciduous Forest Region. Altitude about 200 ft. A.S.L.
Period of survey: 8 March-8 April, 1943.
Cultivation: Only a smal! area of paddy fields lay within
the area I was able to examine. Some of these were already planted
with young rice and some were still under stubble. After a heavy
storm many of these fields were more or less completely flooded.
Waste: This covered a considerable area and included an aero-
drome at which aircraft were constantly taking off and landing. ‘The
ground was rough with small surface diggings where road materials
had been excavated at several points. Much of the grass was planted
in regular rows and I heard that it was cultivated commercially,
though apart from the fact that it had obviously been planted by
hand there was no sign of active cultivation, and I have felt justified
in including it with the rest of the waste land here. Elsewhere the
ground was covered with low sparse grass of poor quality, or in
some places merely by a thin creeping weed whose name I never
discovered. Several broad roads transected this area, through which
I passed at least twice a day, usually on a motor cycle or truck, but
sometimes on foot.
5. Jessore, Bengal. Indo-Gangetic Plain (Inland portion of
Delta area). Tropical Semi-evergreen Forest Region. Altitude
20 ft. A.S.L. Period of Survey: 14 April, 1943-9 September,
1944, with several breaks of a fortnight and one of a month
in September 1943.
Cultivation. (a) Paddy fields: May be described as the matrix
in which, in this district, all other ecological types are set. They are
of the usual type, small, irregular fields separated by low bunds, and
are flooded during much of the South-West Monsoon, often to a depth
of 18’. There are many small groves of palms (chiefly Phoenix sylves-
tris and Borassus flabelliformis) scattered all over the paddy land, and
the rice is planted among and under them. Most of my observations
were confined to the limits of vision from the various roads along
which I passed every day on foot, or a bicycle, or in various types
of vehicles, and a few excursions on foot through the fields them-
selves on shooting or bird-watching expeditions. The paddy land
was also fairly well sprinkled with patches of jute, but I never had’
an opportunity of exploring these.
(b) Mixed cultivation and jungle. 1 also visited frequently on
foot a tortuous cart-track some 2-3 miles long through a mixture of
2) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 51
cultivated fields and patches of mixed deciduous jungle. These were
so intermingled that it was almost impossible to separate their avifauna
completely. Much of this area appeared to be under paddy, but some
‘drier’? crops, such as pulses and roots, were also grown.
Waste: This area, which included an aerodrome at which
aircraft were constantly taking off and landing, lay chiefly outside
my regular beat and was only visited occasionally by car. It consisted
of an irregular stretch about } mile long and of varying width, of rough
grass with very occasional small scrubby bushes. During the rainy
season this grass grew to 2-3 ft. high over extensive stretches of
ground with a silvery-white flower or seedhead. I never discovered
its identity, but I believe it was one of the Cotton or Elephant Grasses.
A few small groves of Palmyra Palms (Borassus flabelliformis) studded
the area, without undergrowth.
6. Dhubalia, Bengal. Indo-Gangetic Plain (Inland portion of
Delta area). Tropical Semi-evergreen Forest Region. Altitude
about 45 ft. A.S.L.. Period of survey: 11 September-10 Octo-
ber and 2 November-11 December, 1944.
Cultivation: (a) Arable: Much of the land in this district seem-
ed to consist of arable land, much of which was fallow or ploughed.
I never discovered just what crops were grown, though by the end
of the survey period some of the recently sown crops were several
inches high. I have included in this heading several patches of rough ©
grassland, as they were difficult, and perhaps unprofitable, to separate
for ecological purposes. One of these areas, of about 10 acres, was
somewhat park-like in character, consisting of rough grass about a
foot high with isolated Mango trees (Mangifera indica) here and there.
The whole of this cultivated land was well broken up by rough hedges
and occasional small patches of mixed jungle.
(b) Paddy fields: There were one or two small tracts of paddy,
which was fully grown at the beginning of the survey but not yet
cropping, most of the fields being then either still flooded or very
damp. The crop had been gathered by the end of the survey period.
Waste: This covered the best part of 4 square miles and in-
cluded the aerodrome, at which aircraft were constantly taking off
and landing. It consisted simply of rough grass, with occasional
isolated small bushes. This area included a small Indian village,
but this was too small and rarely visited to warrant its being dealt
with as a separate habitat. Part of the aerodrome was still under
construction and a large number of coolies were working on it. This
waste land was visited fairly frequently by car, and the cultivated
ground was under very frequent observation on foot.
Ho 18 evililsy, (Calcunia, IBeinereill. Indo-Gangetic Plain (Inland
portion of Delta area). Tropical Semi-evergreen Forest Region.
Altitude about 20 ft. A.S.L. Period of survey: 11 December,
1944-16 April, 1945. |
Waste: This consisted simply of unused land covered with
short, poor grass, in some places of the tussocky ‘marsh-grass’ kind.
‘This area was used to a certain extent for grazing cattle and water
‘
BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF CULTIVATED & WASTE LANDS 23
buffalo. Here and there were small jheels which dwindled in size
towards the end of the survey period, and also several small ponds. Trees
in this area were comparatively few. This land adjoined the main
built-up area on one side. Visited occasionally on foot, and about
once a week I passed along one side of it in a car.
8. Monywa. Lower -Chindwin, Burma. Tropical Dry Deci-
duous Forest Region. Altitude about 300 ft. A.S.L. Periods
of survey: 3-6 March, 1945 and 30 March-2 April, 1945.
Cultivation: Open arable fields were very extensive and I could
survey only a fraction of them. Most of these appeared to be under
some kind of stubble and I saw very few under growing crops. Most
of the fields were separated by low bunds on which rough, thin hedges
grew. I spent a good deal of time here during my two brief visits.
INCIDENCE OF SPECIES
The following symbols have been used :
* == identified beyond doubt.
_t = probable but not certain identification.
© = possible identification.
_ The scientific names are mainly those given in the Fauna of British.
India—Birds, 2nd Edition. :
Cultivation
|
ho
me
G>
Ts
wn
Species
Am bala
Delhi
Jangle Crow
- (Corvus macrorhynchos)
House Crow 500 Hes lO
(Corvus splendens)
Tree Pie :
- (Dendrocitia vagabunda)
Jungle Babbler I eos | es
: ( Turdoides somervillez)
Common Babbier
. (Argya caudata)
Large Grey Babbler — ade [he The
: (Argya malcolmi)
Redvented Bulbul | xe
: (Molpastes cafer)
Whitecheeked Bulbul ~ 1 te
i (Molpastes leucogenys) L
Redwhiskered Bulbul
: (Otocompsa jocosa)
*
24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Voi. 51
a aa Ee
Cultivation Waste
Lye)
Ss
ea
lan
Species
Okhia
Digri
Dhubalia —
" Jessore
Delhi
igri
Jessore |
Dhubalia
Bally Sy
Stonechat : Bat | | | |
(Saxicola caprata) ae ete
Strickland’s Wheatear = 1. |
(Oenanthe opistholeuca) ina |
Eastern Indian Redstart real
(Phoenicurus ochrurus) |
Redspotted Bluethroat 5a
(Cyanosylvia suecica) ;
Brownbacked Indian Robin aes
(Saxicoloides fulicata) a
Magpie Robin cae
(Copsychus saulazis) il
Redbreasted Flycatcher Bealety fe i |
(Muscicapa parva) |
Indian Grey Shrike
(Lantus excubitor) |
Baybacked Shrike coofeallo lal ts
(Lanius vittatus) | |
%
x
cS
Burmese Shrike cot eet
(Lanius collurioides ) |
Blackheaded Shrike
(Lanius nigvice ps)
Rufousbacked Shrike Ren (eal
(Lanius schach)
Brown Shrike
(Lantus cristatus)
Little Minivet
(Pericvocotus peregrinus)
Whitebeliied Minivet ae
(Pericrocotus erythropygius)- |
Ashy Swallow-Shrike
(Artamus fuscus)
Black Drongo
(Dicrurus macrocercus) |
Whitebellied Drongo |
(Dicrurus oerulescens)
Blyth’s Reed Warbler i
(Acrocephalus dumetorwnz)
Beavan’s Wren Warbler
(Franklinia rufescens) |
Indian Whitethroat
(Sylvia communis 2 wclerops)
Green Willow Warbler =. |
(Acanthopneuste ntiidus) |
|
|
|
{ndian Wren Warbler
(Prinia tnornaia)
Starling
(Sturnus vulgaris)
Greyheaded Myna
(Sturnia malabarica)
Brahminy or Blackheaded Myna
(Temenuchus pagodarum)
BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF CULTIVATED & WASTE LANDS 25+
Cultivation Waste
|
| 23/4/5|6|8|2/4|5|6|7
Species |
Dhubalia
Dhubalia —
| Bal ly
Jessore
Fon)
Jessore
———
(Gracupica burmanica )
Common Myna 300 ff
(Acridotheres tristis) | |
Bank Myna 5 90e x | | | |
Jerdon’s Myna A. : |
|
(Acridotheres ginginianus)
Jungle Myna is | ee |
(Aethiopsar fuscus) Peas!
Pied Myna 200 | hele
(S/u1 nopastor contra)
Baya Weaver Bird aos
(Ploceus philippinus)
Rufousbellied Munia . wae
(Munia atricapilla)
Whitethroated Munia | 608
(Uroloncha malabarica)
Yellowthroated Sparrow 600
(Gymnorhis xanthocollis) |
Indian House Sparrow |
(Passer domesticus)
Wiretailed Swallow
(Hirundo smithit)
Cliff Swallow
(Hivrundo tlavicola)
|
|
Indian White Wagtail |
[Motacilla alba (dukhunensis) | |
Masked Wagtail ass
|
:
|
t
[ Motacilla alba (personaia) |
Large Pied Wagtail
|
(Motacitla maderaspatensis) — |
Whitefaced Wagtail |
(Motacilla leucopsis) |
Yellowheaded Wagtail |
(Molacilla citreola) |
Richard’s Pipit |
[ Anthus vichardi (richard?) | | |
Indian Pipit wes | | eles ai a
[ Anthus richardi (vufulus) | i |
seo | |
: :
| ipa Re
| |
ea
Tawny Pipit
(Anthus campestris)
Small Indian Skylark
(Alauda gulgula)
Short toed Lark Soe
(Calandrella brachydaciyla)
Bengal Bush Lark
(Mhratra assamic¢a)
|
Crested Lark ae Fs |
(Galerida cristata)
Redwinged Bush Lark ae ao | %
(Miratra erythroptera) | |
|
|
Ashycrowned Finch-Lark wool 8]
(Aremopterix grisea)
26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HUST. SOCIETY, Voi. 51
SSS
Cultivation | Waste
1/2 | s\4[sege 5/6|7
Species
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
}
Dhubalia
| Dhubalia
Jessore
Purple Sunbird
_ (Cinnyris astatica) |
Mahratta Woodpecker Be! te
_ (Leiopicus mahrattensis) | | |
Goldenbacked Woodpecker Send |
|. (Brachy pternus bengalensis) ie
Plaintive Cuckoo el |
(Cacomantis merulinus) | ee alae
Common Hawk Cuckoo Rie
(Hierococcyx varius) | Reafe
Pied Crested Cuckoo se es
- (Clamator jacobinus) fee
Koel 7 sect fa
(Eudynamis scolopaceus) E we
‘Crow Pheasant ea ise
(Centropus sinensis) [za ea (Pek
Large Indian Parakeet ee ted i
(Psittacula eupatria) Hey eat
Roseringed Parakeet pears |
|
_ (Psittacula kramer?)
Roller
_ (Coracias bengalensis) |
‘Green Bee-eater 500 |}
| (Merops orientalis) 2
‘Bluetailed Bee-eater me hiees|
(Merops supercitiosus) lel : Ba
Pied Kingfisher aed yall | ae
(Ceryle vudis) | | 4 al:
Common Indian Kingfisher | nese
(Alcedo atthis) Wet |b
‘Whitebreasted Kingfisher Soh |
(Halcyon SMYTNENSIS) ‘ alse sks
Hoo poe 600 |
(Opupa epops) | Bait .
Indian House Swift eee: fe bis
| (Micropus attfinis) Weebl [roche
Palm Swift | Pal call
| (Cypsiurus batassiensis) oa a ee
Common Indian Nightjar | |
(Caprimulgus asiaticus |
King Vulture ae |
' (Sarcogyps calvus )
eee Vulture Sabres et
| (Gyps indicus) ol
Whitebacked Vulture ean | >
(Pseudogyps bengalensis) |
White Scavenger Vulture Seralie|
(Neophron percnoplerus) — :
Lagear Falcon
(alco jugger)
Crested Hawk Eagle :
(Spizaétus cirrhatis)
BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF .CULTIVATED & WASTE LANDS 20
Cultivation Waste
Species
Digri
Jessore
Dhuhalia
| Jessore
| Dhubalia
Bally
Crested Serpent Eagle a | | | ‘
(Spilornis cheela) | |
Whiteeyed Buzzard-Eagle | |
_ (Butastur teesa) | |
Pallas’s Fishing Eagle meee etalk sie cal fe
(Haliaétus leucoryphus) | |
Large Greyheaded Fishing Eagle bee |
(Ichthycphaga wchthyaéctus ) |
%
Brahminy Kite
- (Haliastur indus)
Pariah Kite Bed lee |
(Milvus migrans) i
Blackwinged Kite 506 | ieee lea
(Elanus caeruleus) | eric lee
Pale Harrier ao| tT
(Circus macrourus) |
Pied Harrier bee | |
(Circus melanoleucus) | |
Marsh Harrier 506
(Circus aevuginosus) |
Shikra O00: ian]
(Astur badius) | lz |
Blue Rock Pigeon s00 |} Wer tlie le thet
(Columba livia) | |
Rufous Turtle Dove renee | Salps
(Streptopelia orientalis) teeta (Pe
Spotted Dove we ibeelb ad Lawes
(Stveptopelia chinensis ) te aes | |
Little Brown Dove Sars line, ive
(Streptopelia senegalensis)
Indian Ring Dove
_ . (Streptopelia decaocta)
Red Turtle Dove sah aie |
(Ocnopopelia tranquebarica) ana
Common or Grey Quail at |
( Coturnix coturnix) |
‘(Grey Partridge
(Francolinus pondicerianus) |
Common Bustard Quail aS |
( Turnix suscitator) |
{
Indian Button Quail 600 |
(Turnix maculatus) |
Whitebreasted Waterhen 4. s
(Amaurornis phoenicurus)
Bronzewinged Jacana at
(Metopidius indicus)
Pheasant-tailed Jacana ae
(Hydrophasianus chirurgus) ev
Painted Snipe
(Rostratula benghalensis)
Indian Stone-Curlew |
(Burhinus oedicnemus) |
28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. $1
SS SE Re FSS SSS Sesser
Species
Whiskered Tern
(Chlidonias leucopareia)
Little Ringed Plover
(Charadrius dubius)
Redwattled Lapwing
(Lobivanellus indicus)
Green Sandpiper
(Tringa ochropus)
Common Sandpiper
(Tringa hypoleucus)
Greenshank
(Glottis nebularta)
Little Cormorant
(Phalacrocorax niger)
Large Egret
(Egretta alba)
Little Egret
(Egretia garzetta)
Cattle Egret
(Bubulcus 161s)
Indian Pond Heron
(Ardeola grayt)
Cotton Teal
(Nettapus coromandelianus )
Lesser Whistling Teal
(Dendrocygna javanica)
Cultivation Waste
1]2|3]4/5|6]s 2\4/5| 6] 7
jl 7 7 re
| | | |
| | io
2 o_jeglgl_|_les
Bn) S| GO| Abe] &
S25 Rls se Elalse
SD | 4 om G'S )\SIY% a1 B Sis
TAO AS Alaa Als 1A ia
Paes
# | | hey foe
| | | = | |
Mier fest | eet
RL Ri] |e joe | Es e) |
hy ie
[ae ae a i | |
(alee! | | |
|e | | | |
eps
eae | |
| Pe se
| teal (ii lee
ery ais | |
Yt albsl es Pe eal
Pa es legal oe % | | Se |
| { | |
| ate lte ule cat
eR] oR) xl | x | |) |
{ | | {
(ems oom
| [ # | [saeSlhesyt :
| nae
i * [oa |
| |
|
REFERENCE
CHAMPION, H. G. (1936).
India and Burma.’ Jud, For. Reds,
No. 1. 1-287;
‘A Preliminary Survey of the Forest Types of
(New Sefies), Sylviculture Vol. 1,
STUDY OF THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE KARWAR COAST
AND NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS
BY
A. M. PAtiL, M.Sc.
(Department of Zoology, Karnatak College, Dharwar)
Part III: Moriusca (contd.)—Scapuoropa, PELECYPODA
AND CEPHALOPODA
(Continued from page 558 of Vol. so)
SCAPHOPODA:
Dentaliun: and Cuuduius are the two genera recorded from Karwar.
Their empty shells, cast upon the shore, have been collected.
Dentaliwm has a tubular shell, evenly tapering from aperture to
apex and is usually ribbed. In May 1946, empty shells of a species
of Dentalium (D. octangulatum ?) were observed on Kamat’s Beach
in large numbers. |
Caudulus is much smaller than Dentalium and has always a smooth
shell, which is narrowed in front and tapering behind. A few empty
shells have been collected occasionally in some localities.
PELECYPODA;
A great variety of bivalves have been observed in Karwar, but
unlike the Gastropods, these are collected mostly as empty shells rather
than live animals. It is interesting to note that amongst the bivalve
shells washed ashore, only one of the two valves is frequently met with
in large numbers, while the other is conspicuously fewer in number.
Further, the few live forms are usually represented by vast numbers,
the most conspicuous being the oysters and the clams. The following
are the families recorded in Karwar:
ZeNe uc ull dia e:
This family is represented only by forms belonging to the genus
Nucula. It has a small triangular shell, with the dorsal margin of
each valve bearing a row of low tubercles. Only two specimens have
been collected in Kamat’s Bay.
INGURChIeliay mindy aves:
A single specimen of Nuculana has been collected along with Nucula
in Kamat’s Bay. It is almost of the same size as Nucula, but is
more elongated. The shell is rounded in front and pointed posteriorly.
The surface of the valves is marked with fine concentric lines.
Anomiidae:
These animals possess a reduced foot and a very large posterior
adductor muscle. The shell has no hinge teeth and is usually asym-
metrical. Two forms are quite common.
30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Anomia achaeus (Gray) is small and usually found attached to,
oysters. The right valve is fixed to the substratum by means of a
calcareous byssus passing through a hole in it. The left valve is
saucer-shaped and covers the other valve completely. It is thin,
fragile and iridescent and is very often washed ashore.
Placenta placenta (Linnaeus) has been collected from muddy bottoms
in Baitkal Cove and Mavin Halla. The valves are unequal, flat, thin
and large (about 5 inches in diameter). In the young forms, they
have the appearance and texture of mica.
A PCUG Aes
Arca is represented by several species in Karwar, many of which
have been collected only as dry shells. The shell is thick and radially
ribbed, with the valves equal. The hinge teeth are small, numerous
and in a straight line. These animals are found burrowing in sand
or mud, especially near the rocks. The following are some of the
common species recorded in this ‘area:
A. tortuosa (Linnaeus) has the shell twisted and the valves dis-
similar. Only two dry shells have been collected.
ale complanata (Bruguiere) is more or less irregular in shape
and much broader in front than behind. Dry shells have been collected
on Kurmugad Island.
A. rhombea (Born) is a fairly large form, roughly square in
outline with a central umbo. The ribs are strong and coarse. They
have been collected as dry shells in large numbers on all sandy
beaches.
A. pilula (Reeve) is similar to A. rhombea in shape, but is thinner
and much smaller in size. It is also collected as dry shell in large
numbers along with the latter.
A. granosa (Linnaeus) is often washed ashore on the sandy beaches
of Karwar Bay, Kamat’s Bay and Binge Bay. The shell is longer
than high and is very thick and heavy. The ribs are broad and bear
prominent granules.
Mpyat tel ind dare):
The valves are equal with the umbo at the anterior end and the
hinge teeth are indistinct. Two forms are quite common in Karwar :
Mytilus and Modiolus.
Mytilus viridis (Linnaeus) has been found in clusters, attached to —
rocks by byssus, usually below the low tide level. These clusters
have been observed in Karwar Bay and Ladies’ Beach. Those in the
jatter area were very big and measured about four inches in length.
The umbo is right at the anterior end and the periostracum is bright
green in colour.
Modiolus differs from Mytilus in being smaller, broader and being
covered with thick fibres. The umbo is slightly behind the anterior
end and the valves are whitish anteriorly and purplish behind. The.
valves are thinner than those of Mytilus, and are commonly seen
scattered on the shore. Live forms have also been observed on the
rocks of Kamat’s Bay. .
MARINE FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST .& NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS Bk
Isognomonidae:
A single dry shell of Isognomon has been collected on the Karwar
beach. It has a small flattened shell with a straight hinge bearing
a series of horny nodules. ‘There are no hinge teeth.
IP TORMNGA GB é
Pteria is the only genus known and that too is found in: very
few numbers. They are small and attached to rocks by their byssus.
The hinge is straight, without teeth and is slightly prolonged on
either side. A few specimens have been collected from the rocks in
Kamat’s Bay.
O Siri SiG Aes
Ostrea (Oyster) is one of the commonest and important edible
molluscs of the area. Most of the people in Karwar eat oysters.
Many people collect it and a few sell it in the bazaar. On any
day, from September to March, oysters can be bought in the market.
The valves of the oyster are dissimilar and irregular. They are
found attached to rocks by their left valves, the right ones acting
as opercula. They are found growing on rocks in large masses,
especially in the crevices. When two large rocks are found near
each other, the oysters grow in such large masses in the crevices as.
to cement the two rocks together. Thus large boulders are prevented
from rolling down and are cemented together to form a solid barrier
along the edge of the water. There are several species of Ostrea,.
of which two can be easily distinguished ; they are:
Ostrea crenulifera (Sowerby) is a small oval form, found in large
numbers on the rocks. They are quite small in size, probably because
of being closely crowded together. The left valve is cup-like, the
margin being crenulated or folded. The right valve is flatter, thinner
and greyish in colour. They usually grow on the rocks that face the
open sea and are of very little economic importance, as they are small
and not easily accessible. i .
O. bicolor (Hanley) have a bluish tinge and are larger than the
former. Their valves have a wavy margin. They are the common
edible oysters of Karwar.
In rough waters the oyster shell becomes very thick. On Devagad
Rocks, which are subjected to very heavy pounding by the waves,
the left valve of the oyster grows higher and thicker, and forms like
‘ram’s horn’ have been collected. In certain crevices the oyster shells
have been observed to have many peculiar shapes.
In the estuarine area of the river Kalinadi, a large edible form
has been collected, whose valves have a thin margin. These oysters
are found in clusters on loose rocks. It is probably the backwater
oyster, O. madrasensis (Preston).
IP © SE tim Cle Ge
This family is represented by two genera, Chlamys and Spondylus.
Only a few dry shells that were washed up on the beach have been:
collected.
~ Shells of ‘Chlamys (Pecten) are rounded and prominently ribbed.
There are two conspicuous, nearly equal, wing-like expansions. on
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 51
(6)
Ww
either side of the umbo of each valve. These shells are usually
- beautifully coloured.
Spondylus has a fairly large and thick shell. The shape of the
shell is usually oval, but is variable. The valves are pinkish in colour.
The radial ribs of the valves are thin, but it is characterised by the
presence of irregular spines on its surface.
Pein neideates:
Empty shells of Pina have been collected in the dry areas of
backwaters. The shell is elongated, thin and shaped lke a long
acute triangle. As in Mytilus the umbo is terminal and there are
no hinge teeth. Its ligament is long and placed in a groove. The
young shells are thin and translucent.
byl on nla es
Luma is the only representative of this family and is very rarely
collected in this area. The shell is thin, white, almost oval and very
finely ribbed radially. There are small ear-like expansions on either
side of the umbo. Only a single dry shell has been picked up on
the Karwar beach.
Carditidae:
The forms of this family in general resemble those of the family
Cardiidae (Cockles). The shells, however, are thick and have stronger
radial ribs. The pallial sinus is absent and the hinge bears one or
two oblique cardinal teeth and one or two laterals. This family is
represented by two genera, Cardita and Beguina.
Cardita is usually found buried in muddy sand. :In Chendie Creek,
where people regularly dig for Meretrix, occasionally an odd Cardita
ig unearthed. ‘The shells are triangular and deeply hollow. They are
fairly heavy and strongly ribbed radially. A few small tubercles
can be seen anteriorly on the ribs. The colour of the valves usually
consists of brown patches, but is very variable. A number of dry
shells have been collected on the sandy beaches of this coast.
Beguina (considered as Cardita by some authors) has a longer
shell and in addition to the radial ribs faint concentric lines are seen
near the margin. The umbo is at the anterior end. The valves
are also coloured with brown patches. Only dry shells have been
collected on the Karwar beach and in Kamat’s Bay.
Um em ilimniucda ee
Only one genus, Diplodonta is recorded from this family. A few
dry shells have been collected on the sandy beaches of Kamat’s Bay
and Binge Bay. ‘The shells are small, thin, smooth and equivalvate.
They are globular in shape, almost white in colour and the hinge
teeth are very much reduced.
Tetlinidae:
This family is very well represented in Karwar and a large number
of dry shells and some live animals have been collected. The valves
are usually thin and hence the name ‘paper shells’. The shells vary
in shape and size and accordingly the family has been divided into
MARINE” FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST & NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS — 33
four genera: Tellina, Macoma, Gastrana and Angulus. But the general
tendency is to regroup them again under a single genus Tellina.
These animals live in shallow waters burrowing deep into the muddy
sand. ‘They possess very long siphons, which can be completely with-
drawn into the shell. The ligament is external and the pallial sinus
is large.
Lellina is the most common paper shell that is washed ashore
on sandy beaches in very large numbers. Tellina (Arcopagia)
capsoides (Lam.) is a fairly large thin white shell with concentric
striations. The posterior margin of the valve is oblique and the
anterior margin is broad and slightly rounded. ,
_ Macoma is also a white shell, nearly as big as the former, but
with the hind margin oblique and wavy, the front being more or less
rounded. It has a thin shell and is found in abundance on the Karwar
beach and in the Mavin Halla area. :
Gastrana has a slate-coloured, medium sized, thick shell with a
rough surface bearing coarse growth lines. The shell, which is smaller
than Tellina and Macoma, is more or less oval in shape and the hind
margin is slightly folded. A few shells have been collected “on the
Karwar beach.
Angulus bears a fairly small shell, slightly thick, with coarse mark-
ings of growth lines. Angulus (Tellina) rubra (Deshayes) is very
common in the muddy areas of Chendie Creek and Mavin Halla. They
possess deep pink coloured shells and bear long siphons. They usually
burrow deep into the mud, but many a time at low tide, they are seen
in large numbers on the mud-flats. They possess leaf-shaped foot,
with which they burrow and creep, .and frequently when occasion
demands they can take a surprisingly long leap. In Chendie Creek,
- usually at low tide, a very impressive and beautiful sight is observed.
On the mud-flats, in some areas are seen many peculiar worms with
the upper regions of their gelatinous tubes encrusted with sand and
shell pieces of this species. Large areas can be seen with hundreds
of these tuhgs projecting with deep pink shells of Angulus rubra
attached to their tips. In the same area, there are also found thou-
sands of ‘calling crabs’ (Gelasimus sp.) roaming about with their
unpaired large chelae which are also deep pink tinted. It is very
interesting to note here an instance of protective resemblance, where
the crabs are imitated by the tubicolous worms with the help of
shell pieces of A. rubra.
Donacidae: ;
Several species of Donax occur along the Karwar coast, but only
two are very common. ‘Their shells are triangular in shape and are
flattened from valve to: valve. They are easily recognised by the
presence of a ridge extending from the umbo to the posterior ventral
margin. ‘The foot is broad and compressed, and is very well adapted
for quick burrowing. ‘The siphons are short and stout and the inhalent
siphon has a circlet of pinnate tentacles. The valves are variously
coloured and the pallial sinus is deep.
Donax scortwm (Linnaeus) has a fairly large shell and the cons-
picuous feature is its well defined keel-like ridge extending from
the umbo and produced into a sharp bold point at the posterior end
3
34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY INA TU RAT SELES Das O Ciba erm Vole os
of the ventral margin. The surface of the valves is sculptured by deep:
concentric striations, which are often crested anteriorly and posteriorly
in unworn forms. ‘They are usually dark brown in colour and tinted
pink interiorly. They have been picked up alive on the sandy beaches.
of Kamat’s Bay and Kurmugad Island when the tides were receding.
A number of dry shells washed ashore have also been collected.
D, incarnatus (Gmelin) is another very common form and most
abundant in this area. They are small in size and possess thinner
shells whose surface is shining, and the colour varies from pink to
cream. They are very abundant on the wave-beaten sand-flats of
Kamat’s Bay, Karwar Bay and Binge Bay. When the tide recedes,
they are seen in largé numbers on the sand-flats, but they disappear |
instantly by burrowing into the sand one or two inches deep. They
can be easily picked up by turning over the wet sand. They live
dangerously, because when exposed by the receding waves they are
often eaten by the birds of the shore, when covered by water they
become a prey to the shore fishes and when buried in the sand they —
are devoured by the carnivorous molluscs like Bullia or the burrowing
crab, Matuta victor (Fabr.). Occasionally the fishermen collect them
for food. Unlike the D. scortum, the valves of this form do not have
a prominent keel and their posterior margin is almost vertical.
Mactridae:
Mactra shells have been collected in large numbers on the sandy
beaches. They have also .been found living buried just beneath the
surface of the sand between tide marks in Kamat’s Bay. Their
shells are triangular in shape, almost like an equilateral triangle, but
with a rounded base. They vary in size from about one-fourth of an
inch to two inches and the valves are deeply concave. The surface
of the valves is smooth or concentrically grooved and is usually.
cream-coloured. Internally they are tinted deep violet. Near the
cardinal teeth there is a large internal nodule of the ligament and the
two lateral teeth have raised edges.
Wem ern ada es
This family is the most SyRtane and the most familiar in this.
area and they are popularly known as ‘clams’, It includes several
genera, out of which as many as nine are well represented in Karwar..
Of them, Meretrix and Catelysia are very abundant and form the most
common edible clams of this coast. The shells of Veneridae are
equivalve, solid, heavy and usually oval in shape. The characteristic
feature of the valves is their three cardinal teeth and variable laterals.
They are mostly found living in the littoral regions, lying always
buried in muddy sand, some species especially being numerous near
about the rocks between tide marks. Dry shells are always found washed
upon the beach in enormous numbers. The animals bear well-developed
siphons and tongue-shaped foot. The shells are beautifully coloured and
often show ‘V’-shaped markings. The following are the genera re-
corded in Karwar:
| Meretrix has a solid, thick and fairly inflated shell, the surface
of which is glossy and polished. The pallial sinus is shallow. In
addition to the three cardinal teeth, anteriorly there is a tooth on the
MARINE FAUNA OF See COAST & NEIGHBOURING ISEAN DS 35
Ikestie, valve and a corresponding depression on the right. These animals
have short siphons and an extensible foot. They are always found
living buried in muddy sand. ‘There are several species of Meretrix
in Karwar, the most common and abundant being Meretrix meretrix
(Linnaeus). This is the most popular shell-fish of Karwar and is
locally recognised by the Konkani name ‘Thisri’. These clams are
found in enormous numbers in the estuarine area of the river Kalinadi
and also in the backwaters of Baitkal, Binge and Chendie. It is one of
the most economically important molluscs of the Karwar coast, as most
of the coastal people eat it. Every day for two hours during the low »
tide, it is a common sight to’see hundreds of men, women and children
digging for these clams all over the area. This is the chief occupation
of women and children while the fishermen usually go out fishing.
These clams are always available in the market at a very cheap rate
(a few annas per hundred). Heaps of empty shells can be seen near
every house, which is proof of the tremendous popularity of these
edible clams. The empty shells are further used in- preparing lime
which is a common commodity in the Karwar market.
Catelysia is another common clam which resembles externally
in Shape, colour and smoothness to Meretrix meretrix. The form that
occurs here is Catelysia opima (Gmelin), which is distinguished from
the latter by its slightly smaller size, thinner valves aml the absence
of the anterior additional tooth of the left valve and its corresponding
cavity in the right. They occur in the same area as M. meretrix and
are equally abundant and economically important. They are usually
found living buried in sand in fairly deep water, while meretrix are
found in areas that are usually exposed at low tide. In Karwar,
Catelysia are quite abundant -in the sand and mud-banks of the river
Kalinadi near Kodibag. They are sold in the market along with
Meretrix. ;
Circe is another genus of this family which is said to live in the
muddy sands near the low tide level along the open coast. A number
of dry shells have been collected in Kurmugad Island, Kamat’s Bay
and Binge Bay. The valves are white, flattened laterally and nearly
circular in shape. The umbo is flat, the pallial sinus is absent and
fine concentric lines form the sculpture on the surface of the valves.
Gafravium has been collected from muddy sand near the rocks
at low tide level in Anjidiv and Kurmugad Islands. Empty shells
washed ashore in enormous numbers have also been observed. This
animal has a thick fairly inflated shell with the additional anterior
hinge tooth on the left valve and the corresponding socket on the
right. The surface of the valves is both concentrically and radially
sculptured with tints of brown patches all over. Pallial sinus 1s
scarcely seen.
Sunetia shells have occasionally been collected on the sandy
beaches. They are small in size measuring about 14 inch in length.
They are longer than high with the surface of their shells women! by
coarse concentric ribs and tinted with reddish-brown colour.
Dosinia shells are quite common on the beaches of Kurmugad
and Anjidiv Islands and Karwar Bay. A few live forms have been
collected from muddy sand near the rocks of the Fisheries School
beach. The shell is fairly thick and circular in shape. The charac-
a
36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SKOXCINB IESE, 1iKoyl, Jail
teristic feature is that its umbo projects forwards as a pointed beak
from the upper edge of the valves. The surface of the valves is
finely concentrically sculptured and it is usually white or faintly tinted
with orange-red. The pallial sinus is well developed and the siphons
seem to be united. | 5
Venus shells have been found washed ashore in large numbers
and present a variety of beautiful colours. Several species of Venus
occur in Karwar, the most common being the small form, V. inibricata
(Sowerby) and a large one, V. plicata (?). The shells are usually
oval in shape with the umbo appearing like a distinct projection. The
surface of the valves is strongly sculptured both concentrically and
radially, the striations being usually crested.
Paphia is very common in Jsarwar, the dry shells being found
in abundance all over the area. The animals live in muddy sand
and they have been dredged up several times in the Karwar Bay and
they have also been picked up in Baitkal Cove. The shell is oval
and elongated with the umbo slightly projecting anteriorly. The
posterior side is longer than the anterior and it is narrowly rounded.
Pallial sinus is deep and only three distinct cardinal teeth are present.
The surface of the valves shows no sculpture but only faint wavy
lines of growth. The distinct feature of the shells is the handsome
marking of greyish-cream colour presenting interlocking patterns of
‘V’ which’ gives the beautiful appearance of either marble or
porcelain-ware.
Tapes is represented only by a few dry -shells- collected on the
Karwar beach and Kamat’s beach. The shell is thick, fairly large
and elongated, with the posterior end broad and rounded. The surface
of the valves is very finely radially ribbed, the posterior ribs being
more conspicuous than the anterior ones. The concentric sculpture
is also seen. There are only three cardinal teeth and the pallial sinus
is very deep.
C aie Gili Gl ace
This family is represented by two genera, Cardium and Lunuli-
cardia, the latter being very rare.
Cardium, ‘popularly known as ‘Cockles’, are quite common in
Karwar. They are found in muddy sand at a depth of about 10 to
12 inches. The mantle edges are red and soft parts of the animal
light brown. The foot is large and is said to be sometimes used for
leaping. The shell is deeply radially ribbed and highly inflated. It
is founded in outline and the hinge teeth consist of two cardinals and
two laterals which are alike in both the valves. Several species of
Cardium occur in Karwar, but Cardiuwm coronatum (Spengler) is very
common. It is easily recognised by its thick shell with strong crested
radial ribs on the exterior of the valves, but smooth inside. The
hinge teeth are stout and there are tints of pink colour on the edges
of valves. A number of dry shells are washed ashore on all sandy
beaches of Karwar.
Lunulicardia is another representative of this family, which is recog-
nised by a distinct keel on its valve. A single dry shell has been
picked up in the Anjidiv Island.
MARINE FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST & NEIGHBOULING ISLANDS 37
(Clie ital (Gl BLE
_ Chama resembles the Spondylus of Pectinidae in possessing irregular
processes on its shell. They live attached to rocks or shells by their left
valves. The valves are washed ashore along the Karwar beach and
KKamat’s beach and have occasionally been picked up. Their shells are
roughly circular in outline, the valves being unequal with the umbo
slightly twisted. The hinge margin is very thick and there are two
hinge teeth in one valve and only one in the other.
Psammobiidae:
This family possesses large shells, which are long oval, rounded
in front and narrowed posteriorly. The pallial sinus is very deep and
the hinge teeth are represented only by two cardinals on each valve.
Sanguinolaria anc! Psammobia are the two genera recorded from this
family.
Sanguinolaria (Soletellina) is found avin in deep muddy sand,
usually in the estuaries or the backwaters. They possess very long
siphons and are very quick burrowers. Large thin violet shells many
of them damaged, have been found washed ashore in the Mavin Halla
area. When alive, the shell is covered by a smooth dark brown
periostracum.
Psammobia is smaller than the former and only a few dry shells.
have been picked up on the beach at the mouth of the river Kalinadi.
The shells are very thin and have a very smooth shining white surface.
Myidae:
This family is represented by a single dry shell of Cryptomya,
picked up on the Mavin Halla beach. The surface of the valve is
traversed by both concentric and fine radial striations, the front
part of the valve being devoid of the latter. There is a small pro-
jection of the hinge margin of the left valve, on which the nodule:
of the internal ligament is mounted. |
A Wovicd i drave): |
The Karwar representative of this family is a single dry shell (right
valve only) of Aloidis, collected from shell-debris in Kincaid’s Bay.
-It is a small shell méasuring about half an inch or less in Jength and
it is strongly concentrically ribbed. It is roughly triangular in shape,,
the front part being rounded and the hind end more or ‘less pointed. :
IL, We iese @ weak wel aes
Under this family are represented two genera, Standella and
Lutraria, both being occasionally found in Karwar. There is a tendency
for including these two genera in the family Mactridae, but in this
paper they have been treated under a separate family according to
the classification given by Paul Pelseneer (1906).
Standella shells have been picked up on the beach in Mavin
Halla area and also on the Karwar beach. The young shells are
thin, fragile and more or less transparent white, while the older ones
are thicker and brownish-white in colour. The valves are long and
oval with only very fine concentric markings. The pallial sinus is.
38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
deep. The hinge teeth resemble those of Mactridae and there is a
deep socket for the large nodule of the internal ligament.
Lutraria shells are slightly thick, flat, compressed and quite
elongated with both anterior and posterior margins rounded. The
valves are white in colour with a deep pallial sinus and a distinct
spoon-shaped projection for the ligament on each valve. The upper
margin of the valve is approximately straight and parallel to the
lower margin. A few dry shells have been picked up on the Karwar
beach and Mavin Halla beach.
Solenidae:
This family is easily recognised by their elongated narrow shells,
‘beautifully coloured and opening both in front and behind. The
umbo is usually situated in the front part of the shell and the siphons
are short. The foot is well developed for burrowing and they live
deeply buried in sand, usually in the estuarine areas. Two genera
are recorded from Karwar:
Solen is commonly found living in the Mavin Halla area and dry
shells have also been collected in other areas. The distinct feature
of the shell is its shape, which resembles the blade of a razor, hence
the popular name ‘razor shell’. The shell is long, thin and rather
flat, with the hinge and the umbo at the anterior end. The dorsal
margin of the valve is straight and parallel to the ventral margin
and both the front and hind ends are truncated. ‘There is only one
hinge tooth in each valve. The foot is cylindrical and is used effec-
tively in burrowing deep into the mud. Solen is represented by many
species in Karwar, the most common and a very large form being |
S. truncatus (Wood), which is easily recognised by the strongly deve-
loped light brown bands.
Siliqua is represented by S. radiata (Linnaeus), whose shells are
very common on the shores of Karwar. Their valves are very thin,
transparent, fragile, smooth and moderately elongated. They are
usually undamaged when cast upon the shore. They are violet-coloured
with four expanding white bands radiating from the umbo towards
the lower margin of the valves, which gives the shell its popular name,
the ‘sunset shell’. There are two hinge teeth in each valve. A very
peculiar feature of this form is the presence of a strong ridge on the
inner surface of the valve, extending from the hinge teeth towards
the lower margin.
PinOlacdicdaes
Under this family three genera are recorded, Pholas, Barnea and
Martesia, all being found living as borers. Large shells are washed
up on the beaches and small live animals can be collected from pieces
of wood washed ashore. These animals are abundant in the Kalinadi
estuary, where they have been collected from pieces of timber either
floating or submerged for-long periods. The characteristic feature
of this family is that the valves are leaf-shaped and are covered ex-
ternally by fine toothed ribs, which are used for boring. The ligament
and the hinge teeth are absent.
Pholas is very common in Mavin Halla area and Karwar beach
where a number of dry shells washed ashore have been collected. A
MARINE FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST & NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS 39
few small live animals have also been picked up in the same area. The
shell is long with the posterior end tapering. Its colour is absolutely
white and it is brittle and papery. The dorsal edge is reflected over
the umbones and within each valve there is a short flat projection
in the umbonal cavity. A few large undamaged shells, measuring
about six inches in length, have been collected in Mavin Halla area.
They have been identified as P. orientalis (Gmelin), recognised by their
evenly spread prickly sculpture, stopping abruptly in the middle of
the valve and leaving a large smooth area posteriorly.
Barnea is very small in size as compared to Pholas, measuring
about an inch in length. Both dry shells and live animals from pieces
of timber washed ashore have been collected in the Kalinadi estuary.
A single dry shell has also been picked up in the Kurmugad Island.
The valves are short and broad with fine radial sculpture in front,
which gradually thins out behind the extreme posterior end being
smooth. |
Martesia is also a small member of this faeily, usually found boring
in floating pieces of timber. Sometimes a piece of wood washed
ashore may contain as many as hundred borers in it. They have
been collected in the same area both as dry shells and also as live
forms. The valves are triangular in shape, the truncated anterior
margin forming the base of the triangle and the pointed posterior end
forming the apex. The radial sculpture of the valves is similar to
Barnea.
2
PerediniGd a es
Teredo has a long worm-like body with a very.small globular shell,
covering only the anterior end of the animal. They are popularly
known as ‘ship-worms’. They cause damage to timber in the ship-
yards and also where timber is submerged in the sea. The smal] shell
is finely concentrically striated and is used for boring into the weod.
The siphons are very long and mostly united. Teredo can easily be
collected from the timber logs which are usually submerged in the .
Kalinadi, estuary.
Litjiiimigdae (Mrajeannclae)s
It is represented by Libitina, whose shells have been occasionally
picked up in Kamat’s Bay and Kurmugad Island. It is said that
they live in the crevices of rocks. The shells collected vary in
size from about 4 an inch to 14 inches. The shell is Arca-shaped, with
the umbo towards the anterior end. Each valve bears two cardinal
teeth and a distinct posterior lateral tooth, the anterior one being more
or less inconspicuous. The shells appear to be somewhat twisted in
shape and they show distinct concentric furrows. They are usually
dull straw-coloured with purplish markings.
AGiigas trim enlulen dearer:
Dry shells of Anatinella have occasionally been collected in Anjidiv
and Kurmugad Islands. The shells are oval in shape with a truncate
dorso-posterior margin, but not so pronounced as in Donax. The
valves are thin, white and their concentric lines are conspicuous. There
40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL LISLE SS OGLE aVOle eb
is no pallial sinus. The umbo is medial and bears a distinct inwardly
directed spoon-shaped projection in each valve for the internal nodule-
of the ligament.
eantuestonauelatecmaner
This family is represented only by two complete shells of Laternula,.
which have been collected in the muddy area of Chendie Creek. The
shell is oblong, very thin, fragile, colourless and transparent. The
valves are bulged and ellos inside with a wide gape at the posterior end.
There are no hinge teeth, but there is a small oblique platform on
which the ligament inoriktile is mounted. On the inner surface of each.
valve there is a very thin ridge running from the nodule-platform to-
wards the ventral margin.
CEPHALOPODA:
In contrast: with the other classes of Mollusca, Cephalopods are
very active free-swimming animals and can usually be collected from.
the nets brought to the shore by fishermen. They are symmetrical
molluscs bearing a_ sac-like muscular body and distinct head with
eight or ten arms and two well-developed eyes. In Karwar the
Cephalopoda are represented by the Decapoda or the ten-armed forms.
In these animals the shell is always internal. The following two:
families are quite common:
Sepiidae (Cuttle- fishes) : me
Under this family two genera, Sepia and Sepiella are <garexcanedl in:
Karwar. A few live forms have been picked up from the fishermen’s
nets and a number of dry shells, popularly known as the “cuttle-bones’,
have been collected on the beaches. The substance of the shell is
matnly formed of calcium carbonate.
Sepia is.a large, stout cuttle-fish recognised by the presence of a
narrow frill-like fin on either side of the body. The cuttle-bone is
leaf-shaped, stoutly built and composed of fine calcareous laminae en-
closing air-spaces. It is very thick in the front and concave in the
posterior region, which terminates ventrally into a prominent spine
or the rostrum. The whole shell is surrounded by a thin chitinous
margin. These cuttle-bones are cast upon the beach in large numbers
and are often used for cleaning window-panes.
Sepiella resembles Sepia andi is a pretty little animal. The cuttle-
bones of Sepiella differ from those of Sepia in being small in size and
in the complete absence of the rostrum. They too are often washed
ashore.
Loliginidae (Squids): gee
Loligo has occasionally been collected in Karwar. They have an
elongated body with a triangular fin on either side of its aboral end.
The shell is leaf-shaped like that of Sepiidae, but is thin and chitinous.
It is dark pink in colour and can sometimes be picked up on the
beaches. see,
4.
MARINE FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST @ NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS 4tf
=)
REFERENCES
1. Cook, A. H. (1895): ‘The Cambridge Natural History’, Vol. III. Mollusca.
2. Gravely, IF. H. (1941): ‘Shells and other animal remains found on _ the:
Madras beach’, Part [—Groups other than snails, etc. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus.,
Vol. V.
3. Hornell, James (1949): ‘The Study of Indian Molluscs’, J. Bomb. N.-H.
Soc., 48 (3 & 4).
4. Wankester, E. R. (1906}: ‘Treatise on Zoology’, Part V, Mollusca, by
ieee eelSeneein : |
5. Patil, A. M. (1951): ‘Study of the Marine Fauna of the Karwar Coast
and- Neighbouring Islands’, Parts | & Il, J. Bomb. N. H. Soc., 50.
6. Prashad, Bt (1932): ‘Lamellibranchia of the Siboga Expedition. Syste-
matics Part I—Pelecypoda’. Published by E. J. Brill of Leiden.
7. Subrahmanyam, T. V., Warandikar, K. R., Murti, N. N, (1949): ‘The
Marine Pelecypoda of Bombay’, J. Uni. Bomb., Vol. XVII, Part V.
~_
; (To be continued)
7
MORE BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASI AND JAINTIA
HILLS, ASSAM
BY
SIR KEITH CANTLIE, I.C.S. (Retd.)
This article continues that by Mr. Parsons and myself in Vol. 47 (3)
April, 1947. It contains additions to that list, a number being due
to Mr. R. Neuhaus who collected in 1948-49, and then deals with
the Lycaenidae. Although Lycaenids were taken around the old hill
station of Cherrapoonji in Cherra State and sent to museums, the first
large collection. was made by the Rev: W. A. Hamilton, Chaplain
of Shillong, employing many Khasi catchers in Cherra State. He sent
it to de Niceville who used it for the publication in 1889 of Vol. 3 of his
“Butterflies of India’. Swinhoe gotall families from the same catchers and
printed a general list for the Khasi Hills, in Zrans. Hut. Soc., 1893. He
continued to receive from them and a much larger list of Lycaenids can
be compiled from his references to the Khasi Hills in his volumes
published in 1910 on Lycaenidae in Moore’s ‘Lepidoptera Indica’.
Indeed any present changes from such a list would be due merely
to recent changes in nomenclature and differentiation. I collected
mildly but did not purchase Lycaenids until 1947 when I asked for their
catching through the Shillong dealer, and have examined the takings for
the Shillong dealer from then until now. In September 1949 the
smashing of my kneecap when collecting in the Naga Hills caused
a visit to England in early 1950 for prolonged treatment. By the kind-
ness of the authorities of the British Museum (Natural History), South
Kensington, | was able to use the library and examine the collection.
The purchase of the fine Lycaenid collection of Mr. C. B. Antram the
author of ‘ Butterflies of India’, who was in Cachar from 1910 to 1930
and who got many specimens from the Cherra dealer, the late U. Nissor
Singh, increased my stock. ;
2. The previous article described how the enormous rainfall hinders
collection in Cherra State and on the southern slopes of the district
down to Sylhet. I have in recent years made visits—a visit means
residence in a Khasi village—to Cherra State in early April, when rain
may or may not spoil the attempt, and have spent a month in October
when rain. is moderate. Yet the results were meagre compared with
those of professional catchers, even though the rarer species are very
few among the quantities taken by them of a few common kinds. Most
of these catchers live at Thiedding, down at 1,500 feet in the Umiam
river gorge where the hills rise very steeply to over 4,000 feet. Dowki,
the best piace in the hills for a visitor, véde the previous article, has
Lycaenids in plenty up to mid-June and again in September, but the hills
are all low and the species fewer than in the Thiedding area. The
Saipung Forest Reserve in the east of the Jaintia Hills should be the best
place in the district being virgin jungle, but it is hard to reach and lacks
paths for penetration. On the southern slopes as a whole, cultivation of
orange, betel nut, plantain, bay and pan is so extensive that the existence
of so many butterflies is surprising.
MORE BUTTERFLIES OF KHASI @ JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 43
Mr. St. John Perry of the Assam Civil Service has- given me infor-
mation about certain species in the neighbouring North Cachar Hills,
inked with the hill districts in the east of Assam and so with Burma.
3. The northern forests on the low hills along and to the west of the
Gauhati-Shillong Road are certainly inferior to those on the southern
slopes though rarities occur especially between miles 36 and 41. Now
a Reserve, they were formerly under shifting cultivation of cereals.
The rainfall is not excessive and my visits have been frequent. Doubt-
less if professional catchers lived there, species not found by me would
be produced.
4, in and around Shillong rarer eyenende can be found if one has
plenty of leisure, also on the high plateau. The woods at Mawphlong,
17 miles from Shillong, contain some rare species.
5. References are made in the notes to the Upper Assam forests.
The term as used here means the forests whether within or without the
Naga Hills boundary, lying mostly between the railway and the hills
northwards from Lumding to the northern boundary of Sibsagar
subdivision. It excludes the Lakhimpur District and Tirap Frontier
Tract forests. Dr. Norman of Seleng Tea Estate, P.O. Selenghat,
District Sibsagar, has done much collecting of Lycaenids there and
observation of their life-history, and has been most generous in sending
me species known to exist in the Khasi Hills but which I did not obtain
either at all or in sufficient number for study. My own visits to this
prolific area have been infrequent.
6. The standard taken for *‘ Rare’ (R) or ‘Not Rare’ (NR) or
_ *Very Rare’ (VR) is that of a person collecting for himself, but it has
' been influenced by the takings of Khasi professionals. ‘The class ‘ Rare’
must contain species actually common enough for the ‘ Not Rare’ class.
7. The numbering and nomenclature are those of the second edition
of Brigadier Evans’s indispensable book. Changes of nomenclature by
Corbet have been noted. The Hesperiidae portion of the book has been
superseded by Evans’s Catalogue of the Hesperiidae of Europe, Asia
and Australia, 1947, published and sold by the British Museum (Natural
History). Countries are given so that if any species or subspecies
occurs in Assam mention of Assam is made. ‘There are many changes
in nomenclature and figures of the genitalia of every species.
Nor RRCORDED IN THE PREVIOUS LIST
PAPILIONIDAE
A.3.5. Chilasa clytia clytia var. commzxtus Roth. VR.
One at Dowki and one at Laitera taken by Mr. Neuhaus.
A.4.25. Papilio polytes romulus
Female in vomalus form resembling hector taken Be Neuhaus at
Dowki. The form is rare in Assam but Mr. Antram tells me he got
a few.
PIERIDAE
B.6.3. Delias eucharis Drury. VR.
Mr. Neuhaus showed me a male taken at Dowki. No record known
of previous capture here.
4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
B,6.11. Delias descombesi leucocantha var. vasumetra.
Neuhaus took a female like the figure in Seitz of this Burma form.
B.20.1. Pareronia (Valeria) avatar avatar M. |
Moore in Lep. Ind, gives Cherra. It may exist on the southern
slopes though now extinct in Cherra State. See note in previous list
about Gauhati.
: SATYRIDAE
D.2.6. Mycalesis gautama charaka M. R.
Two pairs at Umran 2,500 ft. mile 41 G.S. Road, October and
November. |
D.2.9. Mycalesis perseus blasius F. NR.
Overlooked before. WSF May, DSF October, Dowki.
D.2.16. Mycalesis khasia khasia Evans. NR.
Talbot has revived Moore’s name izztermedia for this species. NR
Sylhet and Assam sides. Evans in Journal B.N.HZ.S. Vol. xxvii (2) of
1920 illustrates male brands and genitalia of this and all species of the
genus, based on much original research. The brand under fore in the
DSF is smaller than in the WSF and may be confused with that of
mineus. :
D.2.29. Mycalesis mamerta mamerta Cr.
Talbot calls it JZ. annamitica watsont Evans. R. One at Dowki,
November. Several along G.S. Road, February, March, April taken by.
Sanders and Neuhaus.
- 1.3.37. Lethe vindhya Fd. R.
Several at Laitera, 2,500 ft., October.
D.3,47. Lethe armandii khasiana M. VR.
First described from here. My only specimen is from the Naga
Hills.
D.14.17. Ypthima similis affectata El. R.
A speciality of the Khasi Hills, discoverable among one’s supposed.
baldus. achive
D.18. Ragadia crisilda crito de N. Re
Several at mile 39 G.S. Road, October.
D.25.6. Elymnias pealii WM. ~—- VR. :
Mr. D. Sanders informs me that he took it about mile 40 G.S. Road
in April 1933. I have taken it at Nichuguard, Naga Hills, in May.
AMATHUSIDAE
Discophora continentalis continentalis Stg. R. possibly VR..
One male taken.
MORE BUTTERILIES OF KHASI & JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 45
NYMPHALIDAE
F.2,10. Eriboea eudamippus eudamippus Db. NR.
Omitted from the first list by accident. . Low levels appears March ;
higher levels June.
ne) Dilipa morgiana Wd. VR.
One taken by Neuhaus, Dowki, October.
F.7.6. Apatura chevana M. R.
Sanders took one about mile 40 G.S. Road, over 2,000 ft. in April
1933. : .
F.18.9. Euthalia anosia anosia M. Re
Sanders took one at the same place and time as the chevana,
/
F.18.21. Euthalia nara nara M. R. \
Several of both sexes, Shillong, June.
- £B.18.29, Huthalia recta recta de N. R.
Swinhoe got many from Cherra. Probably exterminated in that
area. j
F.24.2. Limenitis danava M. Re !
Occasionally produced from Cherra. Much less rare than austenia.
F.25.7, Pantoporia kanwa phorkys Fruh. VR.
’ One male Dowki, November.
F.26.9. Neptis yerburyi yerburyi But. 8X0
Neuhaus took one in Shillong in July with the discal spot in 2
concave outwardly, markings larger, unsullied. The recorded and usual
form here is s¢keima.
F.26.14. Neptis anjana nashona Swin. R.
A few from Dowki and Cherra.
F.26.15. Neptis ananta ochracea Evans.
Several from Cherra, September. One in December above Umran,
at 3,000 ft. G. S. Road.
F.26,.24. Neptis radha radha M. R,
Some from here in the British Museum collection. Not so rare in
Naga Hills.
F.26.27. Neptis heliodore sattanga M. VR.
Moore in Lep. Ind. records one male from here. -
(F.26.28. Neptis paraka But.
A possibility, as de Nicéville says one came from Sylhet, which
usually means the foot of the Khasi Hills and Antram Says, ie ve
common in Cachar.)
AG JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
F.26.30. Neptis aurelia Stg. VR.
Moore in Lep. Ind. records one from here.
#.27.4. Cyrestis theodamas ganescha Koll.
Neuhaus took this form at mile 54 G.S. Road. He has taken it in
Manipur and at Ledo in N.E. Assam.
F.32. Rhinopalpa polynice birmana Fruh. VR.
Moore in Lep. Ind. says he got one from Cherra and there are some
from Cherra in the Indian Museum. Occurs in Upper Assam forests.
F.35. Precis atlites L.
Should be substituted for the former of the two entries of 7A4zta in
the previous list.
F.38.5. Symbrenthia silana de N. VR.
Taken by Sanders about mile 40 G.S. Road in April 1933.
ERYCINIDAE
G.14. Libythea narina rohini Marshall. VR.
‘Type came from here and de Nicéville got some from Hamilton.
(Lepita found in the Naga Hills does not seem to occur here.)
G.4. Abisara chela de N. R,
Swinhoe got many from here.
G.7. Stiboges nymphidia But. VR.
Swinhoe says it has been recorded from here.
NoTES ON SPECIES MENTIONED IN THE PREVIOUS LIST
B.10.8. Appias nero galba
Neuhaus saw one at Dowki in November 1948.
D.2.3. Mycalesis anaxias
Now found NR at Laitera and Dowki.
D.2.26. M. misenus R.
Swinhoe got some from Cherra. Mr. Sanders took two about mile
40 G.S. Road in March and early April, 1933. In the 2nd ed. of Evans
malsara is a misprint for szsenz-s.
D.2.27. Mycalesis nicotia R.
One DSF late March at 2,000 ft. Cherra State. One DSF taken by
Sanders in late March at-the same place as mzsenus,
D.2.28. Mycalesis malsara ;
Now found NR May, August (new brood) October.
D.2.31. M. malsarida
Now found to be common.
MORE BUTTERFLIES OF KHASI & JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 4
D,26.10. Elymnias patna
Now found NR.
D.25.12.. Elymnias vasudeva
Two taken, one at Dowki, October.
E.8. Amathuxidia amythaon.
Two taken by Neuhaus at Dowki 1-11-48. We. saw another next
day. They flew about palms in an orange grove only in the late
afternoon.
F.29. Pseudergolis wedah
The remark ‘Seems rare in Assan’ was wrong. It is plentiful in,
- the Naga Hills.
G.3.3. Dodona eugenes
One at Dowki October, One from Cherra.
3 6.3.4. Dodona egeon
One at Mawblang below Cherrapoonji, October.
G.3.6. D. adonira
Emerges late March as I took it then in Cherra.
G.3.7. D.henrici longicaudata
Sanders took both sexes in early April 1933 at the place mentioned.
in the previous list.
| LYCAENIDAE
2. Poritia
hewitsoni hewitsoni M. R.
Male at Umran, mile 42 G.S. Road, 2,700 ft., October. Female taken,
by Mr. Neuhaus at Dowki, October. -
erycinoides elsiei Evans R.
I have two from here from the Antram coll. Twofrom here under
the subspecific name of ftvzshza Fruh. are in the British Museum.
Corbet in Zvans. R. Ent. Soc. Vol. 90, Pt. 11, 337-50, Sept. 1940,.
divides races into phraatica Hew., Burma-Malaya; ¢yvzshna Fruh.,.
Assam; e/szez Evans, Mergui.
5. Gerydus boisduvalli assamensis Doh. R.
A pair at Dowki, November.
6. Allotinus
drumila M. VR.
Mr. D. Sanders took two in March 1933 at Mawblang where the
Shillong-Cherra Road ends. Some from here are in the British Museum..
multistrigatus multistrigatus de N. R.
Male at Syndai, 1,600 it., October.
\
48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
horsfieldii continentalis Fruh. Apparently R_ but so inconspi-
cuous that it may be commoner, as it is VC in Manipur. Taken only
at Dowki in June. ;
a: Logania massalia Doh. VR.
Bingham records it from here.
8. Spalgis epius epius Wd. NR. but scarce.
Plains or low level Sylhet side, October.
9, Taraka hamada mendesia Fruh. R.
Three from Cherra, one in March. One in Shillong, October.
10. Talicada nvseus Khasiana Swin. NR,
A number from Cherra, May and October. Not seen elsewhere.
Jl. Castalius
rosimon rosimon F. OF
Assam Valley side from 2,000 ft. down from April. Another brood
June and in September, October. Much scarcer Sylhet side.
elna noliteia. Fruh. NR.
Sanie places.
caleta decidia Hew. ARS
de Nicéville got from here.
ethion ethion Db. & Hew.
I failed to find it here though the male is conspicuous and is ~
common in October at Lumding in the Upper Assam forests. But
Dr. Norman found it 20 miles from Gauhati eastwards on the Assam
Trunk Road, so close to the Khasi Hills border that it must occur
within it. (Atoxus roxana, obtainable in the Uipierers Assam forests, does
not seem to occur here,)
12 Tarucus ananda de N. are Tarucus Gharta BB. PNR Core WARS,
One or both occur as Swinhoe says he got many Castalius ananda
from here, which name then covered both species, but I cannot find them
in the British Museum. Dr. Norman takes a few of both yearly in the
Upper Assam forests, so both may occur in the Khasi Hills. Both are
VR in the Naga Hills and Manipur.
13. Syntarucus plinius F. R.
A pair from Cherra. Swinhoe gota few.
15. Niphanda cymbia cymbia'de N. ~ VR. |
Two from Cherra. Mr. Neuhaus took one in Shillong, August
1949. |
TGs Pithecops hylax F. R.
A male at Umran, mile 42 G.S. Road, October NR in Upper Assam
Forests.
MORE BUTTERFLIES OF KHASI & JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 49
17. Neopithecops zalmara But. Ci
At low levels. October.
18. Everes
diporides Chap.
Some males taken on the high plateau may be this, but I have not
taken tailless males and am uncertain. I have taken it for certain at
Jakhama, Naga Hills.
dipora M. C.
At all heights. In Shillong and on high plateau, April-June. A
strongly marked brood in August.
parrhasius assamica Tyt, IRS
One on G.S. Road, October. One from Cherra. One in Shillong in
August taken by Neuhaus,
kala de N. VR.
The type came from here. Swinhoe got six, Dr. Norman has got
some from Jakhama, Naga Hills, 5,400 ft., April, June.
19. Bothrinia chennellii de N. R.
: It is not rare in Shillong in May, June, August-October. Mr.
Neuhaus took it at Burrapani, 9 miles from Shillong at 3,500 ft. J have
none from Cherra. It is found in the Naga Hills, e.g. at Jakhama.
The anastomosis of veins 11 and 12 must be remembered, but the
obvious distinction from a Lycaenopsis (Celastrina) is the small amount
of shifting in of the spot in 6 unF of Bothrinia.
20. Megisba malaya sikkima M. NR.
Usually from 1,000 ft. down. Mr. Neuhaus took it in Shillong,
WSF April, DSF December.
21. Lycaenopsis
For change of the generic name to Celasirina see Corbet in Proc.
R, Ent. Soc. (B) 5 Pt.10 October 1936, all species in Evans being Ce/ast-
vina save Lycaenopsts haraldus and Arletta (Hemming) vardhana.
puspa gisca Fruh. C.
Female much scarcer. From April through rains. Both DSF and
WSF taken in April. All heights.
melaena parishii Rhe Phil.
{ Neuhaus took in Shillong in July what he believes to be this. Corbet
Sinks it in mustza musiniodes in Trans, R. Ent. Soc. Vol. 82, Pt. 2, April
1937.
marginata de N. NR.
shillong,. May-July, October. Both sexes. Also Cherra.
transpecta M, NR. |
Wooded areas Assam and Sylhet sides. Shillong from April.
A ; | 3
)
50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST, SOCIETY, Voi. 51
albocaerulea M. R.
I took males at Nongsteng, 1,500 ft., 6 miles west and on the
plateau 4,000 ft. 2 miles west of Cherrapoonji in early April.
musina musinoides Swin. NR but scarce.
Shillong (July) and Cherra.
lavendularis placida de N. NR.
Shillong and high plateau May, August, September. Also Cherra.
Cardia dilecta M. NR.
The first of the genus to appear in Shillong in March and seen till
June. Again in early September. Corbet in the above article says
Cardia Felder is not conspecific with Dzlecta Moore.
binghami Chapman. VR.
The type came from here. I have none.
huegelii oreana Swin. NR but only at 5,500 ft. and over.
Laitlyngkot in May and 12 miles along Shillong—Mawphlang Road on
thorn bushes early March and September. Dr. Norman has published in
Vol. 49 (3) an account of the larvae found there.
argiolus sikkima M. NR.
Shillong and Cherra. Examination of androconia is needed to
distinguish from /ynteana. May, June and autumn.
jiynteana de N. NR.
In Shillong from May like szkkzma. The very pale blue form called
victoria by Swinhoe is occasionally found in Shillong and Cherra.
Note. For genitalia of various species see Chapman in Proc. Zool.
Soc. London. August 1909. Females are notoriously difficult. ©
23. Chilades iaius laius Cr. NR.
Low levels, April, June, October.
24, Zizeeria
- maha maha Koll. Wie
All levels and most months.
lysimon Hub. Probably R.
Thinking it did not occur here I did not search, but I got one in May
1949 at Nichuguard, Naga Hills, where Tytler lists it as VR. I told.
Neuhaus who then took one in Shillong in July. I find Swinhoe got
some from Cherra calling it karsandra.
gaika Trimen. NR but scarce.
I have taken it on the plateau.at Cherra at 4,000 ft. and lower.
otis otis F. C.
Mostly at low levels, Abounds at Citrus Station G.S. Road.
MORE BUTTERFLIES OF KHASI & JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 51
25. Euchrysops
cnejus F. R.
Two only. Swinhoe got many but it seems rare as [ looked for it
specially.
pandava pandava Hors. IR
One male at Dowki, October.
26. Lycaenesthes
emolus emolus God. WGe
Sylhet side April-June, August, September, October. Not numerous
on Assam side. Plains to 2,000 ft.
lycaenina lycambes Hew. NR.
Flies with evzolus, but much scarcer.
27, Catachrysops
strabo F. C:
From plains to Shillong. April to October.
lithargyria M. NR.
Scarcer than s¢vado but plentiful in some places. Abundant in Upper
Assam forests in May.
28, Lampides boeticus L. WG
Plains to Shillong. March to November.
29. Jamides
bochus bochus Cr. NR.
In woods on Assam Valley and Sylhet sides. Usually from 2,000 ft.
downwards but also in Shillong, April, June, September, October.
cleodus pura M. G
On Sylhet side and occasionally on the high plateau. I have never
seen it on the Assam Valley side. Both WSF and DSF fly together at
Dowkiat the end of October. In November the WSF disappears.
celeno celeno M. NR.
A few taken on the Assam Valley side of the Khasi Hills and in the
plains, but it is not abundant in Assam. I have not seen it on the Sylhet
side where dura is plentiful. They fly together in Upper Assam.
Riley and Corbet in TZvans. R. Ent. Soc. Vol. 87, Pt. 5, 147-159
of 15-6-38 deal with species of Jamzdes from S.E. Asia, not India. They
say that ce/ezo female has the pale areas of upperside more dingy and
of a more greyish hue than female duva, which has them ofa clear though
pale blue; the border of Jura is a deep black, that of celeno is paler and
browner. In the Khasi Hills, however, the rains form of pura female
is sometimes very fuscous being as dark as any ce/eno. ‘The article has
many new points about nomenclature and genitalia, e.g. pura pura
Moore and cleodus Felder (Philippines) have similar facies but quite
different genitalia.
52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
kankena pseudelpis But. NR.
April, May, September, October.
alecto eurysaces Fruh. NR.
Both it and kaxkena are forest dwellers and so at lower levels here.
Both are rather scarce. Females are distinguishable in the DSF, as
Dr. Norman has pointed out to me, by DSF alecfo having the ground
below very pale tawny brown and DSF kankena having it grey-brown
to grey.
coerulea Druce. Re
Some from here are in the British Museum. TI have it only from the
Naga Hills.
32. Nacaduba
pactolus continentalis Fruh. NR.
From March and in autumn at Cherra.
hermus nabo Fruh. R. ;
Four males from Cherra. See note on lysa intricata.
lysa intricata Corbet. R.
The new name for the vajuva in Evans. Some from the Khasi
Hills are in the British Museum. I have some sent by Dr. Norman
from the Upper Assam forests. ‘To distinguish from males of hermus
nabo by the androconia test, one of each species known as such by colour
should be examined at the same time, when the difference will be
discernible. Dissections show hermus nabo has the clasp figured as
No. 11 zabo swatipa, in Corbet’s article in Zrans. R. Ent. Soc. Vol. 87,
Pt. 5, pp. 125-164 of 15-6-38. In Proc. R. Ent, Soc. B., Vol. 17, Pts. 7-8
of 16-8-48 Corbet changed his nomenclature and key. Dr. Norman’s
Specimens when dissected are pronounced by Mr. Bennett of the British
Museum to be true lysa. The clasps resemble Corbet’s figure 7 of
1948. His figure No. 10 of 1938, zztrzcata should be neglected. Corbet
in the 1948 Key says that hermus nabo has the white stripes unH in
spaces 4 and 5 straight and conjoined, while /ysa has them comma-like
and not in line. Taking specimens from Assam, I cannot find this
applicable. At most there is a tendency for the stripes in ermus nabo
to be more conjoined. Individuals vary especially those of J/ysa
intricata. Dr. Norman has sent some of his series to prove it. Corbet
says the female of hevmzs nabo is lustrous ourple blue and of /ysa is
shining sky blue with the discal area slightly whitened. I have failed
to recognise this distinction in the series of females of hevmus nabo and
lysa of various races in the British Museum drawers. ‘This is unfortu-
nate in view of the failure of the rule about stripes. Dr. Norman has
sent me a female taken in coitus with an undoubted male lysa intricata.
Her stripes are neither more nor less conjoined than those of a male
hermus sent by him,
helicon merguiana M. (viola of the Ist ed.). NR.
Plains to 2,000 ft. April-June, September, October. Often on damp
spots on roads.
@
MORE BUTTERFLIES OF KHASI & JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 53
kurava euplea Fruh. NR.
Sylhet and Assam sides. Also Shillong. All months from April
to October.
beroe gythion Fruh. NR.
As for kurava.
aluta coelestis de N. R.
A few produced yearly from Cherra. I have seen only two females.
Male NR in Upper Assam forests.
nora nora Fd. VC.
Plaias to Shillong. Early April to June, Peas October. It
likes damp spots on roads.
’ dubiosa sivoka Evans. Cee Ditto:
dana de N. NR but scarce.
Dr. Norman says. it stays inside the forest.
35. Heliophorus
For the whole genus see an article by Riley in Jour. Bom. N.HLS.
February 15th, 1929. It is very thorough with a full key and figures
of genitalia.
epicles indicus Fruh. C.
Mostly from plains to 2,000 ft. but a few on the high plateau. From
April through rains, a few even in August.
androcles androcles Hew. Re
One or two have been taken every month by Neuhaus or myself
from March to October in Shillong or on the high plateau around.
Females are rarer.
38. Callophrys leechii de N. WIR,
The female was first described from here. Then Swinhoe got a
male from here.
41, Thecla khasia de N. VR.
de Nicéville got one from Hamilton. Neuhaus took a female at
Mawphlong 6,000 it. 17 miles from Sailiong in September 1949. Tytler
got it in the Naga Hills.
44, Curetis
saronis gloriosa M. NR but scarce.
At plains level below Cherra and at Dowki. I have taken it at
Nowgong Town in Central Assam.
bulis Db. & Hew. G;
Mostly at low levels.
acuta dentata M. NR. Ditto
45, Iraota timoleon timoleon Stoll. Male NR, female R.
From Cherra,
im
54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi.
ol
48. Mahathala ameria M. R.
Three at Burnihat G.S. Road. May.
49, Amblypodia (Arhopala)
All are from Cherra State unless other places are mentioned. Rarity
is uncertain as any species is hard to obtain. If residence be near the
collecting area, Dr. Norman has shown what is possible in the way of
rare species in the Upper Assam forests.
opalina M.
The type in the British Museum is unique in Assam, but Corbet in
Proc. R. Ent. Soc.(B) Vol. 10, Pt. 9, pp. 149-184, September 1941 says
it probably came from Siam, not from the Khasi Hills.
5. camdeo camdeo M. VR.
A tattered female taken in April at Nongpoh, 1,700 ft. G.S. Road.
Swinhoe got two females. ‘The conspicuous male would be taken often
ifnot VR. It flies in August as Dr. Norman took some then.
silhetensis Hew. VR.
Only one male from here. Swinhoe got one.
yendava Gr. S. VR.
In Evans 2nd ed. adorea de N. is given as a synonym, not aguzis.
de Nicéville got adorea from here, figuring it. I have one from Cherra
from the Antram coll. Corbet in the article cited about ofalina gives
adorea aS a race of szlhetenszs and puts yendava and agnzs as races of
aédtias.
oenea Hew. R.
de Nicéville says Hamilton got it in profusion, but I have only three
males and one female.
khamti Doh. R.
One female. Corbet calls it a synonym of oenea.
centaurus pirithous M. NR.
The species most often seen. May, June, August, October. Also
on Assam Valley side at Burnihat. ;
-eumolphus eumoiphus C. NR.
Taken also at Burnihat.
eumolphus hellenore Doh. IRs
One from Cherra.
pazaloides Hew. R.
One only, but Swinhoe got many from here.
paramuta de N. 180
Five males.
ynerimuta perimuta de N. NR.
Aiso at Burnihat, May, October.
Ou
Or
MORE BUTTERFLIES OF KHASI & JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM
paraganesa zephyretta Doh. VR,
Hamilton sent one from here to de Nicéville. Some males in the
British Museum have only sparse scattered blue scales upF. Dr. Nor-
man has sent a number of males taken in the Upper Assam forests with
blue over the whole cell or the lower half cf the cell, thence from cell
to tornus and the base of space 2 and either with a few scales at the
base of 3 or covering the base of 3 with a few scales at the base of 4.
ammonides elira Corbet.
The new name of Corbet for Khasi Hills specimens having in space
7 unH a conspicuous white patch separating the central and postdiscal
spots, instead of the name ammon ariel Doh. in Evans, vide Corbet’s
article cited about opalina above. To the form without this white patch
taken by Doherty in Upper Assam, Corbet gives the specific name avzel
aviel Doh. El7va male has the blue on upF darker and more extensive
than male zephyretta as it covers the cell and bases of all spaces save
12. lira female has the blue restricted much as male zephyretta,
Below it has the chocolate ground darker and spots unH are edged
with fine white lines and the ground is not mostly covered with the
white scaling seen on zephyretia. But two labelled as zephyretta males
in the British Museum lack white scaling unH. Corbet said that more
material might cause surprises in the ammonzdes and ariel group.
This is now available in the series taken by Dr. Norman in the Upper
Assam forests in which he shows that the white colour on the patch in
7 gradually fades into nothing. This last may or may not be arzed.
abseus indicus Riley. R.
Swinhoe received it from here.
diardi Hew. Re
Six males anda female. Also Mr. Neuhaus gota ee in the low
hills between Cherra and Dowki in September.
fulgida Hew. R,
Four males and two females.
anniella artegal Doh.
Mr, Neuhaus took in October at Dowki a male with markings similar
to those of my single specimen from Burma. This seems the first record
of it from the Khasi Hills. Tytler says itis VR in Manipur.
asoka de N. R.
One only. Two from here are in the British Museum.
chinensis Fd. NK but scarce.
I have taken it from the end of September.
areste areste Hew.
Same note as for chinenszs. Corbet thinks it is probably conspecific
with chinenszs.
50. Surendra
quercetorum quercetorum M., Bees
Up to 1,200 ft. through the rains and occasionally till January.
56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, &1
todara distorta de N. R.
Swinhoe received some from here, My servant when we were at
Nichuguard, Naga Hills, in May failed to follow instructions to avoid
the common quercetorum and so took my only dis/oria.
51. Mota massyla Hew. R.
- Three from Cherra.
53. Lexura atymmnus continentalis Fruh. NR.
At plains level Sylhet and Assam Valley sides.
54. Yasoda tripunctata Hew. Re
After long search I took one at Dowki in new condition in July.
Swinhoe got one from here.
57. Spindasis
syama peguanus M. NR but scarce.
At low levels May and October.
lohita himalayanus M. NR.
Much commoner than syame.
59. Pratapa
All from Cherra unless otherwise mentioned.
vidura pennicilligera de N. IR
Eleven males and 3 females. I have taken it at 2,000 ft, in late
September. .
cotys Hew. VR.
One male.
ctesia Hew. R.
Hight males.
deva lila M. NR.
Also between Cherra and Dowki in September.
icetas extensa Evans VR.
Two males Shillong late March. Swinhoe got males from Cherra.
icetoides carmentalis de N. NR but scarce.
28 males and females.
cleobis God. NR.
Both on Sylhet and Assam Valley sides. I have taken it at plains
level in early April on mango flower.
60. Tajuria
All from Cherra but jazgala ravata also at Dowki.
jangala ravata M. NR.
April and October. All are chocolate below save one bright ochreous
taken late October.
TIX
a |
MORE BUTTERFLIES OF KHASI & JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM E
megistia megistia Hew. R.
Seven males and 2 females.
yajna istroidea de N. VR.
Two males from here from the Antram coll., another from Cherra.
melastigma de N. VR.
de Nicéville received one from here and another from here is in the
British Museum.
ister Hew. VR.
Two males. Swinhoe got some of both sexes from here. I could
identify mine only by comparing its colour with those in the British
Museum.
buto de N. R. Female VR.
Two males and one female. Brigadier Evans used to receive some
occasionally from Cherra.
culta de N. VR.
Hamilton sent 5 males and a female from here to de Nicéville.
diaeus Hew. VR.
de Nicéville got a male and Swinhoe 2 males from here.
thyia de N. VR.
Three males. Two from here in the British Museum.
cippus cippus F, R or VR.
One male. de Nicéville did not get from Hamilton and Swinhoe
got only one for his list of 1893. It looks like Pratapa deva lila below
but is grey instead of white. It of course lacks the male sex marks of a
Pratapa.
illurgis Hew. R.
Two only. Some from here ia the British Museum.
illurgoides de N. VR.
Some from here in the British Museum.
-luculentus nela Swin. VR.
A male from here from the Antram coll. Swinhoe described the
male from here (Jaintia Hills) and also a female, but Corbet says this
female is a form of Pratapa deva.
maculata Hew. R.
Several are produced from Cherra yearly.
61. Charana
jalindra indra M. Males NR, females R.
March and September in Cherra. One in Shillong in May.
mandarinus Hew. R.
One in Shillong late March and onein June. About half a dozen a
year from Cherra, |
58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
67. Suasa lisides Hew. VR.
Two from Cherra.
68. Cheritrella truncipennis de N. VR.
Described from a specimen sent from here by Hamilton. One from
here in the British Museum. Mr, Perry took a female on the high
Barail Range in N. Cachar. My only specimens are from the Naga
Hills.
70. Cheritra freja freja F. C. |
On both Sylhet and Assam Valley sides at low levels. April and
October.
71. Ticherra acte M, NR. Same places as Cheritra.
77. Horaga
onyx onyx M. R.
Only three, of which one was taken in Shillong in May. Mr. Perry
reports NR in N. Cachar Hills, May-June.
moulmeina M, VR,
One male from Cherra. Swinhoe got some from here.
78. Catapoecilma elegans major Fruh. NR but scarce, —
From early March and November. One at Dowki, 32 males and 4
females from Cherra.
79. Chliaria
othona Hew. NR but scarce.
One at Nongpoh in June. A few from Cherra.
kina cachara M. VR.
de Nicéville got one and Swiuhoe four from here. I have taken it at
_Jakhama, Naga Hills, 5,400 ft. in May,
80. Hypolycaena erylus himavantus Fruh. VC,
At plains level and to 2,000 ft. Sylhet side, April-May, September-
October.
81. Zeltus etolus F. NR.
Plains and low levels. May, July, October.
82. Artipe eryx L. VR.
One female from Cherra.
83. Deudoryx
epijarbas amatius Fruh. NR but rather scarce.
Shillong in May, June, October. Also from Cherra. Females seen
as often as males.
q
MORE BUTTERFLIES OF KHASI & JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM 59
hypergyria gaetulia de N. R.
Three males from Cherra in October. Mr. Neuhaus took a female at
Dowki in October.
84. Virachola perse perse Hew. VR.
One female on G.S. Road at 2,500 ft. 16 miles from Shillong in
October 1948. Swinhoe got some from Cherra. Being so conspicuous
more would be taken if not VR.
85. Rapala
All taken in Cherra State or at Dowki. JVzssa also in Shillong.
refulgens de N. R.
Swinhoe got several from here. Mine are from Sikkim.
suffusa suffusa de N.
Three males and 2 females. Hamilton got only 3 for de Nicéville.
tara de N. NR.
Produced in quantity from Cherra. I took malesin October at Laitera
on a palm which they visited every evening. In flight they are so swift
as to be seen only with difficulty.
sphinx sphinx F. R possibly VR.
One male at Dowki in November. de Nicéville got the first taken in
India from Hamilton. Swinhoe got many of both sexes from here.
varuna orseis Hew. NR but scarce.
All WSF are very dark below with a purple wash. DSF taken in
January is pale buff below.
schistacea M. NR.
Many produced in October 1949. WSF has a purple wash below.
scintilla de N. R.
Mr. Neuhaus took a male at owe in October. Swinhoe got both
sexes. I have some from here in the Antram coll.
pheretimus petosiris Hew. NR.
One or two can be seen at Dowki in course of a day. April-June
and October-November.
dieneces dieneces Hew. RY
One male. Swinhoe got a few of both sexes from here.
jarbas F. R.
Only one pair from Cherra. Swinhoe got a few. Mr. Perry took
some in the neighbouring North Cachar Hills. NR in Upper Assam
forests. Corbet in Proc. R. Ant. Soc. (B) Vol. 8, Pt. 6, June 1939 says it
is conspecific with melampus.
buxaria de N. VR.
One male. Swinhoe got some from here. In the British Museum
collection it is now sunk as a synonym of zzssa. It is dull dark blue
until seen aslant when a small central area upperfore and a large area
upperhind suddenly glow brilliantly.
60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
nissa rectivitta M. C,
In Shillong from mid-March through rains. Many from Cherra.
Occasionally yellowish grey below but usually at all seasons with a rosy
purple flush below varying from faint to deep.
rosacea de N. VR.
Corbet in the article mentioned above concerning jarbas says that
the male clasps of vosacea are broader and more deeply cleft than those
of 2zssa and hence that they are different species. He figures the genitalia.
I have seen the slidein the British Museum where there are two vosacea
from the Khasia Hills. Typical vosacea is red below, not in any way
purple, and thus easily known. The tornal spots below are dark red
while in zzssa they are black. -
86. Sinthusa
chandrana grotei M. SSR
Two males one female. Shillong, July and Dowki, November.
nasaka amba Kirby VR.
One male from Cherra from the Antram coll. Two from here are in
the British Museum. ~
87. Bindahara phocides phocides F. VR.
Two from Cherra. de Nicéville got one and Swinhoe one from
here.
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA
BY
N. L. Bor
PART II
(With eight plates and twenty-five text figures)
(Continued trom p. 838 of Volume 50)
V. STERILES
17. Poa sterilis M.B., Flor. Taur.-Cauc. 1, 62 (1805)..
A perennial, densely tufted grass. Culms very many, slender, not
stiff, crowded, erect from the base, terete, very scabrid to scaberulous
below the panicle, up to 40 cm. tall, leafy, covered below with the
Scarious remains of old sheaths. Leaf-blades 1-2 mm. wide, linear, up
to 15 cm. long, soft, flat or sometimes convolute, dark green, scabrid on
the margins and along the nerves on the upper surface, smooth or
scaberulous on the lower surface, glabrous, tapering to a scabrid sharp
point. Sheaths tight, very striate, smooth or more often scabrid.
glabrous, somewhat keeled. Ligales 2:5-3 mm. long, round or trun-
cate at the apex, membranous, scabrid on the outer surface.
Fig. 14. Poa sterilis M.B., x10
Intlorescence a rather lax panicle, sometimes almost strict, up to
15 cm. long by 5 cm. broad; branches flexuous spreading or ascend:
ing, very scabrid, sparsely rebranching, 2-3-nate below. Spzkelets
62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
wedge-shaped, 4-6 mm. long, 2~-3(-5)-flowered, pale in colour, often
yellowish or brownish. Lower glume 3°5 mm. long, 1:5 mm. wide,
lanceolate-acute or elliptic-oblong-acute in shape when flattened,
3-nerved, green between the nerves, hyaline on the margins, smooth and
glabrous, except for the upper part of the keel which is scabrid. Upper
glume 35-4 mm. long, 1:3 mm. wide, elliptic or elliptic-oblong-acute
when flattened, 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous, hyaline on the margins,
outside the nerves, rough on the keel towards the tip. Lemma 3-4
(-5) mm. long, 1°8;mm. wide, oblong-obtuse in shape when flattened, obs-
curely 5-nerved, the outer pair rather close to the margins, broadly or
narrowly hyaline on the margins and at the tip, glabrous between the
nerves on the dorsal surface, ciliate on the keel in the lower half and
on the lateral nerves, middle nerve rather faint, with a narrow streak of
yellow below the hyaline portion at the tip. Ahachilla very rarely
smooth, almost always warty, glabrous or slightly hairy, prolonged and
carrying a rudimentary floret. Wool very scanty or absent. Stamens
3; anthers 1°5-2°5 mm. long. VPalea 3:5 mm. long, narrowly elliptic.
lanceolate, 2-keeled, truncate or acute at the tip, finely pectinate.
Ind. Or: Kashmir; Liddar Valley, above Kainmull, 21 July
1893, 3,700 m. Duthze 13102; near the Zoji La, 3,800 m., 20
August 1893. Duthie 13679; Astor Valley 2—3,000 m., 24 July
1892. Duthie 12257; Kalahoi, above Liddarwat, 3,700-4,000 m.
Duthie 13509.
Chitral; Mirga, 20 June 1895, Surg. Lt. Harrzs 16823.
Baltistan ; Satpurnala, 3,700 m.,12 July 1892, Duthze 12030.
Lahul; Bilang Valley, 5 July 1888, Drummond 23352.
Ladak ; Indus Valley below Leh, 3-3,300 m., Z. Thomson.
Gilgit; Naltar Valley 3,700-4,000 m,, 4 August 1892, Duthze
12380.
Hazara; Kagan Valley, 2,000 m., 16 May 1896, Zzayat 20300.
Kumaon; Garbyang, Byans, 3-3,500 m., 24 July 1886, Duthie
6159.
18. Poa araratica 7vautv. in Act. Hort. Petrop. 2, 486 (1873).
A tufted grass of many stems springing from a stout fibrous root-
stock 3-4 cm. long, with innovation shoots arising closely packed along
it, covered at the base with old scarious sheaths which take on a pale
reddish brown or brown-purplish colour. Culms up to 30 cm. tall,
more or less scabrid below the panicle, otherwise smooth and glabrous,
glabrous also on the nodes, not branched. Leaf-blades very narrow,
when dry convolute and almost filiform, when young flat, up to 7 cm.
by 1:5 mm. wide, linear-acute, glabrous but scabrid on the margins
and on the nerves beneath toward the stoutish point. Sheaths of two
kinds: the lower very loose smooth and glabrous, slipping from the
culms, the upper tight clasping the culm, shorter than the nodes, smooth
and glabrous. Lodzcules oblong in shape, truncate-lacerate at the top,
membranous 1°5—2'5 mm. long.
Inflorescence a rather strict panicle up to 9 cm. long by 5-8 mm.
wide, erect ; branches arising in pairs (1—3-nate) at the nodes, not more
than 2°5 cm. long, ascending, scabrid, flexuous, rebranching very
sparingly or not at all, carrying a few spikelets seated on short pedicels.
Spikelets 4-4°5 mm. long, wedge-shaped, seated on short scabrid
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 63
pedicels, 3-4-flowered. Lower glume 3:5-3°:75 mm. long, 1°5 mm. wide,
oblong-acute or elliptic-acute in shape when flattened, 3-nerved,
hyaline on the margins, almost straight on the back, normally suffused
with purple between the nerves, smooth and glabrous, except on the
keel which is scabrid. Upper glume 3:75-4:5 mm. long, 1:5 mm. wide,
elliptic-acute or ovate-elliptic-acute in shape when flattened, 3-nerved,
hyaline outside the lateral nerves, suffused with violet between, smooth
and glabrous except for the scabrous keel near the tip, almost straight
Fig. 15. Poa avaratica Trauty., x to.
on the back. Lemma 3-5-4-4:5 mm. long, 15-1:75 mm. wide, oblong-
obtuse or elliptic-oblong- obtuse in shape when flattened, 5-nerved, hyaline
outside the nerves, opaque between, lightly suffused with purple at the
junction with the hyaline part, rather firm with the nerves somewhat
obscure, ciliate on the keel in the lower half on the marginal nerves,
glabrous elsewhere. Wool very scanty. Rhachilla obscurely verrucose or
minutely bristly. Stamens 3; anthers 15 mm. long. Palea 2°75—3 mm.
long, lanceolate oblong in shape, 2-keeled, finely scabrid on the keels,
mostly minutely gland dotted between the keels and on the flaps.
Ind. Or: Lahul; Kargang, 3,600 m., 21 June 1941, WV. Z. Bor
14887; Biling Lumpa, 4,300 m., 12 June 1941, 4. ZL. Bor 12665;
Sissu, 4,000 m., 5 July 1938, WV. ZL. Bor 12305; Kailing-ka-Jot,
4,000 m., 6 July 1938, V. LZ. Bor 64.
Baltistan; Burji La above Skardu, 5,000 m., 31 July 1940,
R. R&R. Stewart 20112; Kashmir; Minimarg, 3-3,500 m., 29
August 1939, A. Rk. e¢ L. D. Stewart 19210; above Am.,
3,300 m., 26 June 1941, Watts-Padwick s.n.
Chitral; Barum Gol, Shokor Shal, 3,360 m., 17 July 1950, Per
Wendelbo s.n., ‘on the great moraine’.
This species is frequently mistaken for P. stertlzs M.B. and vice
versa. ‘They are certainly very close but typical specimens of each are
easily separated. ‘There should be no difficulty should the rhizomatous
base of P. avaratica be present. ‘This short, thick, almost horizontal
organ with the flowering shoots closely packed along it is quite
64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
unmistakable. The panicle too, is very narrow and the branches short in
contradistinction to that of P. stevi/zs which is ample and often widely
Spreading. The lowest nodes and basal sheaths are reddish purple or
even mauve, while in P. sfevilis they are brown to reddish-brown.
To add to the difficulties of discrimination between these species, it
is strongly suspected and even probable that they hybridize freely
where their geographical areas overlap, i.e., in the northwest Himalaya.
19. Poa litwinowiana Ovcz., in Bull. Tadjik. Acad. Sci. 1,1, 22
(1933).
A tufted perennial grass with many fibrous roots without rhizomes
or stolons, the whole plant very glaucous. Cu/ms up to 20 cm. tall, very
glaucous, scabrid below the panicle, 1-2-noded, uppermost internode or
peduncle long-exserted from the uppermost leaf sheath. Leaf-blades
linear, rather stiff, glaucous, involute or flat, with well-marked nerves,
scabrid on the margins and on the upper and lower surfaces to almost
smooth, sharply rounded at the base to the sheath, shortly tapering to a
blunt tip, up to 4 cm. long, 1-15 mm. wide, glabrous. Sheaths very
tight, clasping the culms, glaucous, striate, somewhat keeled, glabrous,
minutely scaberulous. Lzgules up to 3 mm, long, membranous, round-
ed or acute above, lacerate with age. |
Fig. 16. Poa litwinowiana Ovcz., x 10
Intlorescence a natrow contracted panicle up to 4 cm. long, 8 mm.
broad; branches 3-10 mm. long, 2-nate below, ascending, very scabrid,
not or only rarely rebranching, carrying few spikelets. Sfzkelets 3-4
(-5) mm. long, wedge-shaped at anthesis, 2-3-flowered, suffused with
violet. Lower glume 2:5-3 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, elliptic-acute when
flattened, 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous except on the upper part of
the keel which is scabrid, suffused with violet between the nerves and
more ot less hyaline on the margins, slightly curved on the back, round-
ed not sharply keeled. Upper glume 3-35 mm. long, 1:8 mm. wide,
broadly elliptic-acute in shape when flattened, 3-nerved, suffused with
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 65
violet between the nerves, more or less broadly hyaline on the margins,
scabrid in the upper part of the keel otherwise smooth and glabrous.
Lemma 3°5—4 mm. long, 1°8 mm. wide, oblong-obtuse or elliptic-oblong-
obtuse in shape when flattened, 5-nerved, the intermediate nerves being
indefinite, ciliate on the keel in the lower half, scabrid above, glabrous
on the dorsal surface and on the intermediate nerves, ciliate on the
marginal nerves below, punctate on the dorsal surface, hyaline on the
margins and at the tip, with a strip of gold below the hyaline portion
and the rest often suffused with purple. Stamens 3; anthers 15-2 mm.
long. Rhachilla smooth and glabrous or minutely hairy. Wool present
but scanty. Falea 2:5 mm. long, 0:9 mm. wide, elliptic-acute, 2-keeled,
the keels covered with very fine antrorse teeth.
A specimen of this plant in the Kew Herbarium, collected in Russia
and determined by Ovczinnikov himself, may be taken to be an authentic
specimen. ‘This has been examined very carefully and compared with
the material in the Herbarium. Certain specimens of my own collec-
tions were sent to Prof. Roshevitz in 1947 and the following five were
determined by him as Poa litwinowiana Ovez.
Tibet: Yatung, 3,000 m., 5 June 1945, Bor et Kivatram 20049;
Phari, 4,500 m., 17 June 1945, zdem. 20387 ;
N. W. Ind: Labul, Sissu, 3,000 m.,18 July 1945, V. L. Bor 8654 ;
Rangcha Galli, 4,500 m., 8 July 1941, zdem. 14042 et 14031.
Despite this, however, I cannot accept these as true P. /ztwixowiana
Since none of them is in the slightest degree glaucous, nor do they re-
semble the Russian species, nor do they run down to FP. litwinowiana
with the aid of the key to Pod in the Flora U.R.S.S. In my opinion
they are rather weak specimens of P. avaratica Trautv. or P. sterilds
MB.
The main characteristic of P. fiDincavine Ovcz. is its extremely
glaucous colour, but forthe rest it resembles closely P. avaratica Trautv.
and P. sterilis MB. in respect of the texture and shape of the lemmas,
and in the amount of wool at the base and the hairiness on the keel and
lateral- nerves.
20, Poa lahulensis Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 138 (1948).
- A perennial closely tufted grass with fibrous roots. Culms up to
25 cm. tall, very slender, terete, scabrous under the panicle, long exsert-
ed from the topmost leaf-sheath, covered at the base with old leaf-
Sheaths. Leaf-blades 2-6 cm. long, often shorter, 1:5 mm. wide, linear
in shape, rather abruptly contracted at the tip to 'a blunt point, scabrid
on both surfaces and along the margins, ascending and not spreading.
- There are always a number of flat soft leaves at the base. Sheaths very
Short below, scarious, overlapping, hyaline on the margins, smooth and
glabrous, slipping from the culm, those of -the culm rather tight and
wrapped around it. Ligule 2-4 mm. long, membranous, truncate at
the apex, firmly clasping the culm.
Intlorescence a very contracted panicle not more than 5 cm. long by
lcm. wide, erect; axis smooth and glabrous or minutely rough; panicle
Dranches very short, not more than 1°5 cm. long before branching, very
scabrid, often carrying only 1 spikelet, ascending. Sfzkelets elliptic-
acute when young, becoming wedge-shaped later, 4-7 mm. long,
5
66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
2-3-flowered. Lower glume 3:5mm. long, 1:5 mm. wide, narrowly oblong-
elliptic-acute in shape when flattened, acuminate at the tip in profile,
3-nerved, broadly hyaline along the margins andat the tip, slightly curved
Fig. 17. Poa lahulensis Bor, x10
on the back, scabrid on the keel. Upper glume 3-75—-4 mm. long, 1°6 mm.
wide, oblong-elliptic-acute when flattened, acuminate at the tip in
profile, 3-nerved, hyaline on the margins to the side nerves and above
at the tip, scabrid on the gently curved keel. Lemma 3:5-4:5 mm. long,
2 mm. wide, oblong-obtuse when flattened, indistinctly 5-nerved, silky
ciliate on the keel in the lower half, also on the lateral nerves and on
the intermediate nerves, silky (Sometimes obscurely) over the dorsal
surface in the lower half, scabrid on thé kee! above, hyaline on the
margins and at the tip, with a band of yellow below the hyaline portion
and the rest more or less suffused with purple: dorsal silk early
caducous. Wool absent. Rhachilla smooth and glabrous.. Axthers
1-5-2 mm. long. Fa/ea a little shorter than the lemma, scabrid above,
with short hairs in the lower half or lower quarter.
Ind. Or.: Lahul, Lingti, 4,000 m., 29 June 1941, 4. Z. Bey 15024
(Type); Bara Lacha La 5,000 m., 22 July 1941, NV. L. Bor
16356 and many other collections; Parang Wallies, 4,000 m.,
9 September 1849, Aook. f. ef T. Thoms.; Nubra Mountains
5,000 m., 15 August 1848, 7: Thoms.; Ladak, Zanskar, 5,500 m.,
1 July 1848. T. Thomson. ae
A very common grass in the west Himalaya, easily distinguished by
the silky lemmas and long ligules.
VI. PALUSTRES
21, Poa palustris Linn., Syst. Veg. ed. 10, 874 (759).
P. serotina Ehrh., Beitr. Naturk. 6, 83 (1791).
A perennial grass, erect from a somewhat decumbent base, stolons
widely spreading ; rhizomes not present. Culms up to 100 cm. tall,
oe
Poa palustris Linn,
2
“SavLIIING
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
{
urn.,
SS
.
MAS
Jo
indm.
(Blytt) L
Poa alpigena
THE GENUS POA LINN, IN: INDIA 67
scabrid below the panicle, otherwise smooth and glabrous, cylindrical,
striate, glabrous at the nodes, occasionally branching. Leaf-blades up to
6 cm. long, 4 mm. wide, linear, flat, scabrid on the margins and
minutely scaberulous on the surfaces, dark green, abruptly contracted
to the sheath at the base, tapering gradually to a stout point; upper
blades shorter than their sheaths. Sheaths rather tight, smooth and
glabrous, or very slightly rough, striate. Légu/e membranous, up to
3 mm. long, rounded or truncate. |
Intlorescence a many-spiculate panicle up to 20 cm. long, up to
7 cm. wide but usually less, normally very dense but sometimes the
branches spreading and then somewhat loose and open; branches 5-nate,
very scabrid, unbranched for more than half their length or less,
ascending rarely spreading, sparsely branched. Spzkelets 4-5 mm. long
lanceolate-acute in shape, 2—3-flowered, very rarely 4—5-flowered. Lower
glume 2'5—2°75 mm. long, 0°8 mm. wide, 3-nerved, green between the
nerves, hyaline on the margins, lanceolate-acute in shape, acuminate in
profile, smooth and glabrous, except tor the upper part of the keel which
is scabrid. Upper glume 3 mm. long, 1:2—1:3 mm. wide, straight on the
back, 3-nerved, green between the nerves but hyaline outside, scabrid
on the upper part of the keel, otherwise smooth and glabrous, Lemma
oblong-acute when flattened, 3 mm. long, 1°5 mm. wide, inconspicuously
S-nerved, the intermediate nerves being very faint, ciliate on the keel
nerve in the lower three quarters, ciliate on the lateral nerves, narrowly
hyaline on the margins with hyaline tips, green with usually a coppery
or a brownish streak below the hyaline portion at the tip, smooth and
glabrous on the dorsal surface, scabrid on the keel at ths tip. Wool
present, plentiful but not particularly copious. Stamens 3; anthers
1-1:5 mm.long. ARhachilla shortly hairy, carrying a vestigial floret
at the tip. falea narrowly elliptic-truncate in shape, 1-5-2 mm. long,
fineiy scabrid on the keels.
Ind. Or.: Kashmir; Dras Nag, Pir Panjal Range, 3,000 m.,
21 July 1947, Rk. R. Stewart 23152.
This is the only record of this Eurasian grass haying been found in
India. It has possibiy been introduced, though no details are available.
It thrives on deep rich, moist soils, and is likely to be a valuable
addition to the Kashmir grass flora. .
VII. TRIVIALES
22. Poa trivialis Linn., Sp, Pl. ed. 1, 67 (1753).
__A loosely tufted perennial grass, sending out short stolons which root
at the nodes and send up vertical shoots. Czu/ms upto 90 cm. tall, usually
geniculate at the base, clothed below with old, scarious, loose sheaths,
terete, leafy almost to the panicle, usually rough under the panicle,
otherwise glabrous. Leaf-blades up to 15 cm. long, not more than
5 min. wide, linear, tapering to an acuminate tip, scabrid on both surfaces
and on the margins, flaccid, bright green. Sheaths somewhat keeled,
usually harshly rough with retrorsely directed hooks occasionally smooth
(var. glabra). Ligule ovate- or oblong—acute, 4-6 mm. long.
/ntlorescence an ovate to oblong or even pyramidal panicle, 7°5-20 cm.
long, erect or nodding, diffuse or contracted; axis smooth or rough
68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
branches in distant semi-whorls of 4—5(mostly 5) unequal, scaberulous,
filiform, sinuate, the longest upto 7:5 cm., usually much shorter and
undivided for more than half their length, distantly or closely branched ;
ultimate branchlets 2-6 spiculate; lateral pedicels very short, scabrid.
Spikelets ovate- to oblong-acute, 4-5 mm. long, usually crowded,
3-4-flowered, usually green, sometimes tinged with purple. Lower glume
2-2-5 mm. long, 1 mm, wide, curved on the back, very narrowly
Fig. 18. Poa trivialis Linn., x 10
lanceolate-acuminate, subulate in profile, 1-nerved,scabrid on the keel,
scaberulous on the dorsal surface. Upper glume 3-35 mm. long,
1-5 mm. wide, broadly Janceolate- or ovate-acute when flattened, curved
and scabrid on the kee], 3-nerved, scabrid on the nerves, narrowly hyaline
on the margins. Lemma 2-5-3 mm. long or even 3:5 mm. long,
1:5 mm. wide, rather firm, slightly curved on the back, oblong-obtuse-
subacute when flattened, conspicuously 5-nerved, ciliate or not on the
keel to the middle and occasionally ciliate on the side nerves elsewhere
smooth and glabrous, minutely granular-punctate all over the dorsal
surface. Wool present, very copious. Ahachilla smooth and glabrous,
continued beyond the topmost floret and carrying a rudimentary floret.
Palea narrowly elliptic, shorter than the lemma, scabrid on the keels.
Anthers 1:25-1:75 mm. long or a little longer.
Ind. Or: Himalaya; Kyelang, 3,400 m., 5 July 1941, 4. Z. Bor
13197,
Madras; Nilgiris, Ootacamund 2,300 m., June 1883, Gamble 12095
(introduced); Perumal, 1,700 m., July 1917? Rev. A. Sauliéres
1157; Kodaikanal, 2,300 m., August 1917? Rev. Van Malderen
1230.
Tibet:. Yatung, 3,300 m., 18 June 1945, Bor ef Kiratram 20148.
Typical European P. ¢rivialzs L. and almost~ certainly introduced
wherever it has been found in India.
var. glabra (Doell) Lunge.
Afghanistan, Kurrum Valley, 1879, Aztchison 295, 308.
THE GENUS POA LINN, IN INDIA 69
VIII. STOLONIFERAE
23. Poa alpigena (Blytt) Lindm., Svensk. Fanerogamfl. 91 (1918).
P. pratensis Linn. var. alpigena Fr., Summ. Veg. 76 (1846) nomen.
P. pratensis Linn. var. alpigena Blytt, Norg. Flora, 130 (1861) with
description.
P. poophagorum Bor var. lanata Bor in Kew Bull. 1948, 143 (1948).
A perennial rhizomatous grass with a characteristic curved under-
ground stem. Culms up to 15 cm. tall, occasionally taller, smooth
and glabrous, terete, 2—3-noded; nodes glabrous, covered by the
sheaths. Leaf-dlades flat, linear-acute, tapering rather abruptly to a
somewhat stout point, bright-green, scabrid on the margins, smooth or
minutely scabrous, glabrous on both surfaces, up to 7 cm. long,
1:°5-3 mm. wide, upper leaves not more than 3 cm. long by 1:5 mm.
wide. Sheaths rather tight, longer than the internodes, markedly
striate, very green, when old becoming scarious and slipping from the
culms, very smooth and glabrous. Lzgu/e membranous, rounded at the
tip, 1:5 mm. long.
Inflorescence a panicle up to 7 cm. long by 1:5 cm. wide, rather
dense, erect, variegated with purple hues; branches 2-—5-nate
at the lowest node, slightly rough, rebranching and carrying few
spikelets. Spikelets up to 4 mm. long, often somewhat longer, 3-4-
flowered, elliptic-lanceolate in shape when young, becoming wedge-
shaped when older, Lower glume 2°5-3 mm. long, l-1°5-1°8 mm. wide
when flattened, 3-nerved, elliptic-oblong-acute in shape, narrowly
hyaline all along the margins, green in between the lateral nerves,
smooth and glabrous except for the upper half of the keel which is
scabrid. Upper glumes 2:5-3 mm. long, 1:5-2 mm. wide when flattened,
broadly elliptic-oblong-acute, 3-nerved, broadly hyaline on the margins,
smooth and glabrous except on the upper half of the keel which is
scabrid. Lowest /emma 3°75 mm. long, 2°25 mm. wide when flattened,
oblong in shape tapering to an acute tip, hyaline at the tip and on the
margins, with a streak of violet below the hyaline portion at the tip,
otherwise bright green, 5-nerved, very long ciliate on the keel in the
lower half or two-thirds, and on the lateral nerves, scabrid on the keel
above, smooth and glabrous on the dorsal surface; intermediate nerves
faint. ARhachilla smooth and glabrous. Wool present, very long and
copious. Stamens 3; anthers 15 mm. long. VPalea 3:25 mm, long,
narrowly elliptic-obtuse in outline, 2-keeled, armed on the keels with
antrorsely directed sharp teeth.
Tibet: Rongshar Valley, 3,090 m., -28 June 1924, Flower pale
yellow, sandy soil in bed of gorge, Rk. W.G. Hingston 2 and 146;
Shikar, 4,500 m., 8 July 1924, alluvial soil in valley bed, R.W.G.
Flingston ;; Yatung, Hobson; Yatung, 4,000 m., 30 May 1945,
NV. L. Bor 19448, a grass growing in swampy ground; Gyantse,
July-September 1904, Capt. Walton; Kamba Jong, 8-10 July
1903, Younghusband 28.
Ind. Or: Madras, Griffiths, Lindley 1830 ex Herb. Benth.
Of the above cited specimens, that supposed to originate in Madras
is almost certainly an error probably due to a mixing of labels. All the
Tibetan specimens possess the characteristically curved base of P. alpz-
gena (Blytt) Lind,
10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
24, Poa angustifolia Linn., Sp. Pl. ed. 1, 99 (1753).
P. pratensis Linn. 8B axgustzfolia Sm., Flor. Brit. 105 (1800).
A perennial tufted grass with Here aoi cal shoots and with hard,
widely spreading, scaly rhizomes. Czlms often single in the tuft,
30-90 cm. tall, smooth and glabrous, with a stout base, usually
erect, less ation ascending from a shortly prostrate base, covered
below with the disintegrating sheaths of previous years. Vicmies
of two kinds, those of the vegetative shoots 10-30 cm. long, condu-
plicate and threadlike, not more than 1 mm. broad when flattened,
smooth and glabrous or very minutely scabrid on the margins, with
a stout tip; those of the stems shorter and broader but not much
broader, but in any event shorter and narrower than those of Poa
pratensis Linn., slightly rough and tapering to a stout point, glabrous,
dull green above, often somewhat greyish, smooth shining and keeled
below. Skeaths rather tight, shorter than the internodes, smooth and
glabrous, striate. Lzgzzle membranous, truncate, up to 2 mm. long,
usually very much shorter.
Fig. 19. Poa angustifolia Linn., x10
Intlorescence an oblong somewhat pyramidal panicle 5-10 cm.
long, up to 5 cm. broad; branches 2-5-nate, usually 5-nate at the
lowest node, scabrid, flexuotis, spreading and somewhat erect, sparsely
branched and carrying few spikelets. Lower glume 2 mm. long,
0-8 mm. wide, lanceolate-acuminate in shape when flattened, 1-nerved,
narrowly hyaline on the margins, scabrid on the keel in the upper half.
Upper glume 2:5 mm. long, 1'5 mm. wide, hyaline on the margins,
3-nerved, curved on the back, smooth and glabrous, scabrid on the keel
in the upper half. Lemma 25-3 mm. long, straight or slightly curved
on the back, oblong-obtuse when flattened, conspicuously 5-nerved,
ciliate on the keel in the lower half, scabrid above, ciliate on the
marginal nerves below, smooth and glabrous on the dorsal surface,
glandular-punctate, hyaline at the tip of the lemma and also on the
margins, sometimes suffused with yellow or purple. Woo/ present,
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THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 7
copious. Rhachzlla smooth and glabrous. Stamens3; anthers 1:5 mm.
long, linear. Palea shorter than the lemma, armed on the keels with
fine antrorse teeth.
Ind. Or: Datmir, 2,000 m., 6 June 1891, Duthze sn.
Kashmir, Liddar Valley, 8 June 1891, Dai: 25778; Srinagar,
2,000 m., 8 May 1892, Duthze 108 50 ; Pembiana Valley,
2,700 m., 3 August 1878, A. C. Levinge.
Tehri Garhwal, near Lambatach, 2-3,000 m., 20 May 1897, Duthie
19835.
A species which is quite distinct from P. pratensis Linn. in habit as
well as having smaller spikelets and narrow almost setaceous leaves.
25. Poa asperifolia Bor, in Kew Bull. 1952, 130 (1952).
A perennial rhizomatous grass. Culms up to 50 cm. tall, erect or
slightly decumbent at the base, very smooth and glabrous, usually
4-noded; nodes concealed by the sheaths. Leaf-blades up to 12 cm.
long, 2°5 mm. wide, very asperulous on both surfaces, especially to-
wards the blunt stout tip, scabrid on the margins, linear, tapering to the
tip, flat or more usually folded and almost setaceous in appearance.
Leat-sheaths concealing the nodes, usually tight or somewhat loose
below and slipping from the culms, smooth and glabrous, striate.
Ligule membranous, 3-6 mm. long, oblong-obtuse.
Inflorescence a panicle about 15 cm. long; branches, especially the
lower, very long, up to 10 cm. long, flexuous, rebranching and carrying
a few spikelets at the tip, scabrid, occastonally smooth ; lowest branches
2—5-nate, bare for 3 cm. or more and then rebranching. Spzkelets
oblong-elliptic in shape, 5-5:5 mm. long, 3-flowered, often suffused
with purple and yellow. Lower glume 2:5-3 mm. long, 1 mm. broad,
oblong-acute when flattened, acuminate in profile, very narrowly
hyaline on the margins, smoothand glabrous, except for the upper part
of the keel, l-nerved, sometimes sub-3-nerved, suffused with purple.
Upter glume 3°5-3:75 mm. long, 2 mm. broad, elliptic-oblong-acute in
shape, 3-nerved, slightly curved on the black, suffused with purple, with
a narrow band of hyaline tissue along the margins, smooth and
glabrous, apart from the scabrid upper half of the keel. Lemma 3-5-
4 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, elliptic-oblong or obovate-acute, almost straight
on the back, 5-nerved, shortly hyaline at the tip and none the margins,
ciliate on the keel at the base and along the lateral nerves at the base,
very shortly hairy between the nerves at the base only, otherwise
smooth and glabrous, conspicuously glandular-punctate on the dorsal
surface. Wool completely absent. Aachilla smooth or slightly warty.
Anthers 1:5-1:'7 mm. long. Palea shorter than the lemma, narrowly
elliptic-oblong in shape, scabrid on the keels.
Tibet: Pembu La, 10-15 miles north of Lhasa, September 1904,
_. A. J. Walton; Gautsa, 4,000 m., 16 May 1945, Bor et Kivatram
20359 (Type).
A fine species which resembles P. pratensis L.. but differs from it in
the very rough leaves, shape of the spikelets, the absence of wool and
the indistinct nervation of the lemma.
V2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
26, Poa jaunsarensis Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 143 (1948).
A perennial grass with creeping rhizomes. Culms erect from a
shortly decumbent base which is clothed with pale yellow, scarious
bases of old sheaths, leafy. Leaf-blades folded, longer than the sub-
tending sheath, rather stiff, almost erect, up to 20cm. long by 3-4 mm.
wide when flattened, scabrid on the margins and onthe upper and lower
surfaces near the short tip, linear, tapering to a firm tip. Leaf-sheaths
rather inflated, covering the nodes, slipping from the culms in the lower
parts, but retaining their position above although rather loose, smooth
and glabrous, striate, upper sheaths enclosing the base of the panicle.
edt a pointed, membranous scale, 2:5-4'5 mm. long, scabrid on the
ack.
Intlorescence an oblong panicle issuing from the topmost leaf-sheath
10 cm. long by 2:5 cm. broad, with somewhat crowded branches and
spikelets ; branches erect, 2-nate or single at the base, if the latter, then
almost immediately branching, scabrid, glabrous, but slightly scabrid.
Spikelets normally about 5 mm. long, 2-3-flowered. Lower glume
2:75-3'5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, lanceolate-ovate or oblong-acute in
shape when flat, definitely acuminate in profile, 1-nerved, occasionally
3-nerved, slightly curved on the back, smooth and glabrous, except for
the markedly scabrid keel, hyaline otherwise. Upper glume 3:5-3:75 mm.
long, 2 mm. wide when flattened, slightly curved on the back, elliptic-
oblong-acute in shape, 3-nerved, broadly hyaline on the margins,
smooth and glabrous, except for the very scabrid keel. Lemma
3°5—4'5 mm. long by 2 mm. broad, slightly curved on the back in the
lower third, broadly oblong-elliptic-obtuse in shape when flattened,
5-nerved, ciliate on keel and side nerves, glabrous on the dorsal surface
between the nerves. Wool present, fairly copious, Rhachilla smooth
and glabrous. Antheysabout 1 mm.long. Keels of palea scabrid.
Ind. Or: Kumaon: Kuthi Yangti Valley, 4-4,500 m., 30 July
1886, Duthte 6224 (Type). ;
Jaunsar: Harke Dun, 3,700 m.,12 June 1891, C. G. Rogers.
Ladakh: Leh, 4,000 m., September 1848, T. Thomson.
Lahul: Kyelang, 4,000 m., 14 July 1941, 4, LZ. Bor 8727.
This species resembles ?. pratenszs but the spikelets are larger and
the ligules very much longer.
27. Poa pratensis Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1, 67 (1753).
A closely tufted, perennial grass with both intravaginal shoots
and widely creeping, hard, scaly rhizomes. Culms usually tall, up to
80 cm. high, stout, terete, smooth and glabrous, leafless above. Leaf-
blades linear, always flat, shortly tapering to a stout point, firm, or in
shade, flaccid, of two kinds, those at the base longer and up to 25 cm.
long, those of the culm shorter up to 5 cm. long, either kind not more
than 4 mm. broad, glabrous or very rarely hairy, scabrid on the mar-
gins and on the nerves below, dark greenin colour. Sheaths of the
lowez part of the stem much shorter than the leaves; those of the upper
part of the stem much longer, smooth and glabrous, Zzigz/le short, not
above 2 mm. long, truncate, often minutely scabrid on the outer ©
surface.
Intlorescence an ovate or oblong panicle very compact and dense at
first but widely spreading at flowering time, up to 10 cm, long; lowest
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 73
whorl of branches most often 5-nate occasionally 4-nate and quite
rareiy 2-3-nate; branches scabrid, sometimes smooth at the joint of
origin, bare for half their length, rebranching and carrying crowded
spikelets at the tips. SAzkelets oblong-elliptic in shape up to 5°5 mm.
long, 2-5-flowered. Lower glume 2-2°5 mm. long, 0°8-1 mm. wide,
lanceolate-acute or shortly-acuminate, curved on the back, l-nerved,
but occasionally 3-nerved, hyaline on the margins, scabrid on the
keel, sometimes suffused with purple. Opfer glume elliptic-lanceolate-
Or even ovate-acute when flattened, 2-5-3 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, hyaline
Fig. 20. Poa pratensis Linn., x 10
on the margins, 3-nerved, curved on the back, smooth and glabrous,
except for the scabrid upper half of the keel, often suffused with purple.
Lemma 3-3'5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, oblong-subobtuse when flattened,
conspicuously 5-nerved, hyaline at the tip and along the margins, ciliate
on the keels in the lower half onthe marginal nerves, scabrid on the
upper part of the keel, smooth and glabrous elsewhere, the whole of
the dorsal surface granular-punctate which gives the lemma distinctive
appearance, when either green or dry, under a 10 x lens: this pitting
does not extend on to the hyaline portion. Wool extremely copious,
sufficient to hold the ripe florets together after they have parted from
the rhachilla. Ahachilla smooth and glabrous, continued beyond the
topmost floret and carrying a rudimentary floret. Aynihers 1-5-2 mm.
long. Palea shorter than the lemma, narrowly elliptic-truncate in shape,
scabrid on the keels.
Ind. Or: Baltistan, Chatpani nullah, 3,500-4,000 m., 28 August 1893
Duthie 13838 ; Simla, 2,000 m., 30 May 1902, Bourne 3702; Gilgit,
Naltar Valley, 3-3,500 m., 4 August 1893, Duth7e 12392; Janusar,
Chakrata, 2,300 m., April 1891, Gamble 22985; Tehri Garhwal,
Damodar Valley, 2 July 1883, Duthie a8 (a). Typical European
P. pratensis L.
74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi, 51
IX. TICHOPOA
28. Poa compressa Linn., Sp. Pl. ed. 1, 69 (1753).
- A perennial grass with extensively creeping rhizomes. Culms
20-50 cm. tall, strongly compressed, smooth and glabrous, rather stiff,
decumbent and rooting at the base, 4—-7-noded, the upper node half-way
up the stem. Leaf-blades up to 7 cm. long, 1 to 4 mm. wide, linear,
abruptly tapering to the rather stout tip, scabrid on the margins and at
the tip, rather soft. Leaf-sheaths strongly compressed, with a very
sharp keel, smooth and glabrous, markedly striate, rather loose and
often slipping from the culm, the upper as long asthe blades. Lzgales
Short, blunt, at the most 1°5 mm. long.
Fig. 21. Poa compressa Linn., x 10
Inflorescence a panicle, 4-7 cm. long, dense and compact before
anthesis, then somewhat loose but never widely spreading; lower
branches often in pairs, frequently more, in threes, fours or even fives,
angled, flexuous, very scabrid, sparingly branched. Sfzkelets about
4°5 mm. long, 3-7 flowered, oblong-obtuse in shape, often glaucous or
yellowish, seated on short pedicels. Lower glume 2-25 mm. long,
1 mm. wide, slightly curved on the back, narrowly elliptic-oblong-acute
in shape, 3-nerved, with a narrow hyaline border, smooth and glabrous,
except for the upper half of the keel which is scabrid. Upper glume
2-2°5 mm. long, 1:55 mm. wide, oblong-elliptic or obovate-acute in
shape, with a narrow hyaline border, 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous,
apart from the scabrid upper half of the keel. Lemma 2:25-2:75 mm.
long, 1:55 mm. wide, almost straight on the back in profile, oblong-
obtuse in shape when flattened, obscurely 5-nerved, with the lateral
nerves very near the hyaline margin and the intermediate nerves very
faint, hyaline at the tip, ciliate on the lower half of the keel, scabrid on
the upper half, ciliate on the intermediate nerves, for the rest smooth
and glabrous. Ahachilla smooth and glabrous, produced beyond the
uppermost floret and crowned with a rudimentary floret. Wool absent
or very scanty. Azthers1:5 mm. long. /alea narrowly elliptic-ablong
in shape, scabrid on the keels, shorter than the lemma. .
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA . 75
Ind. Or: Simla, 2,400 m., 28 June 1918, WH. AH. Rich 845.
There is only one gathering of this common European species in
Kew Herbarium. It is typical P. compressa and may possibly, even
probably, have been introduced.
X, LANATIFLORAE
29. Poa pagophila Bor, in Kew Bull., 1949, 239 (1949).
P. flexuosa of the Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 342 (1896) non Sm. nec. Vahl,
A tufted perennial grass with stiff stems clothed at the base with
old scarious sheaths, surrounded at the base with innovation shoots
bearing numerous filiform leaves. Cz/ms up to 30 cm. tall, often much
_ shorter, especially at high altitudes, smooth and glabrous. Culm Jeaf-
élades much shorter than their sheaths, lying almost flat against the
culm rarely divaricate, the topmost not more than 3:5 em. long, the
inferior somewhat longer, linear, tapering to a stout point, scabrid on
the margins and on both surfaces, not more than 2:5 mm. wide, those
of the innovation shoots comparatively longer up to 10 cm. long, rolled
or folded to become almost filiform. Sheaths tight or loose, becoming
scarious when old, those of the culm very long, those of the innovation
shoots very short. Ligwzles up to 3°55 mm, long, smooth and glabrous,
oblong in shape tapering to an obtuse point, entire on the margins.
F
Fig. 22. Poa pagophila Bor, x 10
Intlorescence a pyramidal panicle upto 10 cm. long, 4-5 cm. wide.
Axis of the panicle smooth and glabrous, branches in pairs, almost
erect at first, diverging from the axis, becoming horizontal or even
completely deflexed, a common feature is one of a pair horizontal and
the other pointing downwards, the lowest pair often devoid of spikelets
for 3 cm., somewhat flexuous or straight, often members of a pair of
different lengths, glabrous, smooth or very minutely rough, sparsely
branching and carrying a few crowded spikelets at the tips. SAzkelets
up to 5°5 mm. long, 3-4-flowered. Lower glume 2°5-3 mm. long, 1 mm.
wide, narrowly elliptic-acute in shape when flattened, 1-nerved, narrow-
ly hyaline on the margin, scabrid on the keel, often suffused with violet,
Ce JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISD. SOCKEDY, Wols
gently curved on the back. Ufpjer glume 3-3'5 mm. long, 1:6 mm. wide,
elliptic-acute in shape, slightly curved on the back, 3-nerved, hyaline on
the margins and at the tip, smooth and glabrous, except for the scabrid
keel, often suffused with purple. Lemma 4-4'5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide,
obscurely or subconspicuously 5-nerved, almost straight on the back,
hyaline at the tip and along the margins, ciate on the keel in the lower
half, scabrid in the upper half, ciliate on the lateral nerves below, scabrid
all over the dorsal surface and often with a few short hairs below or with
a felty pubescence; lateral nerves rather close to the margins. Wool
scanty or rarely absent. /hachilla smooth or warty or even minutely
hairy, produced beyond the topmost floret, carrying a rudimentary
floret. Axnthers 2-3 mm. long. Palea 3:5-3:75 mm. long, scabrid on the
keels, oblong-elliptic or narrowly lanceolate in shape, pectinately scabrid
on the keels.
Ind. Or: Sikkim, Yeumtang, 4,609 m., 6 Sept. 1849, /. D. Hooker
(Type); Lachen, 4,000 m.,9 June 1849, /. D. Hooker; and many -
other places in Sikkim.
Garhwal, 4-4,500 m., 16 Sept. 1885, Duthze s.n.;
Kumaon, Nipchaung Valley, 4,500-5,000 m., 31 Aug. 1884,
Duthie 3589; N. W. India, Royle 336.
Tibet: Yatung, 3,500 m, 5 Jun. 1945, ‘On wet sand in the bed of
the Amochu,’ Bor et Kiratram 20031; Phari, 5,500 m., 17 June
1945, ‘On Alpine slopes,’ Bor et Kiratram 20389.
A very common species in the eastern Himalaya. It is rather un-
common west of Kumaon. It forms a large part of the vegetation on
the Alpine slopes and must be of considerable importance for grazing
animals.
30. Poa falconeri Hook. f., Flor. Brit. Ind., 7, 342 (1896).
A tall perennial grass with stems erect from a more or less
geniculate base, leafy (stoloniferous ?), Culms up to 75 cm. tall, terete,
smooth and glabrous, clothed at the base by short leathery sheaths
which have fallen from the stem and are persistent, nodes smooth and
glabrous, often covered by the sheaths. Leaf-blades up to 20 cm.
long by 4 mm. broad, linear froma shortly rounded base or rather
broader in the middle, tapering gradually to a somewhat stout tip,
rather strongly nerved, scabrid above and below and also on the
margins, glabrous, fiat, usually becoming plicate towards the tip,
flaccid, upper usually longer than the subtending sheath. S/eaths
rather loose, except the uppermost, but all tend to slip from the
culm, smooth and glabrous. Ligwzles scarious, truncate, rounded or
acute, up to 4 mm. long.
Intlorescence a very narrow lax nodding panicle 8-12 cm. long, with
few branches and spikelets; branches smooth, flexuous, erect, 1-2 at
the lower nodes, often branching once, each branchlet ending in a
raceme of spikelets; branchlets rough; branches single towards the
top, often carrying only one spikelet. Sfike/ets oblong-elliptic when
young 2- occasionally 3- flowered—when 2-flowered the long prolongation
of the rhachilla is very characteristic—florets diverging widely at anthesis.
Lower glume 3°5-4 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, slightly curved on the back,
linear-oblong-acute when flattened, 1- occasionally 3-nerved, gland-pitted
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA va]
on the dorsal surface, smooth and glabrous, save on the keel which is
scabrid, very narrowly hyaline on the margins or not at all. Offer
glume 45-5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide when flattened, 3-nerved, gland-
pitted on the dorsal surface, slightly curved on the back, elliptic- or
subovate-oblong-acute, smooth and glabrous except for the rough upper
half of the keel, occasionally rough on the side nerves, only slightly
hyaline along the margins. Lowest lemma 4-5 mm. long and just under
2 mm. wide, inconspicuously 5-nerved, oblong- or elliptic-oblong-acute
Fig. 23. Poa falconeri Hook. f., x 10
or obtuse in shape when flattened, scabrid on the upper half of the keel,
very shortly ciliate in the lower half, membranous in texture, narrowly
hyaline at the tip and along the margins, gland-pitted all over the dorsa,
surface and covered with short rather coarse hairs in the lower half.
Wool quite absent. Ahachilla produced beyond the topmost floret,
up to 2°5 mm. long, minutely hairy or warty, crowned by a rudimentary
floret. Antherys3mm. long. Lodicules 2, unequally 2-toothed. Palea
scabrid on the keels with rather short teeth, surface somewhat hairy
between the keels. ~ | ;
Ind. Or: Western Himalaya, Jumnotri to Kasauli, Falconer (Type)
Tihri Garhwal, Phulaldaru in Nila Valley, 4,000 m., 16 August
1883, Duthie 288.
Kashmir, above Pahlgam, 4,000 m., 14 August 1925, R&. R.
Stewart 8789.
Manali, 3,700 m., 2 August 1941, 4. Z. Bor 15559.
A fine grass growing in alpine meadows, rather rare.
31. Poa nitidesspiculata Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 140 (1948),
A perennial stoloniferous grass. Culms up to 30 cm. tall, smooth and
elabrous, most minutely glandular punctate, terete, erect, or geniculate
below, covered at the base with the remains of old sheaths, rooting at
the basal nodes, 2—-3-nodedabove the base ; nodes smooth and glabrous,
exposed. Leaf-blades ascending, up to 12 cm. long, 2°5 mm. wide when
78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,. Vol, 51
flattened, linear-acute, convolute, filiform, ascending, hairy on the
rounded margin at the base, scabrid on both surfaces and on the
margins and very markedly so on the cartilaginous stout tip, the lower
flat and short, very scabrid on both surfaces and on the margins.
Sheaths tight on the culm, slipping from it below, smooth and glabrous
or covered with downwardly directed short hairs, larger than their
leaves. Ligule up to 4 mm. long, very scabrid on the outer surface
or smooth.
Fig. 24. Poa nitide-spiculata Bor, x 10
| Intlorescence a lax, pyramidal panicle with spreading, flexuous
branches, up to 16 cm. long by 8 cm. broad ; axis capillary, smooth and
glabrous, lowest internode 3:5 cm. long; branches spreading, flexuous,
capillary, almost always 2 at a node, very rarely 1 or 3, the latter
occurring because one of the branches branches immediately, unbranch-
ed for as much as 3:5 cm. which is scabrid; branchlets usually smooth
and glabrous but sometimes minutely and distantly. scabrid; branchlets
flexuous, capillary, scabrid until they branch again, the secondary
branchlets carrying spikelets, usually scaberulous.. Sfzkelets elliptic or
ellipticcoblong in shape, up to 7 mm. long, 2-3-flowered, seated on
pedicels 3-4 mm. long; terminal long pedicelled. Lower glume 4°5-
4°75 mm. long, 1:5 mm. broad, straight or slightly curved on the back,
lanceolate- or oblong-acute in shape when flattened, 3-nerved, smooth
and glabrous except for the keel which is scabrid in the upper two-
thirds, very minutely glandular-punctate on the dorsal surface ; margins
with a broad hyaline band which is very faintly suffused with pink or
mauve. Upper glume 5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, almost straight on the
back, 3-nerved, oblong-elliptic- to almost obovate-elliptic-acute in shape
when flattened, smooth and glabrous except for the scabrid keel in the
upper half, minutely glandular-punctate on the dorsal surface, margins
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 79
with a broad hyaline band reaching almost to the lateral nerves, the
band often very pale pink or mauve. Lowest lemma 6-6'5 mm. long,
2 mm. broad, oblong-obtuse in shape when flat, very broadly hyaline
along the margin, up to the lateral nerve, ciliate on the keel in
the lower half, scabrid above, not ciliate on the lateral or intermediate
nerves, covered on the dorsal surface in the lower quarter with a moderate
covering of thick, short, white hairs. Rhachzlla joints hairy, especially
the prolongation (which carries a rudimentary floret) and the one above
the second floret. Pal/ea rather shorter than the lemma, 2-keeled, lanceo-
late-acute or -obtuse, scabrid on the keels, hairy between the keels.
Tibet. Valley running into the Teesta, half a mile above Tangu
4,500-—4,600 m., 13 July 1903, Younghusband.
A very distinct species with glaucous shining spikelets.
32. Poa gammieana Hook. f., Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 345 (1896).
A leafy, perennial grass. Cu/ms up to 60 cm. tall, stout, smooth and
glabrous, terete, about 6-noded, leafy to the panicle ; nodes smooth and
glabrous covered by the sheaths or not. Leaf-blades linear-acuminate, up
to 10 cm. long and to 7 mm. broad tapering gradually to a sharp
point, very coarsely scabrid on the margins especially towards the base
where the teeth are directed backwards, in contrast to the distaliy
Pig. 25. Poa gammieana Hook. f., x10
directed teeth at the tip, very coarsely scabrid on the definite midrib
below with coarse teeth which are directed towards the base, very often
scaberulous on the other nerves on the lower surface. Sheaths keeled,
somewhat loose, slipping from the culm, scarious below, striate,
8U JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
glabrous, minutely asperulous to very scabrid in robust specimens on
the outer surface, especially on the nerves, coarsely scabrid on the leaf
midrib which is carried down as a keel on the leaf-sheath, with the
coarse teeth directed towards the base. Ligules up to 4 mm. long,
very much shorter below, scabrid on the outer surface with down-
wardly directed teeth.
Inflorescence a panicle, at first contracted then with spreading
branches up to 10 cm. long by 6 cm. broad; branches of the panicle
smooth and glabrous, the lower binate or solitary, loosely branched at
the tip only ; tranchlets smooth, short, carrying few spikelets on short,
minutely scabrid pedicels. SAzkelets up to 7 mm. long, elliptic-oblong-
acute in shape, 2—3-flowered, green. Lower glume 4 mm. long, 1 mm.
broad, slightly curved on the keel, linear- or lanceolate- or oblong-acute
when flattened, almost awl-shaped in profile, 3-nerved, glabrous, very
minutely glandular punctate on the surface, rough on the upper half of
the keel, Upper glume 4:5 mm. long, 1:5 mm. broad, slightly curved
on the back, 3-nerved, oblong-acute in shape when flattened, minutely
glandular punctate on the dorsal surface. Lowest lemma 4:5~5 mm.
long, 2:5 mm. wide, oblong-obtuse in shape when flattened, hyaline at
the tip only and very narrowly so along the margins, distinctly 5-nerved
with the lateral nerves long and conspicuous, silky ciliate on the keel
in the lower two-thirds and on the marginal nerves in the lower third,
minutely asperulous in the lower half of the dorsal surface and scabrid
with nerves near the tip or with longer hairs, glandular punctate all
over the dorsal surface, scabrid on the keel in the upper third. Wool
scanty. Rhachilla warty or shortly hairy, second joint 1 mm. long,
third up to 2 mm. long, carrying a rudimentary floret. Lodicules
subquadrate, shortly 2-lobed. Falea a little shorter than the lemma,
narrowly elliptic-oblong in shape, broadly truncate at the tip, shortly
ciliate on the lower halves of the keels, armed with short antrorse
teeth in the upper half; occasionally cilia nearly absent. Azzthers 1 mm.
long or a little longer.
Ind. Or: Sikkim, Tankra Mountain, 4,000 m., 28 August 1892,
G. A. Gammie 641 (Type).
A fine species with characteristic broad green acuminate leaves
which turn brown on drying. The lemmas are very strongly nerved
and the paleas semipilose.
33, Poa eleanorae Bor, in Kew Bulli. 1948, 142 (1948).
A tall perennial grass, clothed at the base with pale yellow, scarious
sheaths, which fall away from the internodes and disintegrate into
brownish fibres. Czdms up to 40 cm. tall, erect from a geniculate base,
rooting at the basal nodes, very smooth and glabrous, striate ; nodes
smooth and glabrous, exposed above the top of the sheaths. Leaf-
blades ascending or erect, up to 18 cm. long by 3 mm. wide, convolute,
sparsely scabrid on both surfaces near the sheaths and in the middle,
coarsely and copiously scabrid at and towards the short tip, scabrid or
almost smooth on the margins. Szeaths, apart from the uppermost
which extends almost to the panicle, rather loose, those below very
loose and slipping away from the culm, becoming pale and scarious,
very smooth and glabrous, striate, those above equalling or longer than
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 7 81
their leaves. Ligules membranous, sharply convex upwards, very
scabrid on the dorsal surface, 2—-2°5 mm. long.
Fig. 26. Poa eleanorae Bor, x 10
Panicle up to 24 cm. long of few widely spaced nodes, 10 cm.
broad ; nodes as much as 8 cm. apart below, usually much less, 3-4 cm.
above; axis smooth and glabrous, angled; branches long and flexuous,
usually binate at the lowest node, sometimes soon branching and giving
an appearance of being ternate, smooth and glabrous, or slightly rough ;
branchlets short, flexuous, carrying a few short-pedicelled spikelets.
Spikelets wedge-shaped, 2-flowered, dull purple in colour, 6°5 mm. long,
3mm. wide at the top with the lemma only just emerging from the
apex. Lower glume 6-6'5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, slightly curved on the
back, oblong-acute in shape when flattened, not hyaline on the margins,
uniformly coloured with dull purple, 3«nerved, scabrid on the keel.
Upper glume 65-7 mm. long, 2:5 mm. broad, oblong-acute in shape
when flattened, slightly curved on the back, 3-nerved, scabrid on the
keel, not hyaline on the margins, glabrous, coloured uniformly dull-
purple. Lowest lemma 5-6 mm. long, 2°5 mm. broad, almost straight on
the back, oblong-elliptic- or ovate-obtuse in shape when flattened, hyaline
at the tip and narrowly so along the margins, greenish or more or less
suffused with purple, inconspicuously 5-nerved (intermediate nerves
faint), glabrous on the dorsal surface apart from the lower third of the
keel which is shortly ciliate, scabrid on the rest of the keel, covered
with asperities on the whole of the dorsal surface except at the hyaline
6
82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
tip. Wool absent or negligible. Ahachilla joints up to 1:5 mm. long,
very minutely hairy, produced beyond the last fertile floret and carrying
a rudimentary floret. Antherys minute, 0°75-1 mm. long. Lodicules 2,
elliptic-acute. Palea oblong, 4°5-5 mm. long, scabrid on the keels and
on the surface between the keels.
Ind. Or.: Sikkim, August 1893, Dr. H. A. Cummins (Type) ;
Poa no. 4 J. D. Hooker.
Sikkim & Terai, Herb. Sulp. Kurz. s.n.
Bhutan: Gantong, September 1894, Dr. H. A. Cummins.
This fine species has spikelets which are comparatively large
and in which the lemmas are shorter than the glumes. Named in
honour of Eleanor Bor.
34, Poa burmanica Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 141 (1948).
A slender, tufted, perennial (?) grass, clothed at the base with dead
sheaths which are pale yellow in colour and disintegrate into brownish
fibres. Culms erect from a shortly creeping base, very slender, clothed
by the sheaths almost to the panicle, very smooth and glabrous. Leaf-
blades linear, tapering to a stout tip, the upper up to 3cm. long, 1°5 mm.
wide, firm and erect, the lower up to 6 cm. long, 1:5 mm. wide, rather
i Fig. 27. Poa burmanica Bor, x10
lax, very scabrid on the upper surface, smooth or very slightly scabrid
on the lower surface near the base, increasing in scabridity towards the
very scabrid tip, scabrid on the margins and particularly scabrid on the
rounded basal portion and at the tip. Sheaths on the culm tight, rather
looser below, while they slip from the culm at the base, the uppermost
sheath always much longer than its leaf, smooth and glabrous. Liguwle
white, scarious, 1 mm. long, very scabrid on the outer surface.
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN. INDIA 83
intlorescence a rather lax panicle of few branches and spikelets, up
to 10 cm. long, 5 cm. broad, oblong or pyramidal in shape; axis smooth
and glabrous; nodes up to 2-5 cm. apart; branches apparently always
in twos, up to 3 cm. long before branching very scabrid, flexuous,
capillary ; branchlets short, flexuous, capillary, scabrid, carrying few
spikelets ; pedicels scabrid, ‘short, except for those of terminal spikelets.
Spikelets elliptic or elliptic-oblong in shape, up to 5 mm. long, 2-3-
flowered. Lower glume awl-shaped in profile, 2°75—-3 mm. long, 0°5 mm.
wide, linear-acute .or lanceolate-acute or acuminate in shape when
flattened, almost straight on the back, l-nerved, smooth and glabrous
apart from the scabrid upper part of the keel, provided with a narrow
hyaline band on the margins, suffused with purple or purple-green.
Upper glume 3-3'75 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, elliptic-, oblong- or almost
obovate-acuminate when flattened, 3-nerved, scabrid on the keel 1n the
upper part and on the lateral nerves towards the tip, otherwise smooth
and glabrous. Lemma 4-45 mm. long,2 mm. wide, oblong-obtuse
when flattened, conspicuously 5-nerved, very shortly hyaline at the tip,
ciliate on the keel in the lower two-thirds passing by degrees into scabrid
hooks at the apex, shortly ciliate on the intermediate and lateral nerves
almost to the tip of the lemma, covered on the whole of the dorsal
surface with short, thick, appressed hairs, sometimes with longer white
hairs below, which are often thick and shaggy. Wool/copious. Rhachilla
Smooth and glabrous, produced beyond the uppermost tertile floret and
carrying a rudimentary floret. Avthers small, just under 1 mm. long.
Falea shorter than the lemma, 2'5—-3 mm.’long, oblong in shape, ciliate
on the lower half of the keels with shorter hairs above passing into
forwardly directed teetn or glabrous in the lower third, ciliate in the
middle third and scabrid above. |
Burma: Hpimaw Pass, 3,500 m., 8 June 1929, Swkoe 10074.
This species is closest to P. pagophzla Bor but differs from it by the
anthers being smaller and by the keels of the palea being semuvilese
not scabric,
35. Poa ludens Stewart, in Brittonia 5, 4, 420 (1945)..
P. pseudopratensis Hook. f., Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 340 (1896), non
Beyer (1891), nec Scribn. et Rydb. (1396).
A perennial grass with a thick rootstock, covered at the base with
many old scarious sheaths. Culms up to 60 cm. tall, smooth and
glabrous. Leaf-blades of two kinds: those of the stem much shorter
than their sheaths, vertical, not spreading, usually not more than 5 cm.
long, 1-3 mm. wide, rolled or folded, rather stitf, tapering from the base
to a stout point, scabrid on the margins, on the midrib below and often
On the upper surface, those on the lower sheaths very much longer
than the sheaths, varying in length from 5‘cm. to 25 cm., plicate and
twisted, 1:5—2 mm. wide, very scabrid on the margins, linear, tapering
to a stout abrupt tip. Skeaghs of two kinds: the basal very short 2~3cm,
longer or shorter ; those of the culm up to 15 cm., the latter rather loose
and slipping from the culm, all smooth and glabrous. Lzguwle very short,
exceptionally over 1 mm. long, usually only a membranous ring.
Inflorescence a loose panicle, up to 10 cm. long by 8 cm. wide
at full anthesis; axis smooth and glabrous, terete; branches in
84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
pairs at the nodes, at first erect, thereafter spreading widely, very
minutely scabrid at the base increasingly scabrid upwards, sparingly
branched, bearing groups of spikelets at the tips. Sfzkelets 555-6 mm.
long, 3-4-flowered, broadly elliptic-acute in shape, suffused with purple.
Lower glume 35-4 mm. long, 1:5 mm. broad, elliptic-oblong-acute when
flattened, hyaline on the margins, 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous
except the scabrid keel, finely granulate, suffused with purple. Upper
Fig. 28. Poa ludens R. R. Stewart, x 10
glume 4-5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, narrowly elliptic-oblong-acute in
shape when flattened, 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous, apart from} the
scabrid keel, finely granulate, hyaline on the margins. Lemma 4:5-5'5
mim. long, conspicuously 5-nerved, ciliate on the keel in the lower half
or two-thirds, scabrid on the upper third, gently curved on the back,
oblong-obtuse or oblong-obovate-obtuse in shape wher flattened, finely
granulate, ciliate on the marginal nerves, covered in the intervening
spaces between the nerves with a mat of short white hairs. Wool very
scanty or absent. ARhachilla minutely hairy or warty, produced beyond
the topmost spikelet and carrying a rudimentary floret. Azthers 2-3 mm.
long. /alea shorter than the lemma, scabrid on the keels.
Ind. Or: Sikkim, Lachen, 4,000 m., 16 July 1849, /. D. Hooker
(Type); Northeast Sikkim, 13 June 1849, Dv. H. A. Cummins.
Bhutan: Gantong, September 1893, Dr. H. A. Cummins.
Tibet: Yatung, 4,000 m., 14 June 1945, Bor et Kiratram 20178.
A fine robust grass with a purplish panicle bearing a distant resem-
blance to P. pratensis. The leaves are short and stout and are collected
at the base of the plant, Other features are a silky dorsal surface to the
lemma and sparse connecting wool and lower branches in pairs. These
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 85
serve to separate it from P. pratenszs L. but there are a number of
sheets in the Kew Herbarium which show a mixing of the essential
characters of each without in any way forming a series which gradually
deviates from the one to merge into the other. I believe them to be
hybrids between the two species which do overlap in their altitudinal.
ranges.
36. Poa gamblei Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 144 (1948).
A perennial grass with wide spreading rhizomes. Culms up to
45 cm. tall, clothed at the base with old sheaths, erect from a shortly
decumbent base, slender, minutely scabrid below the panicle, glabrous,
covered at the base with the scarious remains of old sheaths. Leaf-dlades
linear-acute ; upper very short, very firm, erect, 8 mm. long, 2 mm.
wide, folded, scabrid on both surfaces and the margins ; the lower up to
8cm. long, 3mm. wide, tapering gradually to a fine point, strongly
-nerved, scabrid on the margins, glabrous on both surfaces. Upper
sheaths tight, clasping the stem, scaberulous but glabrous; basal sheaths
scabrid, very loose, slipping from the culms and persistent. Lzgz/es short,
1:5 mm. long, rounded at the tip.
‘ntlorescence a long-exserted, spreading panicle up to 12 cm. long,
10 cm. broad, very lax; lower branches in pairs, up to 7 cm. long,
flexuous, scabrid, carrying few spikelets. SAzkelets 65 mm. long,
3—4-flowered, wedge-shaped, Lower glume 5 mm. long, 1:5 mm. wide,
narrowly elliptic-oblong-acute when flattened, purple, 3-nerved, not
hyaline on the margins, scabrid on the dorsal surface near the tip.
Opper glume 5:5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, broadly elliptic-acute when
flattened, 3-nerved, not hyaline on the margins, scabrid on the dorsal
surface near the tip. Lemma 5:5 mm. long, 2°5 mm. wide, oblong-
obtuse in shape, keeled on the back, rather firm, conspicuously S-nerved,
rounded and hyaline at the tip, purple towards the tip, yellow else-
where, rather scabrid on the dorsal surface, not ciliate on the keel or
nerves. Wool completely absent. Ahachtlla smooth and glabrous. .
Anthers 2°75 mm. long. Palea narrowly oblong, shorter than the lemma,
scabrid on the keels.
Ind. Or: Madras, Ootacamund, Nilgiris, 2,300 1n., September 1886,
J. S. Gamble 18129 (Typus); Cairn Hill, Nilgitis, 2,300 m.,
October 1889, J. S. Gamble 21378.
Kundahs, Nilgiris, May 1928, J/ayuranathan. -
A very distinct species with scabrid glumes and lemmas which are
tinged with violet. The glumes are longer than the lower lemma,
anthers 2°75 mm. long and there is no wool at the base of the lemma.
It looks more like P, Judens Stewart than any of the other Indian Poae
but the lemmas are firmer, scabrid and larger.
Two specimens have only been found in the type locality.
This species seems to be endemic to the Nilgiris —and has only been
collected twice in what is presumedly its home.
XI. GLABRATAE
37. Poa amoena Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 140 (1948).
A low species erowing in dense tufts, covered at the base with the
scarious remains of old sheaths, annual, with many fibrous roots,
8G JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Culms short and weak, leafy to the panicle, smooth and glabrous,
grooved, up to 4 cm. tall, overtopped by the leaves, 2-3—noded; nodes
smooth and glabrous. Leaf-blades up to 4 cm. long, 1 mm. wide for
leaves of upper leaf sheaths, 1°5 mm. for leaves from basal leaf sheaths,
linear, flat or more often conduplicate at least towards the tip, smooth
and glabrous or very minutely scabrid on the upper surface, scabrid
on the margins, tip stout, cartilaginous, scabrid. Sheaths of the
upper internodes tight, smooth and glabrous, green, extending almost
to the panicle, those of the basal nodes rather loose, but still loosely
enclosing the base of the stem, light coloured, shining, smooth and
glabrous, scarious or hyaline on the margins. Lzgules very short,
about 0'5 mm. long, broadly ovate-acute, lacerate,
Fig. 29. Poa amoena Bor, x 10
Inflorescence @ very contracted, almost spike-like panicle up to
2°5 cm. long by 6 mm. brodd, erect, hidden among the leaves ; branches
and branchlets short, erect, straight, angled, 1- to 2-nate below,
minutely scabrid, glabrous; axis angled, smooth and glabrous, or very
minutely scabrid. Spzkelets 3-4-flowered, up to 5 mm. long; elliptic in
shape when young; florets diverging widely at anthesis, pedicels often
short, very minutely scabrid. Lower glume (2:5)-4-4:75 mm. long,
1 mm. broad, oblong- or elliptic-oblong-acute in shape, narrowly
hyaline on the margins, glabrous, scabrid on the keel in the upper
half, faintly granular, gently curved on the back. Upper glume
(3:5)-4:5-5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, broadly elliptic- or broadly elliptic-
oblong-acute when flattened, gently curved on the back, glabrous,
scabrid on the keel in the upper portion, 3-nerved, faintly granular.
Lemma 3°5-4 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, broadly elliptic- oblong-obtuse in
shape when flattened, broadly hyaline on the margins in the upper third,
distinctly but not conspicuously 5-nerved, absolutely glabrous on the
dorsal surface, neither keel or nerves being ciliate or only very
minutely, definitely glandular-punctate on the dorsal surface. No trace
whatever of wool, Rhachilla minutely scabrid, produced beyond the
PEATE, V.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
)
F
|
!
\
|
Poa gamblei Bor
Photograph of holotype in Herb. Kew.
Prater VI
Jocurn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Determinavt!
e
?
Poa poophagorum Bor
Photograph of holotype in Herb, Kew,
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 87
topmost floret and carrying a rudimentary floret. Lodzcules broad,
3-toothed. Anthers minute, 0-6—0°75 mm. long. Palea oblong in shape,
3 mm. long, scabrid on the keels.
Ind. Or: Kumaon, Stvachey 26/2, P. annua?
A pretty little species, obviously growing at high altitudes, The
elumes are usually longer than the entirely glabrous lemmas which
have no connecting wool at the base. Conspicuous features are the
long scarious basal sheaths and the minute anthers.
38. Poa poophagorum Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 143 (1948),
A very densely tufted perennial. Culms up to 20 cm. tall, terete;
markedly striate, glabrous, very minutely scabrid below the panicle,
long—exserted, glabrous at the nodes. Leaf-blades about 3 cm. long,
1:5 mm. wide, iivolute on the margins, erect, not spfeading, linear in
shape, tapering somewhat abruptly to a stout acute point, very scabrid
and striate on the lower surface, scabrid on the upper surface and on the
margins. S/eaths rather loose, slipping from the culms, striate, glabrous,
often scabrous, hyaline on the margins, becoming scarious with age.
Ligule membranous, ovate-acute in shape, 2:5-3°5 mm. long.
Intlorescence a rather dense narrow panicle, scabrid at the top of
the long-exserted peduncle up to 5cm. long by 1:5 cm. wide; axis
angled,’ scabrid on the angles; branches and branchlets very short, not
more than 1:5 cm. long, scabrid. Spzkele¢ts 3 mm. long, 2-3-flowered,
elliptic, wedge-shaped at anthesis with florets widely spreading. Lower
glume 25-3 mm, long, 1 mm. wide, lanceolate-acute in shape,
3-nerved, scabrid on the keel and on the dorsal surface near the tip,
suffused with purple, curved on the back. Upper glume 3 mm. long,
1-5 mm. wide, elliptic-lanceolate-acute when flattened, 3-nerved, scabrid
on the keel and on the dorsal surface, especially near the tip, hyaline on
the margins, more strongly curved on the back. Lemma 2°75-3:25 mm.
long, 1°5 mm. wide, rather firm in texture, oblong-acute in shape when
flattened, 3-nerved with the outer nerves strongly marked and the
intermediate pair very faint, scabrid on the keel and on the dorsal
surface above, glandular-punctuate all over the dorsal surface, hyaline —
at the tip, narrowly so along the margins, with a yellowish band below
the hyaline tip followed by a suffusion of purple, almost entirely glab-
rous, sometimes a very few cilia at the base of the keel and on the
outer pair of nerves. JlVool absent or hardly any. Ashachzlla verrucose
or bristly. Stamens 3; anthers 1°5-2 mm. long. Falea oblong-acute
in shape, 2-keeled, finely scabrid on the keels, minutely dotted between
the keels.
Tibet: Temu La, 5,500 m., 1912, Rohmoo Lepcha 374; Chu-
molhari, 5,500 m., 1912 Rohmoo Lepcha 522; Gyangtse, 4,500 m.,
17 January 1910, Capt. Walton, I.M.S.; Kambajong, 26 July
1903, Major Younghusband 141; Tang La, 5,000 m. 1912,
Rohmoo Lepcha 310.
Sikkim: Kengna Lama, 4,500 m., 24 July 1849, 1 D. Hooker.
Tuneu, 23 July 1849, J. D. Hooker.
This species grows at very high altitudes in Sikkim and Tibet. It
has been confused with Poa attenuata Trin. in the past and no doubt
when that species was considered to be a taxonomic dust-bin, into which
83 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
all awkward specimens of Poa with arather dense inflorescence could
be cast, it fitted in very well. It is, however, very different from what
the Russians consider to be true P. attenuata Trin. in the restricted
sense, a species confined to the Altai mountains in central Russia. Our
species differs from P. attezwata in the shape of the glumes ard lemmas
and in the small spikelets. Moreover the lemmas are much firmer in
P, poophagorum,
This species has been very carefully compared with P. Litwinowtana
Ovez., a specimen of which, determined by Ovczinnikov himself, is in
the Kew Herbarium. This latter specimen is extremely glaucous, the
lemmas when mature remain membranous, the panicle is very narrow,
hardly 0°5 cm. in width, the side nerves and the keel of the lemmas are
ciliate in the lower parts and there is some wool. P. poophagorum Bor,
on the other hand, is not at all glaucous, the lemmas are almost coria-
ceous at maturity, the panicles are over 1 cm. in width‘and the lemmas
are almost glabrous. Thetwo species look very different.
39. Poa phariana Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 141 (1948),
A very small perennial grass spreading by means of scaly rhizomes.
Culms not more than 3 cm. tall, clothed with sheaths almost to the
panicle, covered below with the scarious, almost whitish, remains of old
sheaths, smooth and glabrous, 4—5-leaved with overlapping sheaths.
Leaf-blades firm, rather thick, plicate, up to 1:5 cm. long by 1:0 mm.
wide, smooth on the upper and lower surfaces, smooth on the margins,
glabrous. Leaf-sheaths short, thick, rather loose, overlapping, very
smooth and glabrous. Ligule a short truncate, dentate membrane,
1:5 mm. long.
Inflorescence a very small, compact panicle, not more than 1:5 cm,
long, about 1 cm. broad; branches short, 1-2-nate at the base of the
panicle, sparsely braached, scabrid, Sfzkelets 3°5-4:5 mm. long, elliptic
in shape, 1-2-3-flowered, seated on very short scabrid pedicels. Lower
glume 2-2:5-3 mm. long, ] mm. wide, lanceolate or oblong-elliptic-acute
in shape when flattened, smooth and glabrous, except for the scabrid
upper half of the keel, slightly curved dorsally, 2-3-nerved, hyaline on
the margins and usually thin, more or less suffused with violet. Upper
glume 3-3°5 mm. long, 1:6-1°8 mm. wide, elliptic-acute in shape when
flattened, 3-nerved, curved on the keel, smooth and glabrous, except for
the minutely scabrid upper half of the keel, more or less suffused with
violet. Lemma 3-3°5-3:75 mm. long, nearly 2 mm. wide, compressed,
oblong, rounded or apiculate at the tip, 5-nerved, rather thin, broadly
hyaline at the tip, below which is a yellowish band, more or less suffused
with violet, long ciliate on the lower half of the keel, ciliate on the margi-
nal nerves, glabrous or shortly ciliate on the intermediate nerves, smooth
and glabrous elsewhere, except for the upper portion of the keel which
is scabrid. Wool present on the callus, fairly copious. ARhachilla smooth
and glabrous, produced beyond the topmost floret and crowned by a
rudimentary floret. Azthers 1:5 mm. long, linear. Palea somewhat
shorter than the lemma, scabrid on the keels, with many teeth.
Tibet: Phari, 4,800 m., 21 May 1945, Bor et Kiratvam
19398; Tuna idem.' 20836; also the following numbers from
Phari 20812, 20811, 19494 by the same collectors; Kongbo
Province, Langha, 4,300 m., 16 May 1938, Ludlow, Sherriff and
Taylor.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Poa phariana
Rio
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No. 209 [q
Name
Place of collection Chae , het : ink oe
4 Tiles Or etaabency Arete the Al pean
te the Gack,
Date 236) 1945. Cell. BOR and KIRAT RAM
Bor
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE vill
v
WLLNID
Savile
THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN,
Plants of the Western Himalayas
gr
Loe e Far
: = . : S : Unisvic) Himalayan Research Instirure, Roerichs Museum
: . No: 2285. Walter Koelz - : - - iS aly ck
te OMinuwae oe —
- Sgakehan @so, Ladex, cagumire
gand vlcin, olte 15,000 it. ence
Bale gxesne a
Poa koelzu Bor
Photograph of holotype in Herb. Kew.
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA &9
This species comes nearest to P. callzopszs Litv. but differs from it by
the lemmas being strongly compressed and acute in profile, not rounded
and obtuse as in P. callzopsis. Moreover, the two paleae are very
different. The keels of the palea of P. phariana are covered with
numerous sharp teeth, while the keels of the palea of P. callzopsis have
at the most two or three blunt teeth on each side.
This is one of the first grasses to appear on the Tibetan plateau after
the winter covering of snow has passed away. Itis in full flower in May
and very possibly disappears during the following months when a
desiccating wind sweeps over the plateau, which is exposed to insola-
tion, and, moreover, is very dry.
40. Poa rhadina Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 138 (1948).
A very slender, annual grass with numerous, fibrous roots. Culms
slender, mostly erect or very shorily geniculate at the base, long exsert-
ed from upper sheath, clothed by sheaths below, 2-noded above the
base, smooth and glabrous, up to 16 cm. tall, filiform below the
panicle; nodes concealed by the sheaths, but smooth and glabrous.
Leaf-blades up to 5°5 cm. long, 1 mm. wide, folded, convolute or
twisted, rarely flat, somewhat glaucous, ascending, firm, scabrid on both
surfaces, linear, tapering to a short scabrid tip, scabrid on the margins;
basal leaves and leaves of innovation shoots particularly scabrid.
Sheaths clasping the culms or overlapping, smooth and glabrous except
those below at the base which are often scabrid, tinged with purplish
mauve at the base. Lzeules up to 3 mm. long.
Hic 301 4 boa rhadina Bor, x10
Intlorescence an elliptic or oblong panicle with few branches and few
spikelets, up to 6°5 cm. long by 3 cm. wide, axis smooth or minutely
scabrid, angled, glabrous, 5—6-noded; branches strictly binate, naked
for more than half total length of branch, smooth or minutely scabrid,
‘branched ; branchlets usually scaberulous, carrying few spikelets.
Spikelets wedge-shaped, up to 3°5 mm. long, 2-3- rarely 4-flowered.
Lower glume 2°5-2:75 mm. long, 0’5-0:75 mm. wide, gently curved on
the back in the upper half, straight lower down, oblong-acuminate or
sacute or almost narrowly obovate-acuminate cr -acute when flattened,
3-nerved, very narrowly hyaline on the margins, smooth and glabrous
except for the scabrid upper third of the keel. Upper glume 2:75-3 mm.
long, 1-1:25 mm. wide, gently curved on the back, 3-nerved, more
99 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
hyaline on the margins than the lower, obovate-oblong-acute in shape
when flattened, minutely scabrid on the keel inthe upper third. Lemma
2°25-2°5 mm. long, 1 mm. broad, oblong-obtuse in shape when flattened,
hyaline at the tip and narrowly so onthe margins, inconspicuously 5-
nerved, ciliate on the keel for about two-thirds of its length, ciliate on the
marginal nerves, elsewhere glabrous, covered all over the dorsal surface
with minute glandular dots. Wool scanty but definite. Axthers minute,
0-5-0'6 mm. long. Riachilla smooth and glabrous, produced beyond the
topmost floret and crowned with a rudimentary floret. Palea oblong-
elliptic, 1:75 mm. long, scabrid on the keels.
Ind. Or: Tehri Garhwal, 4-4,500 m., 7 August 1883, Duthze 265
(Type).
A very strange, delicate species in which the glumes are longer than
the lemmas, ‘The spikelets are small but the ligules long.
XII, PAUCIDENTATAE
41, Poa calliopsis Litw. ex Komarov, Flora U.S.S.R. 2, 755 (1934).
A perennial grass with a slender creeping rhizome. Culms up to
15 cm. tall, usually much shorter, about 5 cm. tall, smooth and glabrous,
long-exserted from the uppermost leaf-sheath, clothed at the base with
old leaf-sheaths which break up into brownish fibres; internodes spaced
above, rather crowded below, covered by the sheaths. Leaf-blades
plicate, rarely flat, sometimes twisted, smooth and glabrous above and
below, abruptly curved to the tip, hardly contracted at the base to the
sheath, the upper 1 cm. long, 1:5 mm. broad, the lower longer, up to
455 cm. long by 2? mm. broad, smooth and minutely scabrid on the
margins. Upper leaf-sheaths tightly clasping the stem, smooth and
glabrous, striate, the lower somewhat looser. Lzgule membranous,
short, 2 mm. long.
Fig. 31. Poa calliopsis Litw., x 10
Intlorescence a pyramidal or oblong panicle; branches up to 2 cm,
long, branching, usually much less, often not more than 4 mm. long,
binate or solitary at the nodes, smooth and glabrous or scaberulous,
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 91
flexuous or straight, capillary, finally standing at right angles to the
axis or deflexed; branchlets very short, carrying crowded spikelets,
smooth and glabrous, often purplish in colour; axis terete, smooth and
glabrous. Spzkelets seated on very short, glabrous pedicels, 3-5-4 mm.
long, broadly elliptic or ovate in shape, variegated purple and yellow,
1-2-3-flowered. Lower glume 2°25-2:5 mm. long, 1°5 mm. broad,
elliptic- or ovate-acute in shape when flattened, thin, hyaline on the
margins, strongly curved on the back, l-nerved with sometimes a
slender second nerve, glabrous, smooth on the keel, more or less
suffused with purple. Upper glume 2:5-2:75 mm. long,-2 mm. wide,
broadly elliptic- or almost orbicular-obtuse, or even broadly ovate-obtuse
in shape when flattened, 3-nerved, broadly hyaline at the rounded tip,
glabrous, smooth on the keel, strongly curved on the back, more or less
suffused with purple. Lowest lemma 2°75-3 (3:5) mm. long, 2 mm. wide,
rounded on the back, rather thin in texture, oblong-obtuse, rarely oblong-
subovate in shape, rounded at the apex, broadly hyaline at the tip and
also on the margins, below the hyaline portion a band of yellow, more
or less purplish on the rest of the dorsal surface, smooth on the upper
half of the keel, long ciliate on the basal portion, long ciliate on the
marginal nerves, glabrous on the dorsal! surface and on the intermediate
nerves, obscurely 5-nerved, faintly glandular-pitted on the dorsal surface.
Rhachilla smooth and glabrous, only very shortly produced beyond the
topmost floret and crowned with a rudimentary floret. Lodicules 2,
elliptic-acute or ovate-acute in shape. Stzgmas 2, very plumose. Wool
present, copious. Axnthers 15-2 mm. long. Palea lanceolate-oblong in
shape, broadly truncate at the tip, a little shorter than the lemma, smooth
on the keels below, armed in the upper half of the keels by a very few
blunt teeth.
Ait byert: Environs of Lhasa, 4,000 m., 1947, A/rs. Guthrie; Gautsa,
4,000 m., 26 May 1945, Bor e¢ Kivatram 19337; Khambajong,
22 July 1903, Younghusband 125.
Ind. Or: Kashmir, Khyung Tso, Rupshu, 5,000 m., 10 July 1931,
Walter Koelz 2246a.
Pamirs, River Aksu, 4-4,500 m., 1895, Alcock 17787. Lahul,
Serchu, 21 June 1931, 4,600 m., Walter Koelz 2090.
This extremely distinct and beautiful species was collected in India
over 150 years ago by Jacquemont and was thought to be identical with
P. alpina. It subsequently had a varied career sometimes being identi fi-
ed as P. variegata, P. bulbosa or P. alpigena although itshould have been
obvious that it was a perfectly good and distinct species. Eighty years
were to pass before a Russian botanist had the courage to make a
species nova of it.
This is an extremely handsome species with the dark purple lemmas
tipped with gold. The palea is quite unique, for it is neither scabrid
nor entirely smooth but is armed witha few blunt teeth.
XIII. ALPINAE
42. Poa alpina Linn., Sp. Pl. ed. I, 67 (1753).
A densely tufted grass erect or slightly geniculate below, perennial,
with masses of fibrous roots, clothed at the base with short, glabrous,
—
92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
shining, scarious sheaths. Culms slender, terete, smooth, shining, 2-
noded, up to 45 cm. tall; nodes smooth and glabrous, concealed by the
sheaths, Leaf-blades usually not more than 5 cm. long by 4 mm. broad
(9 cm. by 3 mm. in some Kashmir specimens) mostly crowded at the
base of the stem arising from the sheaths referred to above, those of °
the stem only two in number, much shorter than the sheaths, flat or
plicate, firm, contracted abruptly at the tip into a mucro, sharply
serrulate on the margins, glabrous. Lowest sheaths short, distichous
the thickened base enclosing the stem; the upper tight, covering the
nodes and much longer than the blades. JLigules short, not usually more
than 2 mm. long but occasionally up to 4 mm.
A YSZ
Fig. 32. Poa alpina Linn., x10
Inflorescence a dense, occasionally lax, panicle, seated upon a
peduncle which is long-exserted from the uppermost sheath, ovate or
triangular in shape; basal branches usually binate, bare in the lower
half, erect or spreading, flexuous, smooth and glabrous, branched
usually only once; branchlets often rough. Spzkelets crowded, broadly
ovate in outline, 4-6 mm. long, 3-6-flowered, terminal floret often
rudimentary ; pedicels scabrid. Lower glumes 3°5-4 mm. long, 2 mm.
wide, curved on the back, ovate-acute when flattened, 3-nerved, hyaline
on the margins, often suffused with purple, smooth and glabrous except
for the scabrid upper half of the keel. Upper glume 4:25 mm. long,
2-5 mm. broad, elliptic-acute sometimes broadly ovate-acute in shape,
3-nerved, strongly curved on the keel which is coarsely scabrid in its upper
half, usually suffused with purple, hyaline on the margins. Lowest lemma
4 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, curved on the back, ovate-oblong, oblong- or
even ovate-obtuse in shape when flattened, broadly hyaline at the tip
and on the margins, banded with yellow below the hyaline tip, the
remainder suffused with purple, 5-nerved (the lateral pair very close to the
margin, the intermediate pair very faint), shortly hairy on the dorsal
surface in the lower half, glandular punctate all over the dorsal surface
THE GENUS POA EINN. IN INDIA 93
long ciliate on the keel nerve in the lower half, scabrid in the upper half
long ciliate on the lateral nerves, the hairs diminishing in length from
below upwards ; second and third lemmas similar in shape and hairiness
but diminishing in length ; uppermost palea often longer than its Jemma.
Wool absent. Rhachilla smooth and glabrous; joints 0:5 mm. long.
Anthers 1:5 mm. long. Palea 3 mm. long, 0°75 mm. wide, oblanceolate-
oblong in shape; keels rather long ciliate in the lower half, scabrid in
the upper half.
Ind. Or: Kashmir, Sind Valley near Baltal, 4 August 1892,
3-3,500 m., Duthie 11618; Gulmarg, 4,500 m., 15 August 1929,
Stewart 10453. Hazara, Nila Kagan, 24 July 1899, Duthie s.n.;
Kagan Valley, 2,500 m., 23 May 1896, Duthie 20349; Chitral,
Madajlast 3,700 m., July 1908, Toppin 549; Lahul, Jispa, 3,000 m.,
23 June 1941, NV. L. Bor 14936 and in many other places.
Tibet: Dras, Matayan, 3,500 m., 31 July 1891, Gammie s.n.
This grass which is very common in the higher pastures of the
Himalaya, can be easily recognised by the spikelets which are almost
ovate in outline with the lower parts of the lemmas covered by a dense
growth of fine hairs. The broad leaves are almost all confined to the stout
base of the plant. This grass thrives on the most exposed slopes and
becomes gregarious in pockets of moist soil where it develops a
powerful root-system. The purple panicles are a most entrancing
sight on a sunny day.
43, Poa hirtiglumis Hook. f., Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 343 (1896).
A tufted, perennial grass with many fibrous roots, clothed at the
base with pale, scarious, loose, persistent sheaths. Culms 16-25 cm.
tall, erect or more often geniculate at the base, terete, shining, smooth
and glabrous, nodes usually concealed. Leaf-blades usually 5-75 cm.
long by 3-4 mm. broad (seldom much longer, flaccid, up to 12 cm. long
by 2~3 mm. broad), those of the basal sheaths very narrow, even filiform,
Fig. 33. Poa hirtiglumis Hook. f., x 10
those of the culm sheaths 2 in number, linear, tapering abruptly toa
Stout point, rough on the margins and occasionally on the nerves
beneath, glabrous, usually smooth. Sheaths on the culm tight, smooth
and glabrous, those at the base loose, scarious, crowded, membranous,
smooth and glabrous. Lzgules up to 4 mm. long.
94) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Intlorescence a panicle, dense and compact at first, afterwards loose
and lax with drooping branches, up to 9 cm. long, pyramidal in shape;
axis smooth and glabrous, rather stout; branches roughish, the lower
binate, bare for most of their length, flexuous, erect, spreading and
finally deflexed, shortly branched near their tips and carrying crowded
spikelets. Sfzkelets 2-3-flowered, elliptic, obovate or wedge-shaped.
pedicelled ; pedicels short, scabrid. Lower glume 2-5-3 mm. long,
1 mm. wide, lanceolate or broadly lanceolate-acute, occasionally subacu-
minate, 3-nerved, occasionally l-nerved, lateral nerves obscure, curved
on the back, hyaline on the margin, green or suffused with purple,
scabrid on the upper half of the keel. Upper giume 2:75-3:25 mm.
long, 1:5 mm. broad, broadly ovate- or elliptic-acute to subacuminate,
3-nerved, rough on the keel inthe upper half, hyaline on the margins,
green and shining, or suffused with purple. Lowest lemma 2-2:5 mm.
long, 2 mm. wide, always shorter than the glumes, slightly curved on
the back, oblong-obtuse or elliptic-obtuse, 5-nerved, hyaline at the tip
and narrowly so along the margins, covered all over the dorsal surface
with a thick felt of white or pale golden bairs pointing forward, ciliate
on the keel almost to the tip; hairs when wet widely spreading. Wool
absent or more usually consisting of a few longish hairs. Rhachilla
pilose. Anthers 0°75-1 mm. long. Lodicules 2, unequally 2-lobed.
Palea 1:5 mm. long, 0°8 mm. wide, elliptic-oblong in shape, keels covered
with long white hairs, diminishing in length towards the tip.
Sikkim: Donkia Pass, 6,000 m., 9 September 1849, /. D. Hooker
(Type).
Chugya: 5,000 m., 1912, Rokmoo Lepcha 300.
Momay Sandung, Lachung Valley, 5,500 m., 19 August 1892,
Gammie 914.
This is one of the few species in this area with the glumes longer
than the lowest lemma. The lemmas have a dense covering of pale
golden hairs on the dorsal surface. Found at extremely high altitudes.
44, Poa koelzii Bor, in Kew Bull. 1948, 139 (1948).
A perennial grass, forming very thick, dense tufts. Czlms up to
10 cm. tall(including the inflorescence), smooth and glabrous, terete,
glaucous or not, Clothed at the base with the remains of the bases cf
old sheaths. Leaf-blades up to 2 cm. long, 1:5 mm. broad, rather rigid,
plicate, many-nerved below, glaucous or glaucous-green in colour,
scabrid on both surfaces and cn the margins, linear, tapering abruptly
to the stout scabrid tip. Leaf-sheaths smooth and glabrous, tight, the
lower remaining at the base for a long time. ALigule a rounded,
whitish membrane up to 3 mm. long.
Inflorescence a very contracted panicle, never more than 2:5 cm. long
by 15cm. wide, often only 5 mm. long by 4 mm. wide, branches
erect, appressed, rarely spreading, very short and sparsely branched,
carrying few spikelets, scabrid. Spzkelets 4-5°5-6 mm. long, !anceolate-
elliptic in shape, 2-5-flowered, suffused with purple or green, seated on
short scabrid pedicels. Lower glume 2:25-2:5 mm. long, 1-5 mm. wide,
lanceolate-oblong-acute, 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous, except for the
upper half of the keel which is scabrid, pale green or green with
purple margins, very narrowly or not hyaline on the margins, slightly
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 95
curved on the back. Upper glume 2°75-3 mm. long, 2 mm. wide,
broadly elliptic-acute, ovate-elliptic-acute or broadly oblong-acute in
shape when flattened, 3-nerved, green or green suffused with purple,
slightly curved on the back, scabrid on the upper half of the keel,
otherwise smooth and glabrous, not hyaline on the margins. Lemma
3°5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, elliptic-oblong-obtuse in shape when flat-
tened, indistinctly 5-nerved, ciliate on the lateral nerves and on the
keel, densely hairy over the dorsal surface in the lower half, with a band
of purple below the hyaline tip, or green all over with a yellowish band
below the hyaline tip, scabrid on the upper third of the keel. Wool
present at the base of the lowest lemma and sparse or absent above.
Rhachilla smooth and glabrous, produced and carrying a rudimentary
floret. Anthers linear, 1°25-1°5 mm. long. Palea shorter than the
lemma, ciliate in the lower half, scabrid above.
Ind. Or: Kashmir, Tsakzhun Tso, Ladak, 5,000 m., 20 July 1931,
Walter Koelz 2385 (Type); Tso Kyung, Rupshu, 5,500 m.,
11 July 1931, Walter Koelz 2274.
A high altitude plant growing in the driest of habitats. It resembles
P. litwinowtana Ovez. to some extent (they are both glaucous), but
differs in the semipilose palea and the small anthers.
45. Poa tibetica Munro ex Duthie, Grass. N.W. India, 41 (1883).
P. tianshanica (Regel) Hack. in Fedtsch., Flor. Pam., 209 (1903).
A tall, stout, perennial, sf>loniferous grass, clothed at the base with
the remains of short, dark or pale brown sheaths, often disintegrating
into thread-like fibres. Culms erect or slightly geniculate at the base,
Fig. 34. Poa tibetica Munro, * 10
terete, shining, smooth and glabrous, up to 50 cm. tall, 2-noded at the
base; nodes smooth and glabrous, covered by the stem-sheaths. Leaf-
blades two to the culm, shorter than their sheaths, blades linear tapering
to a very stout point, basal up to 20 cm. long, but the upper much
96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
shorter, scarcely 7 cm. long, usually rolled or plicate, often flat, glabrous,
very scabrid on the margins, especially towards the tip, scabrid on the
upper surface, smooth below, conspicuously nerved, especially the midrib,
not markedly contracted at the base. Seaths at the base very loose,
persistent, striate, glabrous, slipping from the culm; those on the culm
2 in number, tight, smooth and glabrous, longer than their blades,
striate. igules not more than 4:5 mm, long, lacerate.
Intlorescence a panicle of closely crowded spikelets, contracted, often
spiciform, occasionally interrupted ; axis smooth and glabrous, lowest
branches 2- to 4-nate, sometimes only 1 branch arising far below the main
portion of the panicle and carrying, after branching, a few spikelets, un-
equal in length where several arise at a node, erect, smooth and glabrous;
pedicels very short, except those of spikelets terminating a branchlet,
usually glabrous but occasionally rough. S£zkelets oblong-elliptic-
acute in shape, up to 7 mm. long, pale pinkish-yellow in colour, or
greenish, variously washed with deeper or paler shades of purple,
crowded, erect, 3—-4-flowered. Lower glume 3:5-4:5 mm. long, 1:5-2 mm.
wide, elliptic-acute or lanceolate-acute in shape when flattened,
curved on the back, conspicuously or faintly 3-nerved, smooth and
glabrous apart fromthe rough upper half of the keel, hardly hyaline on
the margins, more or less suffused with purple. Upper glume 3°75-5°5 mm.
long, 2-2°25 mm. wide, strongly 3-nerved, curved on the back, long
Ciliate on the margins in the lower quarter, smooth and glabrous
on the dorsal surface below, scabrid in the upper half of the keel, often
faintly toothed or lacerate on the margins in the upper third, minutely
scabrid on the dorsal surface in the upper third, often more or less
suffused with purple. Lemma 4-5:25 mm. long, 2-2°5 mm. broad,
oblong-acute or elliptic-acute in shape, slightly curved on the back
in profile, obscurely 5-nerved, long silky hairy in the lower ‘half of
the keel, coarsely scabrid above, silky hairy on the marginal
nerves in the lower quarter, minutely asperulous all over the
dorsal surface, often purplish above. Wool absent. Rhachilla smooth
or very minutely hairy. Azthers 2-2'5 mm. Jong, often mottled with
purple. Palea 3°5 mm. long, 0°75 mm. wide, oblong-elliptic in shape;
lower half of the keels with rather thin prickles, upper with teeth.
Tibet: Plains of Tibet, 5,000 m., Strachey & Winterbottom (Type);
Ascent to Lanak Pass, 13 September 1847, 7. Thomson; Balti,
Grassy Plain, 12 September 1847, 7. Thomson; Shekar, 4,800 m.,
8 July 1924, Hingston 199;
Ind. Or: Lahul, Jispa, 3,400 m., 27 June 1941, . LZ. Bor 16913;
Kenlung, 5,000 m., 21 July 1941, WV. Z. Bor 15441.
A stout grass with very pale spikelets, growing at high altitudes ou
open grassy slopes. The upper glumes are long ciliate in the lower
quarter which is a distinguishing character.
var. aristulata Hook. f.
A single inflorescence with the peduncle enclosed in a sheath,
collected by J. D. Hooker on sandy dunes in Tibet, north of Sikkim, is
the basis of this variety. The species represented is certainly P. “detica,
Munro, and the glumes of the spikelets are very acuminate, almost
aristate. The impression one gets is that the inflorescence is not quite
normal, x .
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA Exe
XIV. BULBOSAE
46, Poa glabriflora Roshev., in Acta Inst. Bot. Acad. Sc. U.R.S.S.
sér. 1, 2, 97 (1934) ; et in Komarov, Flor. U.S.S.R., 2, 376 (1934).
A very slender grass with a bulbous base. Culms up to 16 cm. tall,
terete, very slender, smooth and glabrous, clothed at the base with old
scarious sheaths, long-exserted from the topmost sheath. Leaf-blades
up to 2 cm. long by 1 mm. wide, hardly contracted at the base to the
sheath, scabrid on the margins and often on both surfaces, linear, taper-
ing to a stout point, the lower flat, the upper plicate and pointing up-
wards. Sheaths, except the lowest, rather tight, smooth and glabrous.
Ligule 1:5-2 mm. long, pointed-triangular in shape.
-
Fig. 35- Pea glabriflora Roshev., x 10
Intlorescence a very strict panicle, not more than 5 mm. wide by
-2cm.long. At the lowest node of the panicle, i.e. at the top of the stem
is an oblique lipped cup the uppermost lip of which is prolonged into a
beak in varying degree, in some it is merely a point, in others it reaches
alength of 3mm. At each succeeding node this cup is found usually
with the lip prolonged into a short point. A/achts smooth and glabrous ;
branches at the lowest node 1 or 2, smooth and glabrous and when
rebranched with a small cup at the point of bifurcation, not more than
1-15 cm. long, erect. Spikelets 3-4-flowered, 3°5-4 mm. long, ovate-
elliptic in shape, on short, smooth and glabrous pedicels. Lower glume
pale, translucent, 2:25 mm. long, 1:4 mm. wide, elliptic-acute in shape
when flattened, glabrous, 1-nerved, scabrid on the keel, scarious-hyaline.
Upper glume ‘pale, translucent, 2°5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, broadly
elliptic-acute when flattened, 3-nerved, glabrous, scabrid on the keel,
scarious-hyaline. Lemma 2-5 mm. long, 15 mm. wide, oblong-obtuse
when flattened, slightly curved on the back, faintly 5-nerved, broadly
hyaline at the tip and along the margins, suffused with purple, absolutely
devoid of cilia and hairs of any kind. Wool absent. Rhachilla joints
short, smooth and glabrous. Anthers 0:8-1 mm. long. Palea elliptic-
oblong, shorter than the lemma, scabrid on the keels.
Ind. Or: Lahul, Serchu-Kyelang, 4,600 m.., 1 July 1941, N. L. Bor
15129, Ladakh, Zanskar, 2 June 1848, ea, f. et Thoms.
A very pretty slender grass with many tufted stems swollen at the
‘base. The inflorescence is very dense, the spikelets ovate with often
curiously transparent glumes. .
7
98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAFURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
47, Poa bactriana Roshev., in Not.; Syst. Herb. Hort. Petrop. 4,
931@L923):
A tall, tufted, perennial grass with fibrous roots. Culms 35-90 cm.
tall with markedly bulbous bases, very shortly decumbent or not at all,
Straight, smooth and glabrous, leafy.. Leaf-blades up to 17 cm. long,
1-3 mm. wide, narrowly linear, long-acuminate, scabrid on the margins
and on both surfaces, especially below and near the rather stout tip, flat
or the lower folded and twisted. Cuzulm-leaf-sheaths rather tight, smooth
and glabrous, the lower inflated, shining, pale yellow, very smooth and
glabrous, short. Ligule 2-3 mm. long, membranous, rounded at the
top, rather scabrid on the outer surface.
Fig. 36. Poa bactriana Roshev., x 10
Inflorescence a very dense, many-spiculate panicle, 10 cm. or more
long and narrowly pyramidal, sometimes interrupted; peduncle long-
exserted from the uppermost leaf-sheaths, axis angled, smooth and
glabrous; branches 2-3 at each node, ascending, bare for a short
distance, then rebranching and carrying numerous spikelets on short
scabrid pedicels. Spzkelets ovate or ovate-oblong,4—5 mm. long, 2—3 mm,
broad, 3-4-flowered, whitish green or pale violet. Lower glume
2—2°25 mm. long, 0°8 mm. wide, lanceolate-acuminate or acute when
flattened, l-nerved, slightly curved on the back, rather transparent
almost to the nerve, smooth and glabrous, except for the scabrid upper
part of the keel. Upper glume 2:25-2:55 mm. long, 1:4 mm. wide,
slightly curved on the back, broadly elliptic-acute when flattened,
3-nerved, hyaline up to the lateral nerves, smooth and glabrous, scabrid
on the upper half of the keel. Lemma 2:25-2'5 mm. long, 1:4 mm.
wide, oblong-obtuse in shape when flattened, very obscurely 5-nerved,
quite glabrous, minutely scabrid on the upper half of the keel; upper
third hyaline as also a narrow band on the margins. Wool completely
absent. Rhachilla smooth and glabrous. Azthers 3, 1°5 mm. long,
yellow. faleaa little shorter than the lemma, oblong-elliptic in shape,
scabrid on the keels and markedly punctate between the keels. |
Ind. Or; Lahul, Gondla-Kyelang, 3,400 m., 5 June 1941, WV. L. Bor
14659.
This specimen matches sheets named by Roshevitz himself. There
is no wool at the base of the lemmas and the panicles are very narrow.
a
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 99
_. 48, Poa Sinaica Steud., Syn. Pl. Glum. 256 (1854).
A caespitose perennial with fibrous roots.. Culms erect and some-
what decumbent at the base, distinctly swollen at the base and covered
with the remains of old leaf-sheaths. ° Leat-blades of both basal and
culm-sheaths Similar, up to 6 cm. long, 15-2 mm. wide, folded or twisted
almost filiform, scabrid on the margins and at the stout tip, linear,
tapering suddenly to the point, scabrid on the upper, smooth on the
lower surface. Basal s4eaths with wide hyaline margins which are
carried up intothe ligule, very loose, rather thick, pale yellow, shining;:
culm-sheaths rather tight, not slipping from the stem. Ligule mem-
ae whitish, up to 4 mm. long, pointed ; those of the basal sheaths
similar. |
Fig. 37- Poa sinaica Steud., x 10
Inflorescence a rather dense panicle, oblong or elliptic in shape, up
to 8 cm. long, 4 cm. broad; lower branches binate to 4-nate, scabe-}
rulous, flexuous, ascending, rebranching and carrying spikelets seated
on short, scabrid pedicels. fzkelefs oblong-elliptic in shape, 7-8 mm.
long, mostly 7-flowered, with widely spreading florets at anthesis.
Lower glume 3-4 mm. long, 1:55 mm. wide, elliptic-acute in shape,
slightly curved on the back in the lower half, broadly hyaline on the
margins, smooth and glabrous, except for the upper half of the keel
which is scabrid, 3-nerved. Upper glume 4: 5mm. long, 2 mm. wide,
broadly elliptic-acute or acuminate in shape when flattened, 3- nerved,
broadly hyaline on the margins, slightly curved on the back, scabrid on
the upper half of the keel, otherwise smooth and glabrous. Lemma
45-5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, 5-nerved (the intermediate very incon-
spicuous), oblong-obtuse in shape, broadly hyaline at the tip and on the
upper half of the margin, narrowly hyaline below, very thickly ciliate
on the lower half of the keel and on the lateral nerves in the lower
halves, usually distinctly scabrid on the dorsal surface above and
between the lateral nerves and the margin, glandular-punctate all over
the dorsal surface. Wool absent or at most'a hair ortwo. Rhachilla
slightly bristly. Azthers 2 mm. long. Palea 3:5 mm. long, elliptic-
oblong in shape, armed on the keels with rather long spines; °° |
100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Ind. Or: Quetta, Duthie 8735; Baluchistan, Killa Abdulla,
10 April 1888, Duthie 8735.
Shebo, April 1891, Col. Wingate.
West Himalaya, Lace 3303.
A very common grass in the drier parts of northwest India, in fact,
it is one of the commonest grasses in that part of the world and in
Afghanistan. It grows in dense tufts and it is not decumbent or pros-
trate at the base to any extent. The inflorescence is very dense and the
spikelets are usually not proliferous. ‘There is no connecting wool
at the base of the lemmas.
_According to Feinbrun in Kew Bull. 1940, 282 the most charac-
teristic features of this species are the following :—(1) Ligules of
radical leaves and tips of membranous sheaths usually enveloping the
bulbil, produced above the tuft ; length of ligule about 2 mm. (2) Blades
of radical leaves very narrow, convolute, densely scabrous at the
margins and along the prominent nerves of the lower surface. (3)
Bulbils oblong, often scarcely inflated below, densely covered by
residues of sheaths of preceding years. (4) Tufts rather dense; culms
generally not geniculate.
49. Poa bulbosa Linn., Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 70 (1753).
A tufted, perennial grass with fibrous roots, geniculate at the lower
nodes. Culms up to 50 cm. tall, clothed at the base with the scarious
remains of old sheaths, erect, long-exserted above the topmost sheath,
glabrous, smooth or occasionally scabrid below the panicle. Leaf-blades
2-8 cm. long, up to 2°5 mm. wide, often folded or twisted, more
usually flat, flaccid, green, linear, abruptly contracted at the tip to
a stout point, scabrid on the margins, smooth and glabrous on the
surfaces or minutely scabrid. Sheaths tight on the stem, looser below
with scarious margins, striate, smooth and glabrous. Lzgule a hyaline
membrane, oblong or semi-circular, 1-3 mm. long, entire or serrate.
Intlorescence an oblong-ovoid panicle, often one-sided, 2-9 cm. long
(often longer), rather densely spiculate; branches in twos or threes,
ending in pedicels 1-3 mm. long. Spikelets ovate- oblong, 4-6 mm. long,
3_6-flowered, almost always exhibiting proliferation in which all parts
increase in size, the lemmas mostly all becoming distorted and shedding
cilia, hair or wool. For normal spikelets: Lower glume oblong-
lanceolate in shape, l-nerved, curved on the scabrid keel, 2‘5 mm. long.
Upper glume similar in shape and texture to the lower glume, 3-nerved.
Lemma oblong-lanceolate in shape, 3mm. long, hyaline at the tip and
along the margins, sometimes suffused with violet, 5-nerved, the lateral
nerves faint, ciliate on the keel and on the lateral nerves or glabrous.
Wool absent or present. Azthers 3, 1-1:'5mm. long. Falea shorter
than the lemma, 2-keeled, scabrid on the keels.
~ Ind. Or: Lahul, Sissu, 3,500 m., 28 July 1941, WV. Z. Bor 16506 ;
| Kashmir, Tukht i Sulaiman, 29 May 1847, Winterbottom ;
Matayan, 3,500 m, 31 July 1891, Gammie s.n.
- West Himalaya, Khushdil Khar, 1,800 m., Duthte.
Chitral, Jambatai, 1,300 m., 6 May 1895, Harris 16820.
All specimens collected in the Himalaya, almost without eee bu
exhibit vivipary or proliferation of the parts of:the spikelets, fia
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA ; 10%
In the Flora of British India, Hooker lists this species as
Poa bulbosa Linn. var. elanata Stapf. This varietal name refers to the
scantiness or absence of connecting wool on the callus. In the section
Bulbosae Roshev., the presence, scantiness or absence of wool is taken
as adiagnostic character by both Roshevitz (Flor. U.S.S.R., Vol. II) and
by Feinbrun (Kew Bull. 1940, 27 et seq.). Indeed Feinbrun considers
that the plant known as oa bulbosa L. in America may be a distinct
species since it does not possess the woolly fleece. Roshevitz adopts
the same method in his keys to Poa, where P. dbu/bosa L. is separated from
the remainder of the species in the group solely on the character of the
presence of wool or its absence. Roshevitz will have no compromise :
SS
Fig. 38. Poa bulbosa Linn., x 10
the species with wool at the base of the lemmas go straight into.
P. bulbosa; those without wool are relegated to other species. It
is rather difficult to decide just how much emphasis should be laid upon
such a character as hairiness. It is true that wool at the base of the
lemma may have some purpose in the economy of the plant, such as for
example, as an aid in dispersion and therefore of importance, but, on the
other band, the amount of wool can be very variable. The examination
of a large series of Buropean specimens identified as Poa bulbosa L. at
Kew shows that the amount of hair on keel, side nerves and callus.
is very variable and may on occasion be entirely absent. This is parti-
102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
cularly true of spikelets which show a tendency to vivipary (prolifera-
tion) or are actually viviparous (prcliferous). As regards the Indian
specimens placed in P. duldbosa L. by Hooker and Stapf, some have wool
at the base of the Jemma and also cilia on the keel and lateral nerves,
some have no wool but ciliate nerves, while others again have entirely
glabrous lemmas. In these specimens other characters, such as the
shape and size of the glumes and lemmas, the length of the stamens,
the width of the leaves and the teeth on the keels of the palea are
similar or vary only within very narrow limits, Their geographical
distribution is uniform. Ihave had therefore no hesitation in placing
them all in Poa bu/bosa Linn. As regards the*other species P. sinazca
Stead., P. bactriana Roshev. and P. glabriflora Roshev., I have accepted
them as true and valid species because of the shape of the spikelets and
in the former because in addition to the longer spikelets, of its
restricted distribution. ‘They are all found in the Pamir and would be
expected to penetrate into India. I do not propose to keep up variety
elanata Stapf for the glabrous form of P. bulbosa Linn.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This revision was carried out in the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, where by far the largest existing collection of the Indian
species of Poa is to be found. In addition to this material I was pri-
vileged to see several other collections, the most important of which,
perhaps, were my own collections from the Himalaya, which Shri
M. B. Raizada, Forest Botanist at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra
Dun, was good enough to place at my disposal. This most valuable
material was subsequently presented to the Royal Gardens, and we are
most indebted to the President of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra
Dun, and to Shri M. B. Raizada for this gift. Material from Edinburgh
and Calcutta was also loaned, and I am most grateful to the Directors
for this courtesy. I was able to visit Leiden and Paris during the course
of the revision and to inspect the collections of relevant species of Pea.
I am grateful to the Directors of these Institutions for the facilities
granted to me.
; CITATION OF SPECIMENS
All the specimens seen have not been cited. I have cited only the
representative specimens, including the type.
This may not meet with approval, but the saving of space and paper
is very considerable.
For the geographical area comprising India and Pakistan the
ancient name ‘India orientalis’ has been used, in order to avoid
duplication. : REY
LITERATURE |
it axerbers E. (1939) : Hfeveditas, 25 : 359-370,
ey (1942) : Hereditas, 28 ; 1-126.
_ (1943): Hereditas, 29: 199-201.
Avdulov, N.P. (1931): Budd. Appl. Bot., Suppl. 44., 428 pp.
Bor, N. L. (1941): Flora of Assam, vol. 5 (Graminece).
Flovik,:K. 0): Hereditas, 26 : 430-440. ue
Hiesey, W.M., JicClausen, and DicD. Keck. (1942) x , Amer: Nat., 16: 22,
THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 103
Hakansson, A. (1944) : Bot. Not., 299-311.
Hooker, J..D. (1896); Flor. Brit. Ind., vol. 7.
Komarov, V. (1935) : Flora U.S.S.R., vol. 2.
Mitintzing, A. (1933) : Hereditas, 17: 131-154.
Myers, W.M. (1947); Zhe Bot. Rev., 138: 319,
Nannfeldt, J. A. (1935); Bot. Not., 1-16.
—— (1937): Bot. Not., 234-238.
Oettingen, H. V. (1925): Fedde, Rep. Spec. Nov., vol. 2).
Sokolovskaya, A. P., & O. S. Strelkova (1940): Compt. Rend. Acad, Sct,
OUR.S.S., 29: 415- ‘418,
Stebbins, G. Depa bes (1950) : Variation and Evolution in Plants. Oxford Uni-
versity Press.
Stewart, R. R. (1945) : Grasses of N.W. India. Prittonza 5; 404-465.
Tutin, F. G. (1952) : Nature, 169 ; 160.
(Concluded)
THE HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND
d ORNITHOLOGY
BY
Srr NORMAN KINNEAR, C.B.
Part II. Brrps
(Continued from Vol. 50, p. 778)
One of the earliest accounts of Indian birds was published in 1713
as an appendix to Ray’s ‘Synopsis Avium et Piscum’. The author
was Edward Buckley a surgeon at Fort St. George, Madras, who
sent descriptions and drawings of twenty-two birds found in and
about Fort St. George to James Petiver (1663-1718) an apothecary
of Aldersgate, London, and a well-known botanist and entomologist.
From those drawings Linnaeus described the Paradise Flycatcher
Corvus paradisi and Gmelin the Indian Pied Wagtail Motacilla maderas-
patensis. In 1738 Eleanyar Albin brought out his illustrated work
entitled ‘A Natural History of Birds’ and this was followed the next
year by a supplement. Then in 1743-51 George Edwards published
‘A Natural History of Uncommon Birds’ and a few years later in
1758-64 ‘Gleanings on Natural History’. Many of the birds figured
in these four works were given scientific names by Linnaeus, Gmelin,
Latham and others and included a number of Indian species brought
from the East by merchant ships.
Reference has already been made in the previous section to the
work of the earlier French travelling naturalists, and it only remains
to add a few further remarks. In 1774 Louis XV of France fitted
out an exploring expedition to visit China and other countries on the
way, and Pierre Sonnerat was appointed naturalist. The ship reached
India in the end of 1774 or early in 1775 and called first at Mahe on the
Malabar coast and secondly at Pondicherry on the coast of Coromandel.
At each of these places a short stay was made and Sonnerat collected
some specimens, which after the return of the expedition to France
he described in his book ‘Voyage aux Indes Orientales’ (1782). He
did not however give scientific names to these birds; that was done
later by Scopoli, Gmelin and Latham. ;
On March 28th, 1834 Adolphe Delessert set out on his travels
in the East and by August roth had reached Pondicherry. From
there he went further eastward returning some time later and went
to Calcutta, wheré he remained from July to November 1837. In
his account of his travels, ‘Souveniers d’un Voyage dans L’Indes’
(1843), he makes no mention of going to Bhutan although he brought
home from there three birds; the Blackrumped Magpie, Pica botta-
nensis, Stripethroated Siva, Muscicapa variegata (=Siva strigula) and
the Whitethroated Spinetailed Swift, Hirundapus nudipes. From
Calcutta Delessert went to the Nilgiris, where he met Jerdon in 1839,
HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY 105
and showed him a new babbler which Jerdon described in his Catalogue
as Crateropus delesserti. Delessert also obtained several other birds,
which he thought were new, but all of them had already been described
by Jerdon.
In 1752 Jolm Gideon Loten was appointed Governor of Ceylon,
an office he held for five years, and afterwards was Governor of Java
till he retired in 1759 and settled in London. He was interested in
natural history, and while in Ceylon he employed a Burgher named
de Bevere to paint birds. These drawings he brought home and ‘lent
some to Thomas Pennant, who had them reproduced in ‘Indian
Zoology’ (1769) and Forster’s ‘Indische Zoologie’ (1781). He also —
allowed Peter Brown to figure fifteen in his ‘New Illustrations of
Zoologie’ and gave Sydney Parkinson permission to make copies of
his whole collection for Sloane and Banks. These drawings and des-
eriptions by the different authors may be considered the beginnings
of Ceylon ornithology.
John Latham commenced in 1781 his ‘General Synopsis of
Birds’ in which he brought together the descriptions of all the known
birds, but it was not till 1790 in his ‘India Ornithologicus’ that he gave
scientific names to the birds. When this remarkable man was eighty-
one years of age, in 1821, he began publishing ‘A General History
of Birds’ a work in eleven volumes which was not completed till
1828, and though it has been much criticised there is no doubt the
wok was of great value to ornithologists of the period. In the latter
part of the eighteenth century taxidermy was still in its infancy and
instead of making a collection of stuffed birds it was the custom in
India to employ a native artist to make paintings of birds. Many
collections of such paintings were made and some became famous
because Latham saw them and described the birds in his works.
Among these collections was that made by Lady Impey, the wife of
the Chief Justice of Bengal in the time of Warren Hastings, and
there was another, made by a later Chief Justice, Sir John Anstruther.
The collection of Lord Mountmorris included both African and Indian
birds, but by far the largest was the one made by Major-General
Hardwick chiefly in the ‘Upper Provinces of Hindustan’. Latham,
however, did not have the opportunity of examining any of Dr.
Buchanan’s drawings which were referred to under the section on
Mammals (Vol. 50, Pp. 766). Hardwick, in addition to employing a
native artist to paint birds also had a shikari to shoot and preserve
specimens. Once he made a trip, accompanied by a Mr. Hunter, to
Sirinagar above Hardwar and it was on this occasion that he obtained
the Whitecrested Laughing Thrush he described as Corvus leucolo-
phus. Shortly after this excursion which took place in 1796, he
persuaded Lieut. Counsel to collect birds for-him at Almora. Among
the specimens thus obtained were the Cheer Pheasant Phasianus
wallicht, the Koklas Pheasant P. purcrasia and the Jays Garrulus
gularis and vigorsti (=G. lanceolatus) and G. ornatus (=G. bispecu-
laris), With the help of Dr. Wallich, who was in Nepal making a
botanical collection, Hardwick received from the Hon. Edward
Gardner the first examples of the blood pheasant, the female of which
he originally considered was a separate species and described it under
the name Phasianus gardneri..
106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
When Hardwick went home on leave in 1802 he took with him
all his drawings and note books and, on his return to India in 1806.
he left his mammal and bird drawings in England but took with him
his note books and drawings of insects, intending to work at them
on the voyage. Unfortunately the ship he was on foundered when six
days out from Plymouth and he lost everything. Five years later
he was home again and this time handed over his bird drawings to
Dr. Latham to use and, after he had finally retired and was living
in London, he arranged with Dr. J. E. Gray to publish a folio work
of plates entitled ‘Illustrations of Indian Zoology’ (1830-34). No
letterpress was ever published and the plates were principally of
birds, though there were also a number ‘of mammals, fish and reptiles.
Before the first number of this book was issued John Gould the
taxidermist in charge of the museum of the Zoological Society,
acquired a small collection of bird skins from the Himalayas; the
exact locality from which they came is a matter of dispute. Most
of the birds were new and Mrs. Gould made drawings of them, which
were exhibited when the birds were described by N. A. Vigors at
meetings of the Zoological Society.,. Ultimately the drawings were
published in a single folio volume with letterpress by John Gould.
All the birds figured in this work were not from the collection Gould
had received; one came from the Museum at York, another—the
Maroon Oriole—was lent by the museum in Liverpool and came from
Nepal, and two or three, including the Ibisbill, were lent by Dr.
Struthers of Glasgow.
About the same time as Gould got his birds, Captain James
Franklin of the rst Bengal Cavalry—an authority on geology—under-
took a journey through the Central Provinces to study the rocks of
the Vindhyan hills. Before starting he arranged to collect birds for
the Asiatic Society and by the time he had reached Benares had
secured forty specimens; and when he finished his journey at Saugor
he had obtained bne hundred and sixty more as well as making paint-
ings of all of them.
After Franklin had described the collection the Asiatic Society
decided to present the specimens to the Zoological Society and accord-
ingly the skins, paintings and Franklin’s notes were sent home to
that Society and exhibited at a meeting. The Asiatic Society had
stipulated that the paintings and notes should be returned to them,
but whether they are still in existence is not known.
Captain W. H. Sykes, of the Bombay Army, had, for some years,
been engaged in-compiling a ‘Statistical Account of the Dukhun’ and
at the same time made a collection of birds which he took home and
presented to the Company’s Museum in 1831. In the Proceedings
of the Zoological Society for 1832 he published ‘A Catalogue of Birds
of the Raptorial and Incessorial orders (systematically arranged)
observed in the Dukhun.’ ai
The following year Lieut. S. R. Tickell, an officer of the 1st Native
‘Infantry in civil employ on the S-W.. Frontier of Bengal, sent to
‘the Asiatic Society for publication ‘A List of Birds collected in the
jungles of Barabhum and Dhalbhum’. After serving for some time
in Bihar, - Tickell was. transferred. to Tenasserim where he. .made
‘some important discoveries. While still in’ Bengal he paid a: visit
HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY 107
to Darjeeling and did some collecting there but never published any
paper. As already mentioned under the Mammals (Vol. 50, p. 766),
his MSS account of Indian Mammals and Birds is in the library of
the Zoological Society and contains good notes on the habits of birds
in many localities in Bihar and Orissa, Darjeeling and Tenasserim:
Three years later a young Scotch doctor, who had been appointed
to the Madras Establishment, arrived in India and in course of time
was to become the authority on Indian Birds. This was T. C. Jerdon
and after serving his short training in Madras he was sent to Ganjam
and from there went to join his regiment at Tellicherry. A year or
two later the regiment moved to Jalna in the Deccan and on reaching
that station he sent the collection of birds he had made to Sir William
Jardine in Scotland asking him to check his identification, but owing
to the long sea voyage and the ravages of moths the skins had to
be destroyed when they reached Scotland. Nevertheless Jerdon
decided to publish the account of his collections and rely on his own
identifications. This paper was his well-known ‘Catalogue of the
Birds of the Indian Peninsula’ which appeared in the Madras Journal
of Literature and Science between 1839-41 followed by two supplements
in 1845-46 which brought the total recorded in his catalogue up to
420 species which, compared with the 236 in Sykes’s list and
Franklin’s 156 gives an indication of how the knowledge of Indian birds
was increasing. After completing his catalogue, Jerdon began on
another work ‘Illustrations! of Indian Ornithology’ with descriptive
letterpress, which was completed in 1846.
As already mentioned, Gould was the first to make known birds
from the Himalayas and from time to time he made additions to his
original list, but it is to Brian Hodgson that we really owe our know-
ledge of the birds of that great chain of mountains. Hodgson first
went to Nepal in 1820 and soon became interested in mammals and
birds, but it was not till 1829 that he seriously took up ornithology
and in that year sent to the Gleanings in Science the description of
a new hornbill Buceros nepalensis. Thereafter he produced a steady
stream of papers till he left Nepal in 1844. When he returned to live
at Darjeeling in 1845 he still continued to take an interest in orni-
thology, but only published five papers before leaving India for good
in 1858. Owing to restrictions imposed on Europeans in Nepal,
Hodgson had to confine his observations to the great valley and to
rely on his native collectors to obtain specimens outside the limits
of the valley. These men he sent right up to the snow line and on one
or two occasions into Tibet, but that was principally to get mammals.
Where actually the collectors went we do not know since Hodgsor
mentions few localities beyond the valley of Nepal.
Hodgson started ornithology with few books and no one to help
him, and indeed, he was very isolated at Katmandu. All the specimens
he obtained himself or were brought in by his men were carefully
measured, weighed and minute descriptions taken of each or at leasi
the first four or five. Many of the notes he recorded on the habits of
different birds are not always very reliable since they were often not his
own but what his men told him. Hodgson’s collection contained a
wonderful series of some species, but unfortunately his collectors were
never taught to make good skins and the labelling was at fault,
usually a strip of native paper with a number on it and some notes
108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
in the vernacular. Besides employing several skinners he had at
least one artist, who made careful sketches of all the soft parts of
the specimens as well as at least one complete drawing of each species.
Hodgson was the first to write on bird migration in India and his
paper ‘On the migration of the Natatores and Grallatores as observed
at Katmandu’ (Asiatic Researches, 1833) shows that -he was a close
observer. He was also the first to draw attention to the altitudinal!
distribution of species in his paper on the ‘Physical Geography of the
Himalaya’ (Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, XVIII, 1849), a paper
which is often overlooked, though six years later F. Moore gave
a summary of it in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society.
During the first Afghan war Captain T. Hutton made a small
collection of birds in Southern Afghanistan and recorded it, with Blyth’s
assistance, in ‘Rough Notes on the Zoology of Candahar and Neigh-
bouring Districts’ (Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1845). Both
Hutton and Blyth were, however, unaware that Dr. Griffith had also
collected birds during the same campaign and that his travels had
been over a much wider area, including Cabul and Kafiristan, and
even as far west as Bamian. This collection was sent home to the
Company’s Museum in Leadenhall Street, but nothing was done with
it until the catalogue of that Museum was published in 1854-58 where
some of the specimens were listed. Whistler, however, recorded all
Griffith’s birds in his ‘Materials for the Ornithology of Afghanistan’
Journ., B.N.H.S., Vols. 44-45 (1944-45). | Horsfield and Moore in the
catalogue above referred to made several mistakes over Griffith’s speci-
mens, recording skins he obtained in Assam as coming from Afghanis-
tan. These Assam birds of Griffith, were obtained after he had left
Drs. Wallich and McClelland when they had finished investigating the
conditions under which the tea plant grew in the Khasia Hills. The
collection McClelland made in these hills was worked out by himself.
He then sent his paper to Horsfield with the request that he should
read it through and arrange for its publication in the Proceedings
of the Zoological Society, where it appeared in 1840.
Two years previously Capt. Pemberton had been sent by the Govern-
ment on a mission to Bhutan. He was accompanied by Dr. Griffith
as medical officer and botanist, another officer and a taxidermist and
a collection of nearly 500 bird skins belonging to 126 species were
obtained. Most of the specimens were sent to India House, only a few
going to the Asiatic Society. No paper was written on this collection
but the most interesting birds were, however, recorded in Ludlow’s
‘Birds of Bhutan’ (Ibis, 1937).
In 1849 Gould commenced another large folio work the ‘Birds of
Asia’ but he died before it was completed and Dr. Bowdler Sharpe
was responsible for the seventh volume which came out in 1883. The
plates were very good and there is much of interest in the letterpress _
about the localities of some of the earlier specimens he described and
as to who collected them. He mentions a Captain W. E. Boyes ot
the 6th Cavalry, who made a considerable collection in the Himalayas,,
United Provinces and Rajputana and kept careful notes. Boyes died
in 1854 and his collection was sold by auction, the greater part of it
was bought by Dr. Wilson and given to the Philadelphia Museum,
but a good many skins were secured by Sir William Jardine and
HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY 109
H. E. Strickland. Gould gives further particulars about the birds
obtained by Lord Gifford in Kashmir, ee he went in 1846 with
his younger brother then Lord Arthur Hay, who afterwards became
the well-known ornithologist the Marquis of Tweedale. It has never
been possible to discover whether other specimens‘than those mentioned
by Gould were obtained by these two brothers, and certainly none of
their note books are now in existence.
Edward Blyth came out to Calcutta in 1841 to take charge of the
Asiatic Society’s Museum which he built up in a few years to have
the best collection of birds outside Europe or North America. He
established systematic ornithology in India on a sound basis but had
little opportunity for field work, though he was a good observer as
can be seen by the ‘List of Birds observed in the vicinity of Calcutta’
(Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1843) which he wrote a few years after his .
arrival.
In a later number of the same journal some of Blyth’s identifica-
tions were queried by H. E. Strickland who afterwards published in
the Annals a translation of a little-known paper ‘The Birds of Calcutta’
by C. J. Sundeval a Swede, who had spent a few months in Calcutta
in 1825. Soon Blyth was in correspondence with men interested in
birds all over the Company’s territories and at the monthly meetings
of the Society was wont to discourse on the birds they sent him.
Sometimes he read a paper reviewing a group or a family but as
there was frequently a delay in publishing these papers he adopted
the unfortunate custom of publishing and distributing them privately,
which has led to confusion in nomenclature. In the course of time
Blyth wrote a number of these revisions with the intention of publish-
ing a book and in 1855 an advertisement appeared in the press to
the effect that the first number of a serial work on ornithology by
Blyth was to be published shortly by Messrs. Thacker, Spink & Co.,
but nothing further was heard of the proposed work. Blyth gave
great assistance to Jerdon, who frequently refers to him in the supple-
ment to his catalogue as well as in his book. He also was in corres-
pondence with Kelaart when preparing his ‘Prodromus Faunae
Zeylaniae’ which originally that ornithologist had arranged to write
with E. L. Layard. For some unknown reason he dropped Layard and
the birds in the book were given as a mere list. This was unfortunate
as Layard was a very fine ornithologist, who spent a number of years
in Ceylon, and wrote ‘Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon’ (Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., 1853-54). For sometime Blyth had been engaged
in preparing a catalogue of birds in the Society’s collection, but though
it was completed in 1849 the volume did not appear till 1852 owing
to the fact that Blyth kept adding one appendix after another. The
‘Catalogue of Birds in the Collection of the East India Company’.
two volumes of which appeared in 1854 and 1858 was never completed
as the museum was closed, shortly after the British Government took
over the East India Company.
Jerdon and Blyth were great friends but the same cannot be
said of Hodgson and Blyth. From letters and other sources it is
evident that Hodgson resented Blyth’s editing of the communications
he sent for publication in the Society’s journal and furthermore Blyth
was always so very over-worked that he sometimes delayed or mislaid
_Hodgson’s papers, which naturally caused annoyance.
110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
Soon after the mutiny Jerdon went on sick leave to Darjeeling
and then later was posted to Burma. On his way through Calcutta
he saw the Viceroy, Lord Canning, and put before him a scheme for
a series of manuals on the vertebrates of India. When he had only
been a short time in Burma he was recalled and placed on special
duty to write the manuals. The first to be published was the ‘Mammals |
of India’ and in 1862 the first volume of the birds came out followed
by the second volume in two parts in the following year.
Jerdon’s ‘Birds of India’ was for years the standard work on
that country. The area it dealt with was limited to India proper,
that is from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin and from the Indus to
the Teesta and Brahmaputra in the east. Though Assam, Burma
and Ceylon were not included, Jerdon frequently refers to species found
in these countries. As Hume and Blyth have pointed out Jerdon’s
descriptions were sometimes inadequate, but his notes on habits have
made the work a classic amongst Indian bird books. After he had
finished the second volume, Jerdon started on the volumes on reptiles
and fish but he also found time to visit Kashmir more than once, as
well as all the hill-stations in the Himalayas, the Khasia Hills and
other parts of Assam and made many additions to the 1,008 different
species of birds he had given in his book. Had he lived to complete
the volumes on reptiles and fish doubtless he would have written
an additional volume on the birds or brought out a second edition.
Dr. Leith Adams, whose service in India is given in the previous
section, wrote two important papers, the one in the Proc. Zool. Soc.,
1858 deals with the habits of the birds he met with in India chiefly
in the plains, while the other which came out in the same journal is
an account of the birds he observed in Kashmir and Ladak. In this
last paper he gives fuller particulars of the several new birds he dis-
covered and Gould described including the Orange Bullfinch Pyrrhula
aurantiaca, the Tibet Snowfinch Montifrigilla adamsi and the two forms
of the Kashmir Dipper Cinclus cashmeriensis and sordidus.
ON SOME DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF
CARANX KALLA CUV. & VAL.!
BY
S. V. Bapat, M.sc., and R. RaGuu PRASAD, M.Sc., Ph.D.
(Central Marine Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam Camp)
(With a plate and four text figures)
In a series of collections made in the Pallx Bay (ca, lat. 9° 17’ 24" N.
and long. 79° 08! oo” E.) on the rst, 4th and 5th July 1950, 427 speci-
mens of Caranx kalla varying from 8.25 to 55.00 mm. in length were
obtained and the details are given in Table I. They were found
moving in small schools around the large medusae belonging to the
species Rhopilema hispidum Maas. This association was first noticed
by Dr. Panikkar while bathing in the Palk Bay who asked us to
pursue the subject with further collections which were all subsequently
made in the evenings when the medusae were found near the shore.
TABLE I
yak Number of | Diameter | Number of | Size of fish
? medusae | of bell fish (Total length)
| ——<———— = =
1-7-1950 1) |) 260 nnn. 66 | 8'50218:00 mm:
4-7-1950 1 | 380 mm. 244 | 8:25 — 55:00 mm,
_ 5-7-1950 2 | sup and \ 127 | 8:25 ~ 53:00 mm.
Roe
These fish, when disturbed, were found to take shelter under the
bell of the medusae. Judging from their movements, however, it may
be mentioned that they seem to be cautious while moving about
inside the bell, probably to avoid the stinging cells of the medusae.
It is well-known that several species of carangids gather around
floating objects such as, pieces of wood, coconut shell, medusae, etc.
and the principle of lure-line fishing is based on avs peculiar pabit
of carangids.
meee
* Published with the permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central Marine
Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam Camp.
112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Descriptions of representative specimens of the series collected
are given below. Photograph 1 (plate) shows specimens ranging from
8.25 to 55.00 mm. in length. Another set of four specimens 58.00
to 125.00 mm. in length were obtained from Calicut (photo 2) but
as these resemble the adults in all respects they have not been described
here. The lengths given in this paper are total lengths, i.e., from
the tip of the snout to the end of the caudal fin.
In the smallest specimen collected, 8.25 mm. (Fig. 1), the
lower jaw is slightly longer than the upper. The dorsal fins are
Fig. 1. Post-larya 8.25 mm. in length.
not separated and have about thirty rays of which the first nine
form the spines as they do not show articulations, whereas all the
remaining ones show signs of articulation and they become the rays
of the soft dorsal fin. The anal fin has twenty-two rays of which
the first three are simple and unarticulated and go to form the spines.
The caudal fin, with sixteen to seventeen rays, is rounded and dis-
tinctly separate from the dorsal and anal fins. The pectoral fins are
well developed, rounded and consist of eleven to twelve rays. At
this stage the post-larvae have a light greenish yellow colour in the
fresh condition with fine melanophores distributed uniformly all over
the body except the abdomen. Devanesan and Varadarajan (1942)
have described the eggs and early stages of Cavanx collected from
the. Calicut coast. Post-larvae measuring 5-8 mm. in length have
been. described by Gopinath (1946). He remarks that they are tran-
sparent and the head and abdomen are broad. He further adds:
‘Chromatophores are thick on the dorsal surface and also on the
upper half of the lateral region. The lower jaw is longer and no teeth
could be distinguished at this stage. The fins are not differentiated,
but a total of 22 rays could be counted on the dorsal fin fold. Of these
the first 8 are simple and all the rest show signs of articulation. The
first 8 rays become the spinous portion of the dorsal fin. The anal
fin fold has 22 rays, the first 3 being simple and unarticulated. The
dorsal and anal fin folds are continuous with the base of the caudal,
which unlike the adult, is circular in shape and carries 17 rays.’ How-
ever, the post-larvae measuring 8.25 mm. in length described by us
Sno the following differences from the 8.00 mm. post-larvae described
by Gopinath (1946); they are no more transparent, the dorsal and
anal fin folds are not continuous with the caudal and the dorsal fin has
about thirty rays. ze me
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DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF CARANX KALLA CUYV, @ VAL. 113
At 11.75 mm. the spinous and the soft parts of the dorsaj fin are
separated by a small notch. The third and fourth dorsal spines are
the longest. The second dorsal and anal fins are nearly of the same
height. The second anal spine is the strongest and is one and a
half times the length of the first spine. The tendency of the first two
anal spines to get separated from the rest of the fin is observed at
this stage. Caudal fin appears more or less truncated,
The bifurcation of the caudal fin into two lobes by means of a small
notch is apparent in a specimen 13.50 mm. in length (Fig. 2). The
pectorals are rounded and fan-like. The pigmentation is deeper than
that of the previous stage.
In a specimen 21.50 mm. in length the notch in the caudal fin has
slightly increased but the lobes are stil] rounded. The pectoral fins
Fig. 2. Post-larva 13.75 mm. in length.
show signs of becoming faleate. General pigmentation of the body
is almost similar to that of the previous stage except that of a small
opercular spot, a characteristic feature of the species, appears for the
first time. ie ahs
' The most striking feature ia a specimen 31.00 mm. in length is the
thickening of the lateral line just below the soft dorsal fin to form
«Ego 3. - A specimen. measuring 31.00 mm.. in-length..
8 | :
114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the scutes. The thickening is not clearly seen in fresh specimens but
can be easily made out in specimens stained with alizarine red. The
teeth in both jaws are well developed and are in single series. <A
procumbent spine is seen in front of the dorsal fin. The bifurcation
of the caudal fin is more pronounced and the upper lobe is slightly
longer than the lower. The opercular spot has become more pro-
minent. Two light grey vertical bands are seen just below the first
dorsal and above the ventral fins. Fig. 3 shows a specimen 31.00 mm.
in length.
The largest specimen in the series is a single juvenile 55.00 mm.
in length (Fig. 4). It almost resembles the adult in all meristic
ti, JA
Fig. 4. A juvenile 55.00 mm. in length.
characters except that the first dorsal fin contains seven instead of
eight spines. This appears to be an individual variation as the earlier
stages described in this paper and the adults have been observed
to have eight spines. The procumbent spine is concealed. The second
dorsal had twenty-four rays. The caudal fin contains seventeen rays.
and has assumed the shape of that of the adult with the upper lobe
longer than the lower. The anal fin has nineteen rays preceded by
three spines. The pectoral fins with twenty rays are more pointed
but yet have not taken the shape of those of the adult. About thirty
scutes can be counted. The opercular spot is very prominent. The
general colouration is greenish grey above and silvery below. The
margins of the second dorsal, caudal and anal fins are light grey,
and the ventral fins are light yellow in colour.
The scutes covering the lateral line make their appearance when
the fish attains a length of about 35.00 mm. Blegvad (1944) has
remarked that the number of scutes in Caranx kalla seems to increase
with the total length. Our observations also show a similar trend
of increase in number according to length. Table II shows a com-
parison of our observations with those of Blegvad op. cit,
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF CARANX KALLA CUV. © VAL. 116
TABLE II
SR I I ET PS ES TET CL
Present observations Blegvad’s observations
| |
Total length Number of Total length Number of
of fish (mm.) scutes of fish (mm.) scutes
CCl deen eee
35 21-22 — —_
41 25-26 — —
50 29 _ —
55 30 —_ —
110* 35 — —
118 36-37 ==
120 37-38 120 33
122 38 _
125 38-39 125 36
128 40) _ —
130 40 _ —
— _ 131 37
_ _ 133 39
— _ 134 40
; |
LITERATURE CITED
Blegvad, H. (1944): Fishes of the Iranian Gulf. Danish Scientific Investiga-
tions in Iran, Pt. 3; 1-247.
Devanesan, D. W., and S. Varadarajan (1942): On the hatching of fish egg:
in 1940-41 in the laboratory of West-Hill Biological Station, Calicut. Proc
29th Indian Sci. Cong. Assoc., Baroda, Abstract, 157-158.
Gopinath, K. (1946): Notes on the larval and post-larval stages of fis
found along the Trivandrum Coast. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 12 (1); 7-21.
* Specimens measuring 110 mm. and above were obtained from Calicut.
THE LINALOE TREE (BURSERA DELPECHIANA POISSON)
AN INTRODUCTION INTO THE FLORA OF INDIA
BY
Lr.-Cor. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.)
(With a plate)
INTRODUCTION
A list of all the trees, shrubs and other plants introduced into
India from other countries through the centuries would be a long
one, and entail considerable research. Perhaps, some day, a botanist
member will enrich the pages of our journal with such a compilation.
To mention but a few of the specially useful exotic species which
have up to now an established home in this country: the Orange and
Litchi from China; the Pomelo from Japan; the Coffee from Arabia ;
and the Coconut Palm, which was probably, prior to its spread over
the tropical world, a native of tropical America. 7
Some exotic plants have proved unwelcome, among which the
Prickly Pear, the Lantana, the Kakki weed (Althernanthera repens) and
the Alligator weed (Alihernanthera philoxeroides), also the Water
Hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) which blocks the waterways of Bengal
and other parts of India.
Now we have from Mexico a tree useful to commerce which is the
subject of this contribution.
Of the genus Bursera there has hitherto been only one species in
India—Bursera serrata—a large evergreen tree growing in the Garo
Hills, Chittagong, Chota Nagpur and Northern Circars down to the
Godaveri, usually along streams and elsewhere. It is very common
in the Saranda forests, in Ganjam and Rumpa (Gamble). It is an
occasional tree along the Western Ghats of Bombay. The new tree
from Mexico is of a quite different disposition.
Bursera delpechiana Poisson; synonymous with Bursera aloexylon.
Vern. Mexico, Linaloe.
Description. A medium sized, deciduous tree growing to
a height of about 25 feet as to male trees, the female trees being
somewhat smaller and attaining about 20 feet. Some of the male
trees can be made to produce berries—but only those which have had
grafted into them slips from the female trees: and the berries are
found only on those branches engendered by slips, and not on the
remainder of the tree—but the bulk of the crop is from the female
trees'. The tree has a short trunk from which spring a number of
branches having numerous branchlets. The male tree has the longer
~ trunk and can be readily distinguished in several respects from
_ 3 This.séems to be a_ simple case of. grafting; the ‘slips’. being portions of
the female tree with one or more buds.—Eps.
O—_—
THE LINALOEH TREE (BURSERA DELPECHIANA POISSON): 117
the female tree. Bark. Dark grey, and smooth. On being injured or
lanced it exudes a strong-scented sap of the characteristic ‘linaloe’
odour. If so arranged this sap will crystallize as a resin and is then
highly inflammable. Commercial use for it may yet be evolved. Wood. No
logs have been available to furnish description of the wood, its pores
and medullary rays. Growth. The trees attain a considerable age.
Soil around the trees has a distinct odour derived from the debris of
the tree. Unlike the tamarind of India vegetation grows beneath
the trees and has to be thoroughly weeded out to leave the ground
bare for collection of the ripened berries. On the Tatgunni Estate
there can be, in February, several considerable stacks of fodder grass
obtained from beneath and around the trees.
Leaves. ‘These are imparipinnate and have four pairs of leaflets
of length 1% inches closely attached to the main rachis and connected
along its length by three tapering fins graduated in size from the
lower end. The terminal leaflet is 2 inches long, and all the leaflets
are oblong with serrated edges. The leaves of the female tree tend
to be larger, and some few are as much as seven inches long.
Foliage. The tree is markedly deciduous. In the cold weather,
from mid-November onwards, the trees become wholly bare of leaves
and have a ‘dead’ appearance. They commence to come into leaf
about -early or mid-March, and are in full leaf by early April, but
after a deficient north-east monsoon (as in 1951) the tree may not
begin to come into leaf until the first week of May. The foliage is
darkish green. Berries, With the new leaves the female trees bear
flowers, as also do the grafted-on portions of the male trees, and
when these are ‘set’ the berries are formed, (Plate, photo 2). These
are about the size of, or a little larger than a pea, and are dark
green in colour, turning a reddish brown as they mature and fall off.
It was formerly from the outer covering husk only of the dry berries
that the linaloe oil was obtained, but the oil may be also obtained
from the green berries by steam distillation, and perhaps from the
leaves too. Oil. This theoretically amounts to about 14 per cent
of the weight of the material treated, but the percentage varies con-
siderably below that upper figure according to the care and experienced
management in the gathering of the husks and berries, and their after —
treatment.
INTRODUCTION OF THE TREE INTO INDIA
Seeds (berries) of the trees were obtained from Mexico around the
year 1912 by Mr. Patrick Anderson and his companion Mr. G. N..
Humphries, F.r.c.s., London. The journey into the interior of Mexico:
where the tree grows in a wild state, was undertaken in tor.
Travelling into the interior was no easy task. The journey had to
be done on mule-back and kit reduced to the capacity of an ordinary
nose-bag. The country was exceedingly wild and arid, the bush
thorny and containing cacti of many kinds, of which some developed
into huge plants. A cactus of this tall growth is to be seen at the
present time (1951) in the Lal Bagh Park at Bangalore. Such formed
the forest scenery. —
A grove of trees bearing seed was found, the berries collected in sacks
and sealed at Vera Cruz. Sample of the soil found around the trees was
118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
taken and later analysed by Dr. Bernard Dyer in London. Cross-
sections of the trunk brought away and photographed by an expert
in London revealed that the younger tree was twenty years old and
the tree blazed by the Mexican Indians for heartwood sixty years of
age.
Climate and Elevation. The elevation was noted, and
the climate and meteorological conditions generally studied on the
spot. Samples of the locally made oils purchased from the Mexican
Indian distillers varied in colour from light amber to deep orange.
Some were vivid green due to the verdigris in the copper condensing
apparatus. Analysis in London showed that the oils had been made
of heartwood oil and green berry oil.
Selection of site in India. Mr. Anderson decided
that the dry climate area where is now the Tatgunni Estate, combined
with the elevation (3,000 ft.) being that which favoured the tree in
Mexico, gave expectation that the tree would flourish in the new
situation, and so it has proved. Soil conditions in the selected area
were found favourable, and the first year saw six acres opened up
after the planting-out methods in use for tea, coffee or rubber culti-
vation, The land was drained and the pits made in perfect line and
spaced at fifteen feet interval. It is now evident that 30 ft. intervals
are better, and it is also probable that the trees and the crop result
would benefit if the roots could find more moisture.
Planting. Grevillea robusta was used as a shade tree. These
have been mostly cut down and used up as firewood for estate needs.
Observation shows that shade trees should be removed as soon as
they have served their purpose and not allowed to grow beyond that.
Nurseries were made in long, shallow boxes raised above ground
level as necessary protection against termites. When a foot high
the plants were transplanted into the well-known bamboo baskets until
the following year. In this way one hundred acres were opened out.
During development the usual numerous difficulties which planters
expect were encountered and surmounted, one of these being a fungus
which seriously threatened the success of the enterprise. A present pest
is the well-known ‘pink’, for which the usual treatment is effective. It is
evident that more than ordinary determination and perseverance was
necessary to establish this estate.
Rate of growth of the tree was found to be remarkable
provided the usual] cultivation regimen was carried through. In about
seven years the trees produced an annual crop of berries, the husks
of which increased to a paying figure. Of the berries themselves no
use was made until” in recent years. The trees of 20 years growth
in the established estate resembled in appearance and growth those
of 60 years as represented by the section brought from Mexico. In’
1936 an estate tree measured 43 inches in girth some two feet from
ground level. Of the trees now on the estate, and which are of the
original plantings, a number are as much as 42 inches in girth as
to male trees, 2 feet 3 inches from ground level, and 33 inches as to
female trees. Pollination is done by insects in the usual way, but
by what species of insects has not yet been investigated, -° ° .
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THE LINALOE TREE (BURSERA DELPECHIANA POISSON): 119
Photo 1 on the plate clearly shows how the female tree is pruned ;
also that the trees first planted on the estate were not placed suffi-
ciently far apart. |
It has been found in Mysore that trees propagated from berries
come into production in about seven years, while trees obtained from
cuttings of suitable size become productive in about three years.
Seeds do not germinate easily; many thousands are sown to produce
quite a few plants. Success through cuttings is also not too
easy. The tree is astonishingly hardy and stands up to almost any
amount of rigorous transplanting methods. Sturdy plants from the
Tatgunni Estate can be seen growing in the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Edinburgh. There is a shapely male tree in the compound of the
Bangalore Club, planted there about the year 1924. It has forked
about two feet from the ground level and the circumference at eighteen
inches is 33 inches.
The Tatgunni Estate is about twelve miles from
Bangalore on the tarmac portion of the road from that place to
KKankanahalli. The area at present planted up is about 120 acres.
It is perhaps the only place in the whole world where the Linaloe
tree is at this time regularly cultivated.
Distillation. In Mexico the distilling is rushed over short
periods, but it is found best on the Tatgunni Estate to allow the
annual crop of berries and husks to dry before distillation is done,
and for this a specially designed drying shed has been constructed.
Shipment of the oil is made in galvanized steel drums of 40-50 gallons
capacity and this method has proved very satisfactory.
Chemical Analysis
A supply of the Linaloe Ou distilled on the Tatgunni Estate has
been expertly examined :—
‘In odour the bois-de-femelle oil is of finer character than the
Linaloe Oil but this Mysore oil closely resembles the former with con-
siderable depth and body. It is a very light coloured mobile oil with
a fine lily-rose tone, particularly lasting when tested by long exposure
on paper strips.
The sample showed superior staying power as compared with
the ordinary linaloe oil in the yield of tone, depth and delicacy of
odour, and was equally as tenacious as the bois-de-femelle oil. The
test indicates that the value of this sample as a fixative is equal to
that of the finer qualities of Cayenne bois-de-rose and therefore it will
give more than the usual depth in perfuming lily, lilac, lavender,
linden blossom, canang ylang, and sweet pea soaps in which linaloe
is found useful, whilst it can be more largely employed in transparent
soaps where colouration has to be avoided on keeping.’
‘The Tatgunni oil has an advantage over other oils in having
its ester content very high. It should yield interesting results in the
preparation of such perfumes as the roses, jasmine, lily, lilac, neroli,
ylang, corylopsis, rondeletia, may-blossom, cochidae, trefle, and fancy
bouquets in which bois-de-femelle and linaloe oils are useful. It can
also be recommended for similar perfumes for floral oils, toilet-waters,
brilliantines, creams and powders.’
1200: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vole 5m
Analytical Report on sample of Indian Linaloe Oil
Report No. 6909 Wednesday, 4th October 1939
Specific gravity on ae Me SOP SOS
Optical rotation Bp es Wages PEL MLE
Refractive index a ae he Sag eel ae
Esters as Linay1 Acetate ste Sts Ee OFZ,
Linaloe (free and combined)... 58.1%
This sample is of the normal Indian type and contains
a high percentage of esters. In my opinion the oil is of
good aroma and quality.
(Sib) (Go lie eMNe ERSCo5 Meloy Cas
Note.—There is a small error in the analysis figures, perhaps due
to mistake in copying.
Material for this account of the Linaloe Tree was kindly supplied
to me by Mrs. Andrews of Bangalore who purchased the Tatgunni
Istate in 1937 and sold it to the present owner in 10948.
% % % *
[‘Linaloe Oil: The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
have recommended to the various State Governments in India, the:
cultivation of linaloe tree on a plantation scale at selected centres.
The essential oil extracted from the berries of the linaloe tree finds
use in soap, cosmetic and perfumery industries. The plantation which
has been raised in Mysore State, is one of the only 2 sources of this
oil in the whole world. The tree grows well even on poor and rocky
soils which are unsuitable for other types of cultivation, and needs
little care after a few years of tending. Possibilities for raising linaloe
plantations in various localities in India are great, and planting may
be taken up as a part of the annual Vanamahotsav campaign.’
This note has appeared in the CSIR News 2 (4): 2, 1952, and
may be taken as a commentary on the above by Col. R. W. Burton on
the same subject.—Eps. |
KASHMIR REVISITED
BY
W. T. LoKe
(With six plates)
My first two visits to Kashmir were made during the last war,
in 1944 and 1945. Bird photography, during these war years, was
difficult. My camera was old and the lenses barely adequate for the
work. The films jhoarded one pack at a time over many months)
were of ancient vintage, long past their expiry date, and sometimes
working at less than one-quarter their rated speed. Shortage ot
transport made travel an adventure, and I now marvel at the prodigi-
ous exertions I sometimes underwent in order to photograph
a bird; for instance, I once bicycled, loaded down with equipment,
from Srinagar to Woyil Bridge and back in one day——a distance of
30 miles—in order to photograph Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover.
Fortune was generous in her rewards that day: not only did I get
pictures of the Ringed Plover, but I also photographed a Common
Sandpiper at its nest, and, as a final gift from heaven, an Osprey
dropped a half-eaten fish into my lap.
The richness and variety of bird-life in Kashmir made me long
for better equipment, fresh films (and plenty of them—not the score
or so filmpacks with which I was then eking out my photographic
existence), and the use of a car. ‘When the war is over’, I said
to myself, (prefacing these thoughts with a hackneyed phrase), ‘I will
return’.
I did return, but not until the war had been over for 5% years.
On the morning of May 31st, 1951, my wife and I stepped out of the
Frontier Mail at Amritsar to be greeted by Salim Ali and Roy Hawkins,
(of the Oxford University Press, Bombay), who had come by station-
waggon. Our baggage was of Himalayan proportions. The list of
photographic stores alone was impressive: between Salim and myself
we had seven cameras, and, in addition, I had brought along a heavy
high-speed flash equipment, batteries, developing tanks for three dif-
ferent types of films, hundreds of rollfilms and packs, chemicals sufli-
cient to develop the lot, and a multitude of odds and ends. A trio
of railway station officials at Aritsar, scenting big game, pounced
upon us, and, quoting rules and regulations of the existence of which
we had not hie faintest idea, extracted Rs. 87 before they would let
us go.
The journey to Srinagar may be passed over quickly. When,
on the morning of June 2nd, we ‘stood on the far side of the Banihal
Pass and looked down on to the fair Vale of Kashmir, a dream which
I had dreamed for so long had at last come true. I was back in
Kashmir again and two months of bird photography stretched ahead.
I strained at the leash to get to work in earnest. It was to be more
than a week before real work in fact began.
122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
We frittered away the days in Srinagar. For various reasons we
were unable to get the houseboat out of the Dalgate Canal to Ganderbai
where we had planned to make our first onslaught on the birds.
Kashmir had been starved of visitors for several years, and any
visitor in the summer of 1951 found himself the object of the furious
attention of every water-borne salesman. The long-drawn battle cry
of ‘Salaam Sahib... .’ greeted anyone who had the temerity to
appear in the sitting-room of his house-boat. Nothing would dampen
the ardour of these enthusiasts. Cheerful Chippendale’s good cheer was
simply inescapable, and Suffering Moses was more suffered than suffer-
ing. The words of a popular song say: ‘Shut the door, they’re coming
in Thy the window, Shut the window, they’re coming in by the door’:
how well they applied to life in a houseboat in ane Dalgate Canal in
the summer of 1951! We were thankful when at last we were able
to escape to the quiet of Ganderbal.
But before I leave the salesman, there is one story of an ingenious
sales approach which deserves to be recorded. Salim and i were
walking one evening back to Dalgate from Nedou’s Hotel, after hav-
ing parked the car. A little kingfisher settled on the prow of a house-
boat, bobbing up and down as if suffering from an acute attack of
hiccups. We stopped and watched it, wondering what it would do
next. Soon a smooth looking gentleman who, in his turn, had been
watching us, sidled up to Skin and said, ‘You know what that bird
is, sahib?’
Salim (archly).—‘A water bird?’
Smooth gentleman.—‘No, sahib.’
Salim.—A blue bird?’
S. G.—‘No, sahib. I tell you what he is. He is a kingfisher and
sits there to wait for fish. I know because I have fifty
men who paint his picture every day. Come and visit
my factory (producing visiting card). Just near here.
See, Only, don’t buy’.
We couldn’t object, of course. How could we? No ornithologist
could possibly object if he gets the bird.
J had managed to photograph two interesting birds before we
reached Ganderbal on June 13th. The first was a memorable encounter
with Scully’s Wood Owl. I spent an entire night on the roof of a
thatched hut making my first attempts to photograph with the high-
speed flash. The birds were infrequent visitors, and in the small hours
of the night, standing up within the tiny confines of my hide, my
head began to nod. Twice I managed to save myself just in time
before I fell off the roof. At just after midnight I decided to come
down to earth, but the might became bitterly cold, and lying on the
ground under the trees, I found it was too cold to sleep. The shikaris
borrowed mattresses from a nearby village and spread them over me.
They also lent me a blanket which smelt heavily of wood smoke. I
slept fitfully for a short spell, then climbed into my hide again to
wait for the owls. It was a long night during which the owls only
came back to their nest twice. I got some pictures but they were not
good ones.
I also got more than I bargained for. At the dead of night the
blanket and the mattresses yielded up their denizens, and for several
URN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.
aT
Author
Female Bluechat (Lavvivora brunnea). The bird which took no notice of
the Stuffed Owl! Pahalgam 7,000 ft.
IBeAaNs Il
JOURN.
BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.
A pair of the Largecrowned Willow-wren (Phylloscopus occipitalis). Chandan-
wari 9,000 ft.
Author
Jerdon’s Accentor (Prunella s. jeydoni) with nest in dwarf juniper. Astan-
marg at 11,000 ft.
PLATE
KASHMIR REVISITED 123
weeks afterwards, I carried on my stomach and my arms the marks
of their midnight feasting. When dawn came I left my abode in
the tree and strolled back to the river to meet Sdlim and ‘Hawk’.
On the way I passed a cherry orchard where some peasants were
gathering ripe cherries and, joining them, I made my _ breakfast
off the tree, swallowing with surprising speed more than a pound
of the delicious fruit.
The other encounter was with a pair of Blue Rock Thrushes who
had their nest in an old building on the slopes of the Hariparbat Fort.
The birds were very tame, so tame indeed, that Sdlim called them ‘the
obliging couple’. We worked under most comfortable conditions in
a large hide into which two people could, and did, go. Not un-
naturally it became known as the ‘double bed’. I. got some quite
good pictures.
It was not, however, until we got to Ganderbal that work really
began in earnest. Ganderbal is the perfect head-quarters from which
to make excursions down the Sind River to the Anchar Lake and the
jhil at Shalabug. The country on each side of the river is also rich
in bird life and we spent a very busy 15 days.
On the r4th of June it had rained nearly the whole day, but
on the following morning we woke to clear skies and fresh snow on
the mountains of the Pir Panjal range. The dawn laid rosy fingers
on these gigantic peaks, lending them a soft beauty both alien and
unexpected. ,
It was a good day for photography. A pair of shrikes, feeding
a young Piedcrested Cuckoo, added their pictures to the portrait
gallery. Cuckoos of both species {Piedcrested and Common) were
plentiful. They shouted their heads off in a frenzy of passion and it
seemed impossible that the nest of any potential foster-parents could
possibly have escaped their attention. The shrikes and Golden Orioles
both attacked them, the latter persistently and viciously.
The next day I spent photographing a pair of hoopoes, using
high-speed flash equipment. A note in my diary for that day reads,
‘Spend the afternoon developing films. Hoopoe results look very pro-
mising’. The hoopoe picture reproduced in my article on speedflash
photography [Vol. 50 (4); p. 785] has, I am glad to say, proved very
successful in International Photographic Exhibitions. _
Bird after bird fell to our cameras—Little Bittern, Paradise Fly-
catcher, Great Reed-warbler, Golden Oriole, Paddy Bird, Pheasant-
tailed Jacana, Whitecheeked Bulbul, Swallow, European Bee-eater,
etc. These were busy days, and sometimes I got up as early as 5.30
in the morning and processed films until late into the night. © Salim,
aided by my bearer, helped with the washing. Films processed the
day before and left to dry: during the night, were always examined
critically through a magnifying glass the next morning. These
sessions became known as ‘post-mortems’ and always began with
Salim saying in a businesslike voice, ‘Now then!’
The weather was not always kind to us and more than the usual
amount of rainfall for the time of year resulted in many cold nights.
The temperature once fell to 59°F.
My wife, a bird-photographer, so she said ‘by marriage’, found
the excitement of a pair of ornithologists infectious and took to photo-
124. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
graphy also. She learned to develop her own films and came up with
a picture of a male Paradise Flycatcher of which no photographer
need be ashamed. I reproduce it in plate IV because, I must confess,
I did not succeed in getting as good a picture myself.
On Thursday, June 28th, our houseboat began its journey back
to Srinagar. Owing to high waters, it was not until three days later
that we were able to reach our destination. Both my wife and 1
were by then suffering from dysentery and glad enough to be able
to quit the houseboat. We accepted with thankfulness Miss Helen
Stavrides’s invitation to stay with her in her delightful cottage at
Dalgate. There we enjoyed with undisguised pleasure the luxury
of good food, clean surroundings, a beautiful garden, and the pleasant
company of our hostess.
We had planned to leave for Pahalgam on the 1st of July, but
decided to postpone our departure by one day. Rain on the following
morning prevented movement and it was not until Tuesday, July
3rd, that we sent the servants and the luggage off by bus. Despite the
threat of more rain, Salim and I followed in the station-wagon on
the Wednesday morning. My wife joined us several days later. The
weather continued to be unkind and the cold made living under canvas
far from pleasant. On our third night at Pahalgam the temperature
fell to 46°F. It was to fall even lower than that during our stay in
the high mountains, and at Astanmarg (11,000 ft.) the mercury reach-
ed a record low of 39°F.
The photographing of birds of course went on with little interrup-
tion—Stonechat, Plumbeous Redstart, Bluechat (Q only) and Cinnamon
Sparrow had their portraits more or less successfully recorded.
We thought we would have a little fun with the Bluechats and
put a stuffed owl near their nest to see what effect this would have.
The female took no notice whatever of the owl, except for a very, brief
moment of recognition when she hovered with an evident show of
distress in front of the stuffed bird. After this, she entirely ignored
it, and even when I placed it in her normal line of approach to the
nest she still took no notice but went her customary way, literally
brushing the owl, as she hopped past! The male appeared only once
after the arrival of the owl, but instead of attacking the intruder he
dived repeatedly and viciously at his mate as she searched for food
on the ground. The female, mistaking these no doubt unusual cave-
man tactics as a sign of affection, flirted her wings, raised her tail
and uttered a short snatch of song. After this one visit the male never
came near the nest again, although his explosive little song could
be heard coming from a nearby tree.
Birds of different species differ greatly in their reaction to the
sudden appearance of a hide. Although the male of this first pair
of bluechats never summoned up enough courage to come to the nest,
the male owner of a second nest which I later photographed at Chan-
danwari, was so intent on feeding his offsprings that he continued to
feed them, even when my shikari was seated in full view only 4 feet
away. The hen, however, was in this instance much more shy and
elusive.
After a week at Pahalgam we moved our camp up to Chandanwari
(9,000 ft.) on the East Liddar.
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KASHMIR REVISITED 125
Here I photographed Crowned Willow Warbler (Phylloscopus occipt-
talis), Bluechats, Hodgson’s Shortwing. J also had an adventure of an
amusing kind. We had gone out one morning to photograph a Redtailed
Flycatcher, but found the nest empty as the young had flown. The
nest was placed on a rock beside a small track, and was ideally situ-
ated for photography. The shikaris, showing as much disappoint-
ment at our discovery as I did, re-shouldered their loads, consisting
of my camera and speedlamp, and began to climb down the hillside
again to go back to camp. I followed at a more leisurely pace, picking
my way carefully down a mass of broken rocks. I had not
left the path far behind when there were excited shouts from the
men further down the hill. ‘Reechh, reechh’, they cried, but unfortu-
nately I did not understand. The terror in their voices however told
me that something was very wrong, but my only thought was of an
avalanche. I therefore scrambled down the hillside in quite indecent
and ungainly haste. It was difficult to move quickly. Only when
I got to the bottom of the slope did I venture to look round, just in
time to see a black bear with a beautifully shiny coat that glistened
in the morning sun, going off as fast as he could go—in the opposite
direction! The best comment on my own behaviour is perhaps the
stage direction in one of Shakespeare’s plays: ‘Exit pursued by a
bear’.
On the 17th of July we moved camp again. The weather looked threa-
tening, but we decided to move all the same. The morning kept fine
as we climbed the first steep slope on the road to Astanmarg (11,000
ft.). Part of the way led through a pine forest, fragrant in the
warmth of the early morning sun. Once we had got over the ridge.
of this slope the path dipped down again ‘slightly, crossed a wild
mountain stream, by the side of which Snow Pigeons were feeding,
and then, clinging to the side of the mountains, rose gently until it
reached the first large snowfield guarding the entrance to Astanmarg.
My wife, and Helen Stavrides, who had also joined us for this
final part of our trek, had gone ahead on ponies. These they sent
back for us after they had reached Astanmarg. The ponies met us
as we toiled up the first snowfield, the surface of which reflected a
blinding glare into our faces. The rest of the journey was therefore
completed in extreme comfort, but no sooner had we arrived when a
hailstorm rattled out of the sky. The tents were not yet pitched so
that we had to seek shelter in a gujar’s hut. The storm fortunately
did not last long, and the sun came out to bring a smile back to the
faces of the grey mountains. This smiling mood, too, was short-lived ;
we had only just finished pitching our tents when the rain returned
and this time stayed with us for the rest of the day.
The birds of Astanmarg, although not rich in numbers of species,
nevertheless gave us many exciting and happy days of work. We
discovered that the most common of the breeding birds was Jerdon S
Accentor and several nests were soon found. Favourite nesting sites.
were in the dwarf juniper bushes growing so plentifully in certain
parts of the Astanmarg basin. rie at
Jn the relatively small area of the marg, nests were not difficult
to find. We spent eleven days at Astanmarg during which time I
photographed eight different species of birds, and had several, of
what I call, ‘3-bird? days. We did not have time to stay longer at
126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Astanmarg, otherwise this list would certainly have been greater.
Moreover rain prevented work. on several days so that the actual.
working time was only about 7 whole days. The birds which I did
manage to photograph were the following :—
Bluefronted Redstart (Phoenicurus frontalis)
Hume’s Willow Warbler (Phylloscopus inornatus humei)
Jerdon’s Accentor (Prunella strophiata jerdoni)
Kashmir Dipper (Cinclus cinclus cashmeriensis)
Kashmir Sooty Flycatcher ([emichelidon sibirica gulmergi)
Pipit (Anthus roseatus)
Yellowheaded Wagtail (Motacilla ctiveola calcarata)
Tree Creeper (? Certhia familiaris hodgsoni)
We also found nests of Whitecapped Redstart, Rubythroat and Grey
Wagtail but lack of time and bad weather gave us no opportunity
to photograph them. In addition, we heard, or saw, Cuculus polioce-
phalus, Scully’s Wood Owl, Adelura, Phylloscopus affinis, Blue Rock
Thrush, and Common Redstart, all of which were almost certainly
nesting.
On this trip, ‘the-big-one-that-got-away’, was the Lammergeier. I
had been trying, unsuccessfully, to photograph a pair of very shy
pipits which had their nest near a fallen Silver Birch tree. Suddenly
there was a tearing sound, of feathers straining against the wind, and
a huge Lammergeier landed on the trunk of the tree. It was only
about 15 ft. away from me and I could clearly see its fierce eyes,
its ‘beard’, and every detail of its plumage. After the first moment
of breathless astonishment I slowly withdrew the telephoto Jens of
my camera into the hide, quietly pushed it through another rent in
the cloth, and inch by inth, with agonizing slowness, tilted it in the
direction of the bird. I had just got about half of it into the field of
view of my camera when the Lammergeier, perhaps noticing a reflec-
tion from the lens, took off from its perch as quickly as it had arrived.
My disappointment was intense, nor were matters improved by the
refusal of the pipits to come to their nest. They just moved up and
down the fallen log, making a monotonous and unceasing ‘pit-pit-
pit’, but never coming within range of my lens. After 24 hours of
waiting I left in disgust!
The avifauna of Astanmarg, although exciting enough, could not
be compared to the richness and variety of the flora. The whole
of the marg is a botanist’s delight, the greatest concentration
of flowers being found in a small valley to the north-west where there
is a terminal moraine. A huge area of broken rocks, some of them
as large as a house, sprawls over the hillside. Amongst the rocks
there were patches of soil, still partly covered with snow, which
were veritable little gardens. At the edge of the melting snow,
Adonis chrysocyathus, of the purest yellow colour, had opened their
paper-like flowers to the warming summer sun, even while their brown
leaves were still tiny clenched fists; Cortusa matthioh hid their cerise-
pink blossoms in the shade of the rocks, and nodded their heads at
every passing breeze; blue Primula denticulata grew in perfect globes ;
Androsace hugged the rocks closely, and gazed with a score of tiny eyes
up into the sky; regal Fritillaria sprouted green bells at the ends of
slender stalks; white Marsh Marigolds flowered in the wet ground
beside a stream, and Gentians, growing close to the soil touched the
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KASHMIR REVISITED N27
earth with the magic colours of the sky. Birch trees, old, bent and
broken, grew among the rocks and dwarf junipers of this desolate and
shattered landscape.
It would haye been possible to spend a month and more at
Astanmarg and still not have exhausted the subjects for our cameras.
But time was running out. We had already postponed our departure
once, and it was decided that we must return to Srinagar at the latest
by Saturday, July 28th. We planned to make a 3-bird day of the
Friday but fate dealt us the unkindest cut of all by allowing it to rain.
The clouds cleared sufficiently in the middle of the morning to give
me an opportunity to take pictures of a pair of Sooty Flycatchers,
after which the bad weather closed in again for the rest of the day.
The morning of our departure dawned cold and wet, but at 10 a.m.
the rain grew less, so we made a dash for it. I wore Sdlim’s
mackintosh while he put on his oilskin coat, part of which had been
eaten several days before by a blasé cow, tired of feeding on
the lush grasses of the marg. We were lucky not to have had
much rain on the return journey so that Pahalgam was reached by
4 p-m., and the same evening saw us back at Srinagar.
The expedition proved a great success. I managed to photograph
over 30 species of birds and took well over 700 pictures. Most of these
were processed in the field, and a surprising quantity of our large
stock of chemicals was used up.
The pleasure of being able to make my holiday live again is stilh
with me in my darkroom in Singapore.
NOTES ON THE CRAB FISHERY OF THE CHILKA LAKE
BY
S. JONES anpD K. H. SujJANSINGANI
Central Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrack pore!
(With five text figures)
DP NEDROsD AU Cee OnN
Crabs, with an estimated annual production of over 40,000 Ibs.
form a minor fishery of some importance in certain parts of Chilka
Lake (Fig. 1). Hardly 2/5th of the output is exported by rail while
the rest is either consumed locally or finds regular demand from the
travelling public at railway stations bordering the lake. There is no
part of the lake where crabs do not occur, but the production from
the northern sector despite its vastness is quite insignificant. Further,
all the marketable catches come from the southern and central sectors,
i.e., from Rambha in the south to Gangadharpur in the north.
SCALE
IN
Oo MILES 5
nl
¢ re,
J a RE SS
BAY cs BENGAL CHILKA
Fig. 1—Map of the Chilka Lake showing important crab fishing grounds,
fishermen’s villages and consuming and exporting centres. Fishery centres having
the same names as the neighbouring railway stations are underlined.
Crabs are caught in the lake almost throughout the year but the
peak period extends from the middle of August to October. Crab
fishing is mainly done by three groups of fishermen, viz., the Koibartas,
1 Published with the permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central Inland
Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpore.
NOTES ON THE CRAB FISHERY OF THE CHILKA LAKE 129
Tiors and Kondras of Pathra, Banpur and Rambha villages respec-
tively. As mentioned by Chopra (1939), we find that all the age-oid
customs and traditional methods are practised in the Chilka also.
Thus the Tiors and the Kondras who are considered to belong to
the lower strata of the fishing community are held unworthy to operate
nets and fish with traps only as laid down by tradition. The Koibartas
on the other hand who are considered to belong to a higher stratum,
fish with nets only, the use of traps being considered below their
dignity. They catch crabs also by means of a net known as Noli-jal.
Thus, so far as the Tiors and the Kondras are concerned the crab
fishery, though minor, provides an additional means of livelihood
for a period of about 5 months from August/September to January,
after the main prawn fishing season is over.
CRABS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
There are several species of crabs present in the lake, but the most
important from the fishery point of view are Scylla serrata (Forskal)
and to some extent Neptunus pelagicws (Linnaeus). Any other kind of
crab caught during the course of fishing operations, is regarded un-
suitable for marketing and is generally reserved by the fishermen for
their own use. Apart from the above two species, which alone .are
of commercial importance, the more common among the other varieties
are Varuna litterata (Fabricius) and Ocypoda sp. in the saline parts
of the lake and Paratelphusa sp. in the inundated parts, especially
in the northern sector’.
Seylla serrata (Forskal), (Fig. 2).—This food crab has a fairly
wide distribution in the Indo-Pacific region and is essentially a salt
Fig. 2—Scylla serrata (Forskal).
a a a a ee
1 See Kemp, S. (1915). Fauna of the Chilka Lake, Crustacea Decapoda :—
Mem. Indian Mus., 5 (5) for a complete list of the crabs of the Chilka Lake.
9
130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
water species though often found just above the tidal limits (Hora,
1935). It is most important amongst the crabs of the Chilka Lake
and is in greater supply than all the other varieties put together. This
is the largest of the estuarine crabs and specimens with a carapace 5-6
inches broad as mentioned by Chopra {1939) are very common while those
of about 8 inches breadth are not rare. Specimens wih a carapace breadth
of 15 to 18 inches as reported by Dr. Ramaswamy Naidu from the
Chilka (Chopra op. cit. and Govt. 1950) have never been seen by us and it
is doubtful if such large specimens actually occur,
In the lake, S. serrata is most common in the southern sector and
a narrow strip of central sector adjoining the former which are com-
paratively more saline, but it is rather scarce in the northern sector
where salinity is the lowest and freshwater conditions prevail during
some months of the year. Small-sized crabs of this species are
available in April and May and the peak fishing season extends from
August to November. Crabs are generally caught in the WNoli-jal
which is described elsewhere. The main fishing grounds are Malud,
Parikud, Kallikota and Rambha.
Neptunus pelagicus (Linnaeus), (Fig. 3). This is also a salt water
species having a wide distribution in the Indo-Pacific region. In
the Chilka this comes next in importance to Scylla serrata and is
caught in the central and southern sectors being rather more in
the former. It is also fairly common in the channel area. Young
Fig. 3—Neptunus pelagicus (Linnaeus).
specimens of this variety are found in the lake by about April. They
grow rather quickly and to a fairly large size (4 to 6 inches in carapace
width) and provide a regular crop Seon June/July to January with
the peak season extending from August to October. It is caught
in drag nets and in traps known as Konkra-kharia and its main fishing
grounds are Satpara, Noapara and Alupatna.
_ a?
INCINES ON, GENE (CARULIB JRISIEN IRM. SOND FN EUR OVEDULIKC A, WIRVAIRGD LE
FiIsHInc GEAR AND METHODS
The gear exclusively used for the purpose of catching crabs in
the Chilka Lake consists of a fishing net known as the Noli-jal and a
box-trap known as Konkra-kharia which are described below. In addi-
tion to the crabs obtained by the above-mentioned gear, small quantities
of them are caught practically throughout the year in shore seines
and cast nets. Generally, stray specimens obtained in the off-season
are not offered for sale except when caught in appreciable.numbers.
Fishing is generally done for four or five days continuously in a
week after which the fishermen return to their respective villages.
The catches are however sent to the consuming centres almost daily.
During the two or three days, which the fishermen have at their
disposal, they attend to the repairing and mending of their nets, or
traps, applying preservative to nets and settling accounts. On the
night of the seventh day they go to the lake once again. This is
reported to be the general practice all over the lake and is not peculiar
to crab fishing only.
Noli-Jal (Fig. 4).—This net is similar to the Nandu-valai described
by Prasad and Tampi (1951) for catching Neptunus pelagicus near
Mandapam, the only. difference being that it is made of sunn-hemp.
It has no sinkers or bottom weights and is kept stretched between
bamboo poles. The floats of the Noli-jal are conical, measuring
7/5 <OOD
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Fig. 4—A section of the Noli-jal of the Chilka Lake used for catching Scylla
serrata (Forskal)—semi-diagrammatic.
about 4.5” in length and 4” in width at the base. The net is about
240 ft. long, 3.0 to 3.5 ft. deep with meshes measuring 2.75” from
knot to knot. Generally five such pieces are lashed together by passing
thick twine through the alternate meshes of the adjoining sides to
®
132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
make an operational net of about 1,200 ft. in length. For operating
it in deeper waters one or more nets are fastened one below the
other to make the composite net broader, and longer float lines are
used, depending upon the depth. Though the net is operated for the
purpose of catching Scylla serrata, at times N. pelagicus and some
large-sized fish also get entangled in its meshes. Crabs are removed
either by tapping them with a stick or by breaking their chelipedes.
On account of its large mesh the Noli-jal is generally used as a gilling
net also for catching large-sized fish, by replacing the small conical
floats by rectangular ones, each measuring about 8” x 3” x4".
Konkra-kharia (Oritya—Konkra=crab, kharia=trap) (Fig. 5). This
is a simple box trap, quadrangular in shape with a single entrance
for the crab and is generally operated for Scylla serrata.
The trap measures 18" x12"”x 10". It is made of bamboo strips
of about +” width separated from each other by about 4” space.
One of the sides measuring 12” x 10” has in it a slit-shaped opening,
Fig. 5—Konkva kharia. The crab trap of the Chilka Lake. The lower arrow
i indicates the entrance and the dotted line shows the top corner loosened and lifted
up for removing the trapped crab—semi-diagrammatic.
measuring about 9” x 4” and equally spaced from the sides measuring
10”, This opening is secured by means of a Chevaux de frise of
bamboo splints which project inside the trap and form a V-shaped
wedge. The trap is kept at the bottom of the lake tied to a pole so that
it may be easily spotted. A bait consisting of a prawn or small fish is
hung inside the trap by means of a thread to attract the crab, which
forces its way through the slit with no chance of escape.
©
NOTES ON THE CRAB FISHERY OF THE CHILKA LAKE 133:
The catchers visit the fishing ground at intervals of two hours and
collect the traps having crabs inside. One of the ends of the sides
measuring 18” is then loosened and the trap inverted over a basket in
which crabs are collected. Not more than one crab is usually collected
at a time and the trap is set again with a fresh bait.
“MARKETING
Crabs are marketed alive, as is generally done on the west coast
(Rai 1933), and transported from the fishing grounds to consuming
centres in baskets with large quantities of moist weeds above and
below, in order to keep them in a moist and cool condition. Marketing”
is done in different ways by different sects of fishermen. The Koibartas.
take their catch to Pathra, where it is disposed of through middlemen
or merchants known as Mahajans. These merchants regularly visit
this centre during the season as catches by Noli-jal are comparatively
high. The Mahajans take delivery of catches in Pathra village and
pay about Rs. 7 to Rs. 8 per score for the full-grown crabs and about
Rs. 4 to Rs. 5 for the medium-sized individuals. They arrange to:
have the crabs transported to the nearest railway station of Kallikota,
which is about three miles away, where sales take place. A large-
sized crab usually fetches from 10 to 12 annas and medium-sized from
6 to 8 annas. A high rate is usually paid by the railway passengers
who have little time to bargain.
The Tiors of Banpour village as a rule market their catches through
relatives or agents who are people of their own caste and who take
delivery of the catch at the fish-landing centre at Balugan. Retail
sale of crabs is conducted either near the landing place, i.e., near the
lake or near the railway station of ‘Balugan or at both the places
depending upon the catches. The Kondras of Rambha, like the Tiors,
do not entrust disposal of their catches entirely to their relatives or
agents, but they also attend to these sales being mostly local. Full-
grown and large-sized crabs caught in traps fetch about 6 to 8 annas
each and medium-sized about 3 to 6 annas each.
- Limited output and presence of local demand leave very little for
export. In 1950, however, catches were reported to be more than in
the previous two years and nearly 200 maunds were exported by rail,
out of which Balugan alone supplied over 100 maunds. Figures. of
@ports from railway records indicate that there was surplus from
the end of August to the first week or ten days of October which is
the peak season for both the species described. The surplus is
generally exported to Khurda road, Puri, Cuttack, Kharagpur and
Tatanagar and occasionally to Calcutta, where it fetches almost as
much as the stuff sold locally at retail rate, there being a ready market
for crabs at all these consuming centres.
On the basis of random observations, the ‘local demand’ which in-
cludes purchases made by railway passengers passing through Chilka
stations does not exceed 300 maunds annually. Considering the surplus
exported and the quantity consumed round about the fishing centres,
the annual output from the lakes does not apparently exceed 500 maunds.
or roughly 40,000 lbs. value of which is estimated to be about Rs.
15,000. ;
134 JOURNAL,» BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
GENERAL REMARKS
The crab fishing industry in the Chilka is not extensive as found
in other parts of India also (Chopra, 1936). Under the present system
of fishing it 1s not possible to get a correct picture of the availability
of crabs in the different sectors of the lake or even to state that the
stocks are exploited to the available extent. One thing, however,
appears to be almost certain that there is no depletion and this is
borne out by the fact that exports in 1950 were much higher than in
the previous two years and at the same time there was no slackening
of the local demand. Observations indicate that there is great annual
fluctuation in the catches, but the causes of these variations are not
known.
REFERENCES
Chopra, B. (1936): The Cape Crawfish industry of South Africa with some
observations on the prawn and crab fisheries in India.—Curr. Sci., 4 (7); 529-538.
— (1939): Some food prawns and crabs of India and their fisheries.—
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 44 (2); 221-234.
Government of India (1941): Preliminary guide to Indian fish, fisheries
methods of fishing and curing.—Marketing Ser. No. 24, Govt. Press, Delhi.
— — — (1950): The Wealth of India.—A Dictionary of Indian raw materials
and industrial products.—Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Delhi.
Hora, S. L. (1935): Crab-fishing at Uttarbhag, Lower Bengal.—Curr. Sci.,
3 (11); 543-546.
Kemp, Stanley (1915): Fauna of Chilka Lake.—Crustacea Decapoda.—Mem.
Indian. Mus., 5 (8); 201-325.
Prasad, R. Raghu and Tampi, P. R. Sadasivan (1951): An account of the
fishery and fishing methods for Neptunus pelagicus (Linnaeus) near Mandapam.—
J]. Zool. Soc. India, 3 (2); 335-339.
Rai, H. S. (1933): The shell fisheries of the Bombay Presidency II. J. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc., 36 (4); 885-896.
ON A COMMON SPECIES OF CURCUMA OF BOMBAY
AND SALSETTE ISLANDS
BY
H. SANTAPAU, S.j.
(With a plate)
The identification of the Indian species of Curcuma presents very
great difficulties. Most of our books have been written from materials
preserved in various national and foreign herbaria, and it is plainly
admitted that for the most part such materials are in a very poor
state of preservation. These plants grow during the rainy season,
and their structure is rather bulky and fleshy ; hence it is that collection
is rendered difficult on account of the harshness of the weather, and
’ preservation is made next to impossible on account of the bulk and fleshi-
ness of the materials. The specimens preserved at Kew Gardens and
in various Indian herbaria leave much to be desired in this respect.
Another great difficulty in the identification of these plants has
been lucidly expressed by Wight in Icones 6: 16, under No. 2005:
‘The genus Curcuma so far as regards the determination of species,
is rather difficult, but to distinguish a Curcuma from any other genus
of the order is easy after any of its species is known. The peculiar
formation of the spike, and very characteristic bracteal sacks which
are common to all, proclaim at a glance the genus. ... One very
objectionable set of specific characters has been had recourse to for
distinguishing the species, those, namely, taken from the roots. To
my mind, such characters are objectionable as being parts beyond
the reach of observation in the growing plant, and not being pre-
servable in the dried one. The habit and foliage is certainly much
alike in all the species, but doubtless, if carefully studied, the bracts
and flowers would be found to furnish better ones, and not liable to
the above objections. Neither having roots nor growing plants before
me, I find it most difficult to indicate the characters by which the
following species (i.e. C. neilgherrensis Wt.) can be distinguished
from the 20 others of the genus, though, so far as I can detect, it
does not accord with any of them.’
The objection of Wight against the roots being used as the basis
for the classification of the species is a very reasonable one; on the
other hand, the roots do afford good diagnostic characters in a genus
which is admittedly one of the most difficult among our monsoon
plants. Among our Bombay plants the following are the types en-
countered :
(a) A small rhizome without any tubers.
(b) Tubers attached directly to the rhizome; i.e. tubers are
sessile; their number varies from one to many, and their structure
is generally globose or ellipsoid.
(c) Tubers are sessile, but in structure they are palmately divided.
135 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
(d) Tubers are more or less ellipsoid,’ but they are placed at the
end of fairly long fibrous roots, i.e. they are not sessile.
Another good character taken from the roots is the internal colour
of the tubers; they are mainly deep yellow {as in the common ‘Haldy’
—turmeric) or more or less pure white. Among the latter plants the
tubers are pure white only when they are fresh; when old they may
turn somewhat yellowish, but never of the intensity of colour of the
first group. :
There is another point on which, in my opinion, too much impor-
tance has been placed in our floras for the identification of these
plants; I refer to the position ‘of the spike in relation to leaves. This
character has been so much emphasized that Schumann, to cite but
one author, has divided the genus into subgenera on the basis of the
position of the spike; plants fall into the groups Hitcheniopsis and
Eucurcuma, according to the position, lateral or central, of the spike.
Cooke’s flora commits the same error, and even Blatter does not
seem to have been free from the same, as will be pointed out later
in this paper.
Unfortunately this is scarcely correct; for as I have shown in a
previous paper on the subject (Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 45:
618 seq.), one and the same plant may have lateral or central spikes —
according to the season of the year in which plants have been collected.
At the beginning of the rainy season a plant may have lateral spikes,
and from the middle to the end of the same season they may have
central inflorescences. During the early part of August when the change
from lateral to central inflorescence occurs, it is not rare to find a
plant with the double inflorescence, central and lateral, at the same
time. {Photo 2). This double position of the spike is not always
clear; in the case of Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. it took me over
three years to establish this fact clearly; but once this was known,
I have very often found that whenever there was a lateral spike, there
was also a central one, even though at times the latter could only
be seen through careful dissection. The same seems to be the case
with the common Bombay plant that is being discussed in these
pages.
Throughout the rainy season of this year, 1951, the common
Curcuma of Bombay has been collected; it is the only common plant
of the genus in Andheri, Borivli and in the neighbourhood of Kanheri
Caves in the National Park. On June 13, 1951, I noted in my diary
against No. 12820: ‘Leaves rare now; flowers flesh-coloured, but lip
with bright yellow spot. Common in undergrowth, in flower. Coma
purple.’ The specimen has no leaves. On June 30th the plant was
again collected and the entry in my field book (No. 12824) reads:
‘Inflorescence probably lateral, but of this did not make sure. From
the apex down to one-third of the length of the spike “Mallow Purple”’
(Ridgway 67-b), with tips approaching ‘‘Aster Purple’ (R. 67-1).
Rest of bracts green with tips of about ‘“‘Hessian Brown’’ (Ridg.
5’ m). Calyx hyaline, ca: 8 mm. long; corolla lobes 3, regular,
hyaline, as long as lip or staminodes; acute. Staminodes about ‘“‘Jasper
Red”? (Hortic. Chart 018/1-2). Centre of lip “Sulphur Yellow”’. (Hort.
Ch. 1) going to 4 from the edges. Flowers or fruits 1-3 supported
by each bract. Fruit spherical, white, with many whitish seeds inside,
‘surjunow
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COMMON SPECIES OF CURCUMA OF BOMBAY, ETC. 137
and brownish hairs outside on upper half. In shade of forest trees.’
Actual measurements of the floral parts of this plant are: Whole
flower 4.3 cm. long; calyx 7.5 mm. long; narrow part of corolla tube
1.6 cm. long, 3 mm. diam.; then the tube enlarges into an infundi-
buliform structure about three times as broad in diameter as the lower
part of the same tube. Petals and staminodes are similar in structure,
acute, about 7 mm. broad.in the middle; lip broadly ovate to subobovate
in shape, obtuse at the apex or slightly emarginate, margins somewhat
crisped. The flower is scarcely exserted.
On August 29th, 1951, I had the same plant collected; this time
care was taken to see that the root system was intact. The under-
ground portions of the plant consist of a small rhizome giving out a
number of fibrous roots each up to 15 cm. long, and bearing near
its end an ovoid or subglobose tuber. <A section through the tubers.
showed them to be white inside when young, and pale yellowish
when old; the section further showed that the tuber was concentrically
divided into two regions, the inner one about 8 mm. diam., the
outer one forming a ring round the central core about 6-8 mm. thick,
both layers surrounded by the epidermal layers with plenty of fine
rootlets. The plant of this last collection definitely has an inflorescence
spike placed in the middle of four leaves; the plant seems to have
changed from a vernal to an autumnal form in regard to the position
of the spike, or if such a change has not occurred in the present indi-
vidual plant, at least it looks as if the early plants had a lateral spike,
whilst all the plants seen at the end of August have a central one.
My last specimen has four leaves, arranged distichously, two on each
side of the spike; the underside of the leaves is definitely glabrous in
every case.
From this examination it is clear that my plants do not belong to.
Curcuma aromatica Salisb., as I was given to understand when I
began my botanical work in Bombay years ago, but to C. inodora
Blatt. Curcuma aromatica is said to have many sessile tubers, which
are yellow inside, and the leaves are subtomentose {Schumann), or
sericeous (Wight), or pubescent (Cooke), on the underside; the tubers,
moreover, are palmately divided. Both the structure of the tubers and
their colour, and the pubescence of the underside of the leaves of
Curcuma aromatica distinguish it from the common Bombay plant.
On the other hand, except for a few minor discrepancies, my plants.
agree with Blatter’s description of Curcuma inodora. From the Journ.
& Proc., Asiat. Soc. Beng. (N.S) 26: 357-358, 1930, I take the follow-.
ing description of the latter plant (the Latin part of the description
being translated into English): Curcuma tmodora Blatter, sp. nov.
Zingiberaceous, of the subgenus Fucurcuma K. Schum., section
Exanthae. Rhizome with many tuberiferous fibrous roots; tubers.
white inside, inodorous. Leaves appearing at the same time as the
flowers, the young ones 24 cm. long, 10 cm. broad, acuminate at the
tip, plicate; petiole 16 cm. long, deeply concave, winged. Inflores-
cence vernal, lateral; peduncle 10 cm. high. Lower bracts shorter
and broader than the higher ones, pale green with a touch of pink,
the higher bracts rosy in the body, purple at the tip, all the bracts
truncate at the apex, rounded or emarginate. Calyx 1 cm. long,
tubular-trigonous, shortly and irregularly 3-lobed at the apex; tube °
138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 651
minutely pubescent. Corolla 3.5 cm. long; tube 2 cm., lobes 1.5 cm.
long; dorsal lobe apiculate, half as broad again as the lateral ones;
lateral lobes retuse ; all the lobes ovate or ovate-lanceolate, concave, pur-
plish, subsaccate at the apex. Staminodes and lip about equal in
length, somewhat longer than the petals. Staminodes oblong, 5-7
mm. broad, truncate, purplish-red. Lip obovate, obscurely 3-lobed or
subentire, 1.5 mm. (obviously a mistake for 1.5 cm.) broad, crisped
at the margins, purplish red, towards the middle intensely yellow
throughout its length. Filament 3 mm. broad, purplish red, connate
with the staminodes; anthers white, the base and spurs rosy. Ovary
densely hirsute. Style rosy; stigma white, oblique, bilobed.
Base of plant a rhizome; root-fibres numerous, bearing ovoid tubers
4 cm. from their base; tubers 2-2.5 cm. by 1.5-2 cm., white inside,
divided into an outer and inner part by means of a membrane visible
in a section as a distinct line following the outlines of the tuber, no
smell, taste rather pleasant. Leaves appearing together with flowers,
all enclosed in 2 olive or purplish green sheaths, which are many-
nerved, rounded at tip, sometimes apiculate, 8 and 15 cm. long res-
pectively. Young leaf: Blade 24 by 10 cm. with the apex acuminate,
plaited with about 20 pairs of ridges following the main nerves ; : vetiole
16 cm., deeply concave, winged. Inflorescence vernal, dateral
peduncle 10 cm. long, narrow below, stout above, with many sheaths
at base. Lower bracts much shorter and broader than upper, pale
green tinged with pink, margins waved, tips of all the bracts truncate,
rounded or marginate; upper bracts forming a cone, rose-coloured,
tips purple. Calyx 1 cm. long, tubular, trigonous, w idening upwards,
shortly and irregularly 3-lobed at apex; tube sparsely minutely
pubescent. Corolla 3.5 cm., tube 2, lobes 1.5 cm., tube sharply bent
in a little {3 mm.) below the sinuses at which point it widens out. Up
to this point tube below with 2 anterior fleshy whitish ridges with a
furrow between, together 3 mm. broad. Dorsal lobe one and a half
times as broad as side lobes, apiculate, side-lobes retuse, all ovate
to ovate-lanceolate, concave purplish, obscurely nerved, subsaccate
near tip. Staminodes and lip subequal in length, surpassing tip of
petals by 2 or 3 mm. Staminodes oblong, 5 mm. broad near tip,
mm. lower down, truncate, purplish red. Lip obovate obscurely 3-
lobed or subentire, 15 mm. across, margins crisped, apex bifid, with
a faint longitudinal furrow on both sides; colour purplish red, a
bright yellow band running longitudinally, broadest anteriorly, fainter
below and on the outside, in its broadest part about 5 mm. Filament
3 mm. broad, connate with staminodes below, ‘abigoetn GREednmrnee portion
bent in; anther white with pink base and spurs which are bent in-
wards. Ovary 3 by 2 mm., densely hairy, hairs directed upsards.
Style pink; stigma oblique, white, bilobed, ‘anterior margin straight,
posterior with two diverging processes.
Locality: Bombay Presidency: Moolgaum, Salsette (Hallberg No.
12724, type). Flowered in June 1917.’
Comparison of this description with my specimens from various
parts of Bombay and Salsette Islands clearly shows that my plants
belong to Blatter’s species and not to C. aromatica; further, from my
observations in the field it is also clear that C. inodora has a lateral
inflorescence at the beginning of the monsoon and a central or autumnal
one at a more advanced season.
COMMON SPECIES OF CURCUMA OF BOMBAY, ETC. 139
Let me conclude on the subject by appealing to Indian botanists
from various parts of the country for specimens of this interesting
genus. Plants should be collected both at the beginning and in the
second half of the monsoon, and the position, central or lateral or
double, of the inflorescence noted, if this is not sufficiently clear already
from the specimen itself; further that in every case roots be collected
with the tubers that may be attached to them. In some cases to secure
the roots with their tubers it may be necessary to dig fairly deep into
the ground and carefully to remove the soil from a distance of up to
4o cm. from all round the base of the plant. By this means it is
hoped that it will be possible to secure good specimens of this interest-
ing genus from various parts of India, and in time to present to
Indian botanists a comprehensive monograph of this important and
difficult genus.
SUMMARY
The genus Curcuma is in need of a thorough revision, which is
impossible from the materials preserved in our Indian herbaria. The root
system is essential for identification, but unfortunately the roots are
missing in most of the collections, even from those in the best herbaria.
The central or lateral position of the spike is not a good diagnostic
character, since it varies with the season of the year with one and the
same plant. From examination of many specimens in the field and
herbarium it is clear that our common Bombay plant is C. imodora
Blatt.
REFERENCES
Blatter, E. (1930): New Species of Indian Plants. Journ. & Pyoc., Asiat.
Soc. Beng. (N.S.), 26 (1): 339-366.
Cooke, Th. (1901-08): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. London.
Santapau, H. (1945): Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. Journ., Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc., 45: 618-624.
Schumann, K. (1903): Zingiberaceae. In Engler’s. ‘Pflanzenreich’ Heft 20.
Wight, R. (1838-53): Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis. Madras.
SYSTEMATICS AND ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PLANTS
OR
WHAT CAN WE DEMAND OF A MODERN FLORA?
BY
C. Es HEWwETSON
Indian Forest Service
(With two plates)
It is a fair comment that the plant life of India has received less
attention than animal life. The larger game animals have inspired
a vast literature and almost every aspect of their life history and
characteristics have been observed. Though the birds have not been
studied in such individual detail as in western countries, yet we have
several popular handbooks as well as the detailed volumes in the Fauna
of British India series: and many unwearying POSADA have
captured their beauty and habits at the nest. "Scientific surveys and
collections have been made in almost ev ery part of India. The nse:
largely because of their harmful nature, have also driven us to maintain
reséarch stations, and many scientists are occupied in devising methods
of control. Only the less economically important but more beautiful
Lepidoptera have not been dealt with adequately in a popular manner.
On the other hand the great majority of the plants have been very
little studied. Leaving apart plants of economic importance—the agri-
cultural crops and the trees valuable for their timber—and to a lesser
extent medicinal plants, which are studied more for their drugs than
for themselves, we may say that the common plants of India have
never been treated popularly, and have been studied very inadequately
in a scientific way. Good illustrations of individual plants or of plant
associations are rare. Even for all the States in India we do not
have up-to-date floras, and within each State there is practically no
detailed knowledge. Whe Flora of British India by Hooker, and regional
floras such as Cooke (Bombay), Haines (Bihar & Orissa) with a ‘recent
supplement by Mooney, Gamble and Fisher (Madras) are all based
on earlier concepts of species. It is an opportune time to discuss
what can be demanded legitimately in a modern Flora.
2. SYSTEMATICS
(i) The Botanical Survey of India has been starved for funds for
many years, and there is no organisation in India with adequate staff
concerned primarily with Systematic Botany. This explains why this
basis of Botany lags behind. As a forest officer I was not originally
interested in systematics but in attempting to elucidate problems of
the sylviculture and management of the forests, I wished to record the
plants found in different localities, and to do this I was forced to
SYSTEMATICS AND ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PLANTS 141
learn their names, and to learn how to identify them. As soon as
one starts on this one finds how inadequate are the present Floras. In
the first place there is no Flora for the central part of the country and
an enquirer in Madhya Pradesh has to arm himself with the Bombay,
Bihar and Madras Floras as a minimum. It is when one starts to
compare the floras that one realises how many gaps there are in our
knowledge. I give three examples:
(ii) In birds trinomial nomenclature is now universal, and variation
in plants occurs also from one end of their range to the other. A
forest officer of Madhya Pradesh visiting say Dehra Dun or Coimbatore
will find it difficult to recognize trees familiar to him. For instance
the flowers of Ougeinia dalbergioides are a light pink in Madhya
Pradesh while they are pink-purple to purple in Saharanpur—Dehra
Dun. Similarly visitors from north or south often enquire the identity
of a common tree in say Chanda in Madhya Pradesh. Another
example are the All India Teak Seed Origin experiments. Small plan-
tations were made of seed from different localities in 1931 in various
parts of India. Burma teak and Nilambur teak are easily distinguished
from central Indian teak. Probably Java teak would be different again.
(iii) Another type of variation is illustrated in Plate I {1). In this
are shewn two forms of the common plant Polygonum plebejum, which
were growing. side by side. In the Flora of British India Hooker
enumerated 10 varieties. Subsequently Gage re-examined the group
and proposed some changes.» No one appears, however, to have investi-
gated this group to see if all the forms are genetically identical, whether
they are inter-fertile, whether any forms are hybrids or whether any
forms are edaphic variations. A similar group is formed by the trees
now grouped under the name Terminalia tomentosa. There are wide
variations but no one has ever worked out this group fully.
(iv) Another set of problems is provided by plants whose descrip-
tion by different authorities appears to vary. An example are the
two trees Miliusa velutina and Saccopetalum tomentosum (Anonaceae).
I examined the sheets of the two trees in the herbarium at the
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, and found that different autho-
rities had put the same sheet under different names and that one could
arrange all the sheets in a continuous series from a small leaved form
to a large leaved form. In the key the difference between Muiliusa
and Saccopetalum is stated to be that the petals in the latter are
saccate. Ficus infectoria, F. tsiela and F. rumphi are another un-
certain group of species.
3. DISTRIBUTION, SEASON OF VEGETATIVE ACTIVITY, AND ORIGINAL
Home or PLANTS
(i) In the first place the make up of the flora in any one place varies
in different parts of continental India; the proportion of genera in a
family, or species in a genus also varies. In east Madhya Pradesh
one will get most of the species in Haine’s Flora of Bihar; while
in west Madhya Pradesh, Cooke is the more useful. In South Chanda
or Bastar, Gamble will be the best guide. The distribution of the
common species in different parts of India is one of the basic facts
which we should know.
142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61
(11) Next we have the rarer species and those with interrupted
distribution, These are of the greatest interest as they are evidence
of changes in climate and topography: they may also serve as indi-
cators of the path of plant migrations. In the higher hills of Orissa
and east Madhya Pradesh Dr. Mooney described a number of species
with Assam or Himalayan provenance.
(ii) This leads on to a discussion of the annual life cycle of the
plants occurring in continental India. There is great variation: plants
flower all the year round, such as Tridax procumbens {a recent intro-
duction), other flower only for 2-3 days, e.g. Gardenia latifolia.
Some plant or other is flowering in every month of the year. Many
trees flower when leafless in February to April; many plants flower
just before the rains, the flowering scape appearing before the leaves
—Urginea indica March; or .Plesmonum margeritiferum, Aneilema
scapiflorum June. Another variation are the plants that flower
gregariously, e.g. Strobilanthes and bamboos. Strobilanthes usually
flower after seven to ten years; while bamboos last 35-60 years between
two gregarious flowerings. The leaf flush 1s another phase which
varies widely. We have trees such as Sterculia wrens which are leaf-
less for 7-8 months; while mango is evergreen. Other trees drop
their leaves and then come into fresh leaf in March with the three
months of the hot weather ahead, e.g. Shorea robusta (Sal) or
Schelichera trijuga (Kusum). Tectona grandis (Teak) usually remains
leafless throughout the hot weather until the first rains; on the other
hand Hymenodictyon excelsum and Heterophragma quadriloculare do
not put out new leaves until July or even August. This variation is
a sign that the plants now growing in central India are not adapted
closely to the present climate and either developed their typical life
rhythm when the climate was different or, as is more likely, they
evolved in different climates and have migrated into their present
habitat where they survive despite certain disadvantages. Observations.
on these lines should lead to a classification of the different strands
which have met to form the present flora of central India.
4. ExoTics AND INTRODUCTIONS
2
design and the spread of such species and their success in establishing
themselves is an obvious role to be fulfilled by a Flora. Evolvulus
nummularius (Linn.) Plate I (2) is a recent introduction according to
Mooney (1). This plant was first noticed near Calcutta and is now found
in. Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and east Madhya Pradesh (Raigarh,
Mahasamund, Raipur). An unpleasant invader is Acanthospermum
hispidum D.C. which was first recorded by Gamble as occurring in
South Kanara and Salem: in Madhya Pradesh it is now common 1n
Hoshangabad and Betul and in other northern districts. Mooney
gives the places and dates on which he first saw it in Orissa(1). M. B.
Raizada (Indian Forester, Nov. 1950) gives several new arrivals in the
Ganges valley.
(ii) While on the subject of the spread of new species, I may also:
mention the disappearance of old ones. In Haines’s Flora of Bihar,
and Witt’s List of Trees, Shrubs, etc. of the Northern Circle, C.P.
(Old) Tribulus terrestris is mentioned as a common wayside weed.
(i) New plants are introduced into India either by accident or
C. E. Hewetson
(2) Evoluulus nummularis (Linn.)
(1) Polygonum plebejum
IO
UOSJIMIH °F] “OD
Uuopiay?s amoaryD (Zz)
uorzeroosse bidnssaqut sisdajora
~IDS—UNIDISITAI
UUNMaYyJUdUMIT—Dv]IaAIS vayduAn (1)
ALVIg
"90S “ISIH “LVN Avawog ‘Nunof
SYSTEMATICS AND- ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PLANTS 143:
Mooney reports he has not found it common except along the coast in
Orissa, and I have not collected it in northern C.P. (now Madhya
Pradesh). Is the species dying out?
Ea COLOGY,
(i) Presumably even the most ardent taxonomist admits that the
naming of plants is not an end in itself but is carried on so as to
provide an agreed basis for the description of the vegetation. Similarly
other branches, such as plant physiology, aim to provide an explana-
tion of the life processes. <All studies will combine finally in the task
of studying the plant in its environment. The living plant as it grows
in nature is the highest study open to the botanist. We may then
demand of a modern flora that it tells us something of the ecology
of the plant. There is no doubt that ecological studies are the most
fascinating and rewarding activities open to the botanist as_ they
lead from one problem to another and constantly enlarge the search
for knowledge.
(1i) It is ‘certainly desirable to record something of the ecology of
each plant but how this should be combined with the normal informal
tion provided in a Flora is a difficult problem. The alternatives appear
to be to give the details with each plant and to increase the size
of the Flora by perhaps 100 per cent, or to have supplementary
volumes dealing with ecology.
(111) Lists of plants occurring in different habitats, as given by
Haines in the first volume of his Flora of Bihar are valuable, but they
are only the first steps in ecology and are useful only to those who already
have a fairly good knowledge of the flora. They will be a mere
string of names to the young student. It is very desirable to illustrate
the different associations of plants, but this is expensive and also
a very difficult pursuit. In photographs it is not easy to bring the
different plants into one picture so that all the plants are recognizable.
However, there is no doubt that good pictures do make the subject
more interesting and do help a student to make rapid progress.
Photographs of small specialist associations are easier: one is shewn
in Plate II(z). Round the edges of the shallower tanks in Madhya
Pradesh one gets three species: Nymphaea stellata the blue water lily
(nil kamal), Limnanthemum cristatum and the grass Sacciolepsis
interrupta. These are shewn in the photo. Another specialist associa-
tion are the annuals which come up in the paddy fields when they
dry up after the crop has been cut. In Raipur there are a number
of species, some flowering early and others later: some _ typical
members are Salvia plebeja, Grangea maderaspatensis, Sesili indica
and the grass Polypogon monspeliensis. They all seed before the rains
and the fields are then ploughed, puddled, inundated and finally the
crop reaped. As the moisture is reduced these species start germinat-
inaer, he Gy striking example of the adaptation of seeds to resist
premature germination despite the moisture, heat and submersion to
which they are subjected.
(iv) One of the gaps in India is the tale of an agreed classifica-
tion of vegetation. The Central Sylviculturist of the Forest Research
Institute, Dehra Dun, Professor H. G. Champion, prepared a preli-
minary classification of Forest Types, and this has been well received ;
144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
but it was intended to be only a beginning, This by itself is, however,
quite inadequate for the vegetation of India as a whole. Before we
can give much ecological information in a Flora, this preliminary
framework must be provided: and it may be hoped that the Indian
Ecological Society will take up this work soon. The Forest Research
Institute has recently decided to reprint H. G. Champion’s Classifi-
cation of Forest Types.
6. BEAUTIFUL ‘PLANTS
Not the least significant characteristic of plants is their beauty,
and there is no excuse for a Flora completely ignoring this aspect. In
books on birds we have numerous illustrations and photographs of
beautiful birds, and bird photography is almost a separate branch
of scientific activity. Reproductions of beautiful flowers have so far
been done mostly from paintings. Until colour photography becomes
cheaper and the processing easier, photography in black and white
is at a disadvantage where coloured flowers are concerned. However,
some flowers are beautiful both in form and colour and will yield
beautiful pictures, for example Plate IIT (2) shows Cleome chelidonii
whose flowers are a delicate lilac. It flowers in August in rice fields
and in burrow pits and other places where water stands.
7. CONCLUSION
(1) Most people will probably conclude by saying that my _ ideal
Flora is an impracticable dream as it would be both too bulky and
too expensive. However, I feel this is the wrong way to look at
such things. One should first set out what is necessary and then
plan to get as near to our ideal as we can. A designer of motor
cars or a camera first thinks out what his prospective customers
need and then designs a car or a camera to meet these needs at a
cost which he hopes the customer can pay. In the same way I have
mentioned the main needs.
(ii) (a) The Flora should recognize that no plant individuals are
exactly the same and that species are not exact groups of individuals
but merely convenient units of classification.
(b) Where the boundaries are uncertain and nomenclature mis-
leading, the genetical make up and edaphic status of such groups
should be fully investigated.
(c) The Flora should tell us what we need to know about the
distribution, ecology and life cycle of the plants.
(d) The Flora should contain both useful and beautiful pictures
of plants both as individuals and as members of an association.
A FISHING HOLIDAY IN NORTH GARHWAL
3 BY .-
A. St. J. MacponaLp
(With a plate and three text maps)
A tradition which has almost the force of law obliges most of us
‘with a bent for nature as the rains give over to exchange comfortable
homes-for stuffy lodgings or the hardships of camp life, and spoil our
digestions by enduring the greasy roastings of poor cooking and un- -
balanced diet. This we call an holiday! ;
It was after much reflection of this kind, during a most trying
hot weather and months of prickly heat, that a few bold spirits
resolved, on hearsay, to strike out into the bowels of the Himalayas,
160 mile from rail-head and nearly to the source of the sacred and
much revered Alaknanda, in search of some of the finest trout (Salmo
fario) fishing in India at Guhna Tal.
The planning and correspondence involved much time as we had
a two days’ journey by train, two by bus and two on foot. The party
of five dwindled to three at the last moment, after tents, porters, and
reservations had been made and when it was too late to alter the
arrangements.
One of the party had shooting experience, and had done a bit
of tank angling, who improvised tackle for what he imagined fly
fishing would be like; another had fished for mahseer with short
American outfit, but never with fly, though he had borrowed a fly
rod and was a hard worker, spending from dawn to dusk on the
water. I alone had suitable tackle, and fortunately plenty of previous
experience with trout.
Guhna Tal locally called Durmi Tal from the village situated
directly above it, is at latitude 30° 22” 18/,, North and longitude
709° 31” 4o! East in North Garhwal, 5,620 ft. above sea level.
The lake was formed by a huge slip on September 22, 1893 when
Maithan mountain 9,200 ft. above sea level and 4,000 ft. above the
bed of the Birhigunga, split in half from peak to base and _ filled
the valley, holding up a huge volume of water for two miles. The
slip was estimated by engineers to contain 12,500,000 cubic ft. of
rock, and continued for three days. The white dust caused by the
slip settled on the neighbouring country like snow, while huge rocks
thousands of tons in weight were catapulted through the air striking
the far side high up the hill.
The large mass of water impounded in the lake so formed escaped
after 11 months and 3 days, eroding through the dam and causing a
severe flood in the Alaknanda valley.
Estimate of the slip as taken from the Indian Forester of February
Oa Ae
‘The Guhna Lake and Trout Fishery.’ ... ‘Those familiar with
Naini Tal can roughly imagine the size of the slip and dam which
would have filled in the entire valley of Naini Tal from Cheena (peak)
at one end to the Sulphur springs (Talli Tal) at the other, and up to
| 10
146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCLETY, Vol. 51
a height of Governnrent House. . . . The dam was estimated to be
roughly goo ft. high; 2,000 ft. across at the top; 11,000 Tt, at base
along the valley; 3,000 ft. at top and 600 ft. at bottom across the
valley. The bed of the stream drops at approximately 250 ft. per
mile, or about 1 in 20.
Maithan is 9,200 ft. above sea level and 4,000 ft. above the bed
of the stream, it slipped from peak to base, still showing the scar
and is 1,000 ft. across.’ (Photo r)
On August 26, 1894 (a day still memorable in Garhwal), the engineer
on special duty sent out the following telegram down the valley as
far as Hardwar.
‘A very heavy flood and rush of water is passing over the dam’.
The total fall of the lake during the night was observed to be 390 ft.,
about 10,000,000,000 cubic ft. of impounded water was released within
4% hours, and the velocity at Chamoli, 20 miles below, was over 20
miles per hour.
The lake was then 3,900 yds. long and on an average 400 yds.
across. It.is now only 2,100 yds. long and about 400 yds. across
and is rapidly silting up at the eastern end. It is still over 300 ft.
deep near the outlet.
‘ Guhnw [oh 1" = 1 mile
The outline ‘5 the Lake a shewn on Survey Map /
of 1936. y
Sitting is sheon 333 <
oN rs th 3 900° U,
Original Length 3900 Yp
In 1951
Sears
Tf wos , ; $620 ft"
z Chamolt (4 rniles
Fig. 1
Introduction of Trout: Anglers are indebted to the enterprise of
Mr. Wyndham, I.c.s., and Mr. A. E. Osmaston; 1.F.s., who, in 1917-
18 stocked the lake and its upper waters with 24,000 ova from the
Bhowali hatchery, of which 13,000 hatched out. These have since
maintained. themselves by breeding freely, and trout may now be
seen in all sizes from fingerlings in the streams above to two pounders
at the outlet.
About this time two other streams were also stocked by the Forest
Department, the Nandagini and a tributary of the Pindar river, the
Kaliganga. Stocking was repeated in 1935 and again in 1942, but no
recent notes on these rivers seem to be available.
' The Routes. There are two ways of getting to Chamoli the road-
head at present, and 14 miles from Guhna Lake.
dourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Le oe
Le
«
from
igunga
in the background
Author
The boulder-strewn bed of Birhi-
irh
ing down the Bi
above the lake, seen
.
Look
De
ing
boat house and scar of the great
in that formed
ounta
s catch of trout
the lake.
i
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The Lake from south bank show
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A FISHING HOLIDAY IN’ NORTH GARHWAL 147
rt. From Kotdwara on the E.I:R. via Pauri and Srinagar, a total
distance of 149 miles.
Arp ascrniie BPILKHUN TA.
"4% 12788 12°
Guna Lake
NAL AKG NANDA GHUKTINANOA D4) &
; BURHIGANEA MI00 25660
SCALE 1 = 16 mues
KR 2,
oo Se PINOORI 30.15
LOBHA.DB Se
. ““S<QCHARANG |
\ BaijnaTH
“.GANAI. OB
KOTDWARA. DHANATH
To CHAMSTI . 130,
To GUNA 14H, °” RANIKHE T
RANIKHET To KARENPRYKG Y5. m5
To CHAMOLI 6H
GUNA LAKE 76%
Fig. 2
2. From Rekkikesh also on the E.I.R. to Terchi-Srinagar, via
Deoprayag 72 miles by bus and three on foot to Srinagar on the other
-bank, where the Kotdwara-Pauri road joins in. Chamoli is 61 miles
further on. Total 136 miles. ©
Route 1 is the better with good buses and a wide road and is a
through route from November to May without transhipment at Satkolli
and Karnaprayag at the 35th and t30th miles of the journey where
temporary bridges are erected, and the exasperating bargaining with
coolies is avoided. Material is being collected at both places by the
P.W.D. for span bridges. This road climbs to 5,000 ft. in the first
22 miles before descending to Satkoli the Nayer Junction, and again
climbs to Pauri to 6,000 ft’ from where it descends to the Alaknanda
at Srinagar, following the river all the way to Chamoli. It is all
one way traffic and long halts are the order of the day at checking
and control points. Bus accommodation in the upper class is over-.
crowded with five seats on a five-foot bench and leg room is confined
to 10 inches. The buses are mostly Bedfords, Chevs. and Fords, and
drivers all Garhwalis and a lot of them ex-service men, they negotiate
the road to the detriment of a normal beings nerves, and are terrify-
ing at times. The chief distances are: Kotdwara to Satkoli 35 miles;
Satkoli to Pauri 31 miles; Pauri to Srinagar 22 miles, 1,800 ft. above
sea level. This is at the end of the first day’s journey and has a
nice P.W.D. Inspection bungalow of two rooms with some plates
and cooking pots. Permission for use must be obtained from the
Executive Engineer, Pauri.
Route 2 should only be an alternative, as it is narrow and not in
such good repair as the other, though Deoprayag can be seen and’
visited by this route.
. . . ° 0 -
The timings at Rekkikesh are not adapted for the convenience of
travellers as the train arrives at 7.30 a.m. and the bus leaves at
7 am. This cost us a day, but we occupied it in fishing the Song
‘
148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51,
near Satnarain and caught 31 mahseer in a couple of hours on our
trout outfit. Best fish 3 lbs. and total weight 24 lbs. The distances
are Rekkikesh to Tirchi-Srinagar 72 miles; Tirchi-Srinagar to Srinagar
3 miles; Srinagar to Chamoli 61 miles or 136 miles in all.
Chamoli, 3,800 ft. above sea level, is a sub-division with a S.D.O.,
a Forest Ranger, and a Tahsildar, a nice three-room Inspection bunga-
low, and Post & Telegraph office. It is shortly to have a telephone also.
Neral supplies are available in the bazaar, but meat, eggs and good
cigarettes are not to be had. The motor road is being extended to
Pipalkoti a further 10 miles up the pilgrim route. When ready next year,
this will shorten the march to Guhna Lake by four miles from where
the Birhigunga is crossed.
Track to Guhna. ist stage, Chamoli to Gari village is 7 miles,
The first four miles is along the new alignment of the motor road to
Pipalkoti and follows the Alaknanda on the left bank. Short. of
Bari village a track leads off up the left bank of the Birhigunga
following the bed of the stream to Gari village 3 miles upstream.
There is a stiff climb of goo ft. to the school house situated on a
ridge which makes a nice shelter for the night. I moved a good trout
of over two pounds in a poo] just above where the bari-stream runs
into the river. Firewood and some milk is all that is available here.
There are some nice Gooral cliffs above the river on this march.
Trisul peak, 23,360 ft., can be seen from the school house if weather
is fine. ‘There are also some Kalij nearby; we shot one near the
school house and saw others in the stream below.
2nd stage, Gari to Durmi or Guhna Lake 7 miles. This is also
along the bed of the river. Some small cliffs have to be passed by
climbing over the tops, but it is not a difficult route except for the
last three miles from Gona village to Durmi village which is above
the lake on the south shore. This has a climb of 1,000 ft. in half
a mile. |
We crossed over to the right bank below Gona village by a jhula
(a couple of trees thrown across the stream) and followed a path for
two miles which is a steady climb to the outlet of the lake of 1,000 ft.
-and runs across the Maithan slip. This is by far the best way to
approach the lake. Later in the season the stream is bridged at the
outlet and the climb to Durmi is avoided.
There are some nice cliffs for Gooral on the way up and also, some
nice pockets for Kalij. The river is big and very fast and too deep
to ford; I fished all likely looking water from Gona village to Bari
on the way down but only moved two small trout; it was a waste of
time. The track is unfit for pack transport and porters are the only
solution.
On arrival at Chamoli porters were arranged for marching on the -
following morning (zoth September), but by 8 a.m. when no one turned
up it became evident we were to be exploited into paying fancy rates
or losing a day.
Fortunately for us we had the Forest Ranger assisting us tonen
the courtesy of Mr. Stephens, the Conservator, and Mr. Ghose, the
D.F.O%, so after a wasted day local men were arranged and we
moved off on the 21st, reaching Gari village on the same afternoon
at 4.30 p.m., kit arriving later. Here we were informed the lower
~
A FISHING HOLIDAY IN NORTH GARH WAL 149)
route along the river was closed owing to a bull buffalo turning
killer below Sainji village. So we had no option but to by-pass his
haunt by climbing 1,500 ft. in half a mile and then descending as much
in as short a distance. This route was 12 miles and distressing on
the lungs. and muscles. We reached the tail end of Guhna Tal at
4.30 p.m. having set out at 7 a.m. The boat met us an hour later
and we reached the boat-house, our destination, at 6 p.m.
The porters with our kit failed to turn up that day so we spent
a miserable night in the boat-house, 5,620 ft. above sea level, without
food or bedding. ‘They. arrived the following morning at 11 a.m.
The first sight of the lake as one climbs over the dam is most
impressive; nestling as it does under peaks of nine and ten thousand
feet with Nanda Ghunti peak 20,700 ft. standing out at the head of
the valley only 12 miles away below which the Birhigunga emerges.-
from one of its glaciers. The water of the lake is green and cloudy
and contrasts with the verdure of the overlooking mountains of deep
green and heather-tinted slopes. :
The Lake Today. . The Survey map (1936-38) shows the lake w.th
two long arms receiving the Birhigunga and Poi Ghadhara in the east,
but the Jake must have silted up considerably since, as the two intakes
are now no more than 150 yds. apart, and from observations recorded
by anglers in the book at the boat- house, it is silting up about five
yards a year at the east end.
3 G unha Lake “Best water Is marked,
So 2, (2/00 NOS. g
)
"D> Oli
10}
y2
Pagma mamne
yee. ae BoatHouse ~ nS
i ther ols Gadhera bay )
2. South 8a NK and Outlec. | IS
: 3. Boathouse Gay, ‘a
u Pui Ghadera bay, e
3: Narvacl¢. b
6. Bcrek eo bh only good Io Rgme fr mile tape,
Puereay
The lake is now only 2,100 yds. long and 500 yds. at its widest
point, with an average width of 4oo yds. The depth is given as
300 ft. near the outlet.
It must be considerably fed by springs, as the volume of water
leaving the lake is, far greater than what it is receiving, and from
the great bursts of geysers and bubbles seen constantly in action all
over rae lake, this would seem to be established. The north shore
150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
is chiefly cliff or grassland with one or two trickles entering the
Jake but which must dry up by the end of October. On the south
shore there are willows, briar and oaks down to the water’s edge and
afford good insect beds and shade for feeding trout, but we saw
very few rises near the shores and took only two fish at the edges
under ideal conditions.
The rise seemed to be out from shore and in the middle of the
lake, but was never crowded, even at ghe inlet bays or in the driftwood
and scum so abundantly rich in insect life. The west has a nice
bay with a small stream running in, and the outlet which is an excellent
hold for large trout. Here, in the evening, good fish may be seen
rising both above the outlet and well into the adjoining bay, but it
was never fished thoroughly because of boatmen trouble and distance
from the camp. The east takes in the main stream in five channels
forming a delta with the Poi Ghadhera entering a small bay to the
north, and the Narail Ghadhera entering a large bay to the south.
This is undoubtedly the best water in the lake with that at the out-
let. :
The Birhigunga is a glacier fed stream and brings down the main
supply of water, but it is very fast and really has no pools, only some
deep runs for about half a mile up, on the sides of which we caught
the largest trout.
The Poi Ghadhera brings in a fair amount of water and is fishable
for goo yds. with one deep pool above. I took four good trout out
of it, but it is very treacherous going with quick-sands. This would
only apply in September/Octobef I fancy, as the bed, is very Small
and shallow and water rapidly dropping.
Conditions. Between 22nd and 30th September the lake was milky,
and inlet streams also coloured, and conditions generally unfavourable
with storms, rain, thunder, and high winds. We saw very few rises
and began to despair, and considered the fishing reputation to be
much over-rated.
From tst October conditions began to improve and water cleared
both in the lake and in the streams, and by the 3rd and 4th we
noted what so many had remarked in the Fishing-book—a very definite
rise from 6 a.m. to 6.30 a.m. and-again in the evening from 5.30 to
6. Then it was really delightful fishing, hitting the circles and collect-
ing 6 or 8 trout in half an hour on 3X gut and small lightly dressed
flies darkish in colour, size 5 or 6 hooks.
Insects. I collected some thirty insects from the lake for identi-
fication but the small bottle containing them broke and they were
crushed out of recognition. They were chiefly moths, grass-hoppers,
and beetles.
Birds. Though I did not set time aside for bird study I observed
some 50 species from the lake side, and within a day’s march of the
lake, the following game birds are available: :
Whitecrested Kalij Pheasant (Gennaeus hamiltonii)
Koklas Pheasant (Ceriornis macrolophus)
Monal Pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus)
Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichii)
Snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis)
Snow Partridge (Lerwa lerwa)
A FISHING HOLIDAY IN NORTH GARHWAL 151
We only obtained Monal, Koklas and Kalij. Besides, teal were
often on the lake passing down on migration.
Mountain Quail. The Hon. Secret, of the Society very kindly
sent me a colour plate of this rare quaik to show the local shikaris,
and though one man claimed to have seen a bird something like the
plate, and gave its haunts as grass and small bushes, little reliance
can be put on it. I myself was casualty all the time with fever and
blistered heels, so was ‘unable to work the southern grassy slopes so
abundant above the lake, and likely holds, judging from Lariakanta
country, above Bhowali, whieh I. know roll
I have sent the plate to Mr. Jim Stephens, Conservator of Forests,
to show round in Garhwal and hope it may evoke interest and lead
to some «encouraging news of this elusive bird.
Animals. Goral are sometimes seen on the cliffs above the lake,
also pinemarten and foxes. Above Durmi village, barking deer are
to be had, and above the inlet we saw the fresh tracks of a bear that
had come out of one nuJlah and passed.up another: But for thar,
bear, musk-deer and burhel time must be set aside and camp moved
up to the tops of the hills which are far too steep,-.to attempt for a day’s
sport. This also applies to Monal, Koklas and Snowcock of which
there are plenty within to miles of the lake above the 12,000 contour.
To combine sh6oting with fishing satisfactorily at least a month
would be necessary.
Accommodation. On the south shore, below Durmi village, is the
Forest Department Boathouse. It is 18 ft. by 9 ft. with a smaller
room attached 8 ft. by 8 ft. It contains a bed, a table and a chair.
The floor of the larger room is boarded, and both door and window
are netted. The boat is a three section portable type and can take
three persons comfortably and four at'a pinch. The chowkidar manages
the boat quite well but he is not by any means an expert. There
are others besides in Durmi village who can row, and of these Rai Singh
is the best. But for anyone who wishes to do well I strongly re-
commend taking up a good man of the Bhim Tal shikari type. This
indeed is what I attribute Fyfe’s success to on his two visits.
~The local men have no idea of working a boat forward, of pulling
away from a strike, and numbers of fish are lost in this way.
Supplies. Nothing, repeat nothing, is available in Garhwal, and
everything should be taken in the way of tin provisions, atta and dal.
Rice is available at Kotdwara.
Tea, cooking fat, tin milk, kerosene oil or candles, Sorts be taken
from below. Rice, atta, dal and spices, vegetables, potatoes, onions,
from Kotdwara. Eggs, meat and fowls are not available above Pauri,
except that meat may sometimes be had at Srinagar and Chamoli, but
it is chance; also there are no good cigarettes available. Feeding a
dog is a problem, and either. corned beef or meat and vegetables should
be taken.
Weather. We were at the lake from the September 23rd to Octo-
ber 4th during which the lowest temperature recorded was 55 degrees |
and maximum 74 degrees in the hut and tent. The lake water remained
constant at 60 degrees, and Birhigunga 57 degrees. There is an east
wind at night off the snows, and a strong west wind in the day from
tI a.m. to 4 p.m. The mornings were fine but afternoons cloudy.
152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 51
Clothing and Bedding. ‘Two blankets are necessary at night, and ~
warm jackets and trousers in the evenings. For climbing, slacks of Khaki
pick up less burrs than stockings. Footwear should be solid and nailed
for climbing, rubber shoes are good enough for wading as the boulders.
are not slippery.
Fishing and Lures. There is an excellent record maintained in a
book kept by the chowkidar with full notes by anglers. With it is a
brochure giving the history of the origin of the lake reproduced from
the Indian Forester, part of which I have quoted in the foregoing
pages. Below is a copy of the record in the book of certain details.
which will be of interest, and cover the years 1937 to 1951.
Somr INTERESTING DETAILS FROM GUHNA LAKE FISHING BooK
< =
Ss in} Ss
~ Q % on
Nanie 3 Month and Dates StL mes ee
= QS S
: SS x)
= N Q
1. Rajkumar P, Sher Jung « of
Shapore 1951 May 27th/30th 4 73 12 1b.
2. J. Stephens, I.F.S. .. 1950 April 28th/May Ist Ne ID ox.
3. Madurashevis, D. Cr
Garhwal eee 949 Oct. 10th /12th 3 4° 14 oz. .
Abe ey ee, eens) ID, Ge Sn
Judge 500 1949 Oct: 9th 1 2 8 Oz
5. Stephens, I.F.S. Fela Nov. 25th/27th SB) Zhe} 21b
6. Lt.-Col. McD. Fyfe seluston Oct l2th/Aoth i WAL TE Slo
7. ‘J. Cy Stubbs) T.@iSe 32) 1947" May 20ithy/Z2nd Sis lene lns
8. Do. : .. 1946 Nov. 4th/Yth Oe Ose aliby
9. Lt.-Col. McD. Fyfe ... 1946-, Oct. Ist /13th WE Dy 133 ilfoy5
10. Maj. McOstrich ... 1916 Sept. 15th/ 19th ee 11 Tb),
lle. Je lea. StubbSmla Chon me eeelo+ Ommeel (cvecOcny/ Ou 3. 84 J2 Ib.
12. Lt.-Col. M. Higgs ... 1944 - Sept. 29th/ Oct. 3rd Di ne2 earn iy
13. Maj. McOstrich .. 1944 Sept. 26th/29th Ee Son Iselin
14. Mr. #. P. King .. 1944 May 26th/27th Ze 20 llb
15. Lt.-Col. Sandeman ... 1943 Sept. 13th/18th By SOSH
lia) CarActonpl€.s: .. 1943 April 10th/17th roy ELD TI)
eee ite RemViemVietivedes LC.S, 1942 =June 6th/sth e) BN aE To)
18. Do. ee lO4iee sOctal2thy/louhy 4 14 12 oz
19. S. G. Edgar ... 1940 . Oct, 29th/3lst 3° 14> 112 07
20.. Maj. C. Lyle a6, IEE Oct. 29th/31st 3 84 }21b
21. Mr.deC. O’grady - soo. JIS) Aug. 24th/Sep. Ist = DY) i lb
22 ete eens penne t “+, 1939 — June 7th/ 19th TS 2 Oe etal
235 But Don mel 939 May l6th/June 6th 217 249 j21b
24. Mr. P. Mason, I.C.S. 2 1939) 2 Maye23rdii25th Sere lee slab
25. Mr. Oswald & Party ... 1939. April 18th/25th Se 608 3 lb
26.. D. Stewart, IF.S. ee Ooo OCEEAlStyiZoul See 23a etl
27. Lt.-Col. Eley Soo LIMBS Oct. 1]th/i8th 8 110 121b
28. Glen and Davis, I.A. .. 1938 June 15th/17th 3 1 602
29 AN Saati MIS salen. oh SBS) May 7th/25th 14 132 141b
30. Do. ... 1938 April 25th/May Ist ee of 2: l lb
31, Mr Py Mason, ele@:s: ... 1938 April 17th/2I1st SOF elem leralb
32. Maj. H.C. Wooldridge ... 1938 April 12th/16th ZA I Mo)
33. Mr. P. Mason, I.C.S. meen 37 Oct. 1sth/ 23rd } <I « aeb ev
34, Maj. Aire-Smith as Oct Ithylstia LOR Z2 a lb
OZ
As illustration of what to expect, I have given our catch in a day-
- to-day record. There is little doubt but that we were too early, and
A FISHING HOLIDAY IN NORTH GARHWAL 153:
that October roth or 15th would be a better time to arrive, when the
weather would have settled, and water cleared.
<< aS
~ Y
Sani “S Best & Remarks
Ss =
<, eS
*22nd Sree 10” a lb.
23rd wee 5 ie # |b.
24th ; 1 Oe 2% Jb.
25th Radeon Ll 12 lb. 95 lb. Besides 2 of 14 and 1 of 14.
26th A SEY 1$ lb. 7 |b.
27th ed 2 ib. 3 lb.
28th 6 1 Ib. 4 4b.
29th IS)“ 1 1b 7 |b.
30th As SUS) 24 Ib.
Oct.’
lst Pest, GOES SEA IID 5 lb
2nd Sop 8 14 1b. 4 lb.»
3rd a OS STS 174 1b.
4th saetarls/ No), 72 1b.
12 days. 114 674 lb. (8 returned to the water of 9” or
less).
* 22nd we arrived at 5.30 p.m. :
Details of best fisn taken.
Weight Length Nunibers caught
3 Wee At
13 16” 5
5 f 15” ll
] 14” 17
; 134” 8
»
4
> 13”
Other Details. SALT
Best day 23 fish 174 pounds.
Best fish 1? pounds.
Average weight 9°85 ounces.
Average hours fished per day 5 per rod.
Average fish per day 93.
I examined the stomach contents of some 4o odd fish for a clue
of what they were eating, but found _ oan to assist me except
small fish in two of the large ones of 12 and 14 pounds. 11 fish were
found in a gravid state, and a UoreraeND barbal of + pound, caught
on a cardinal fly, was in milt.
Generally speaking the fish were in poor condition and had no
fight, adopting eel- like tactics of trying to tie themelves in knots.
Lures. As I make up my own flies on the spot, I give what I
found most successful. Any fly seems to do in water so little fished.
I worked through a number before deciding on this one of Mallard
or hen Kalij wings, Jungle cock side eye, brown wool body with
silver ribbings and black hackle, lightly dressed. I tried Coachman,
Watson’s Fancy, Zulu, Butcher, Teal and black, red, and yellow,
Alexandra, and Jockey. There are copious notes in the book on flies,
154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
and most anglers seem agreed on dark flies being the best. I recom-
mend small sizes for the lake and large ones for the streams, in sizes
5 to 6, and 8 (new scale) I used a dropper in the lake but single
fly in streams.
Spoons. My novice compahions used spoons up to ry” hog-backed
of all brass, and caught fish at the inlets and by trolling, but I thinis
this iron-mongery should be barred as they certainly touch more fish
than are caught and ruin the water for days after. A small ‘spoon
4 to $ inch should be the limit.
Feather Lures. 1 found a 2-inch Kalij wing and silver body very
effective at the outlet, but Peacock and gold was not fancied. The
hen Kalij wing feather I may mention is similar in some respects to
Grouse wings on shop-made flies.
Minnows. I had a wide selection but used these very sparingly
_and caught nothing, I dislike them anyway.
Tackle. A light 9-ft. fly rod and fine line with taper, and tapered
casts to 3X is recommended as there are no snags and the water is
normally clear.
Time to Fish. We caught fish in the stream above at all times
of the day, and also at the junctions, but the Lake only fished well on
the last two days we were there after 5.30 p.m. when a definite rise
took place at the top of the lake in the bays between the many
inlets, and I would say the best lake fishing is when the sun is off
the water.
GENERAL
Local names for Game
Game Birds Big Game
Snowcock ~ Huinwal Leopard Bagh
Snow Partridge Jungooria Bear Bhalu
Monal Pheasant Kali-kashu Goral Ghooral
Tragopan ,, Loongee Musk-deer Kastura & Bina
Koklas . Phakrass Thar Tharin
Kalij 5 Murgi Bharal Baral
Cheer 5 Cheere Barking-deer Kakur
Snow Pigeon Maleo
Rates and Wages. Porters. The recognised rate for porters
Rs. 3-8-0 per day for Dhutials, and Rs. 3 per day for local men. A
load is 60 Ibs. but Dhutials carry more and locals less. A half wage
is. also due to men returning empty, or Rs. 7 for two days trek and
Re. 1-12-0 returning empty for Dhutials, and Rs. 6 plus Re. 1-8-o for
locals.
Bus Fares.—
Upper Class from Kotdwara to Chamoli ... Rs. 14 per seat
Lower Class from Kotdwara to Chamoli ... Rs. 10-14-0 ,,
Luggage free allowance—Upper 30 seers
Luggage free allowance—Lower 20 seers
Luggage in excess per maund a5 fp INSEe 5-760
Coolies at Transhipment points. The rate is 4 to 6 annas per load,
‘but you are lucky to have it moved for 8 annas. .
A FISHING HOLIDAY IN NORTH GARHWAL 155
Fishing Permits are obtainable from the D.F.O., Garhwal, who
is stationed at Pauri. The rates are Rs. 10 per month, Rs. 2-8-0 per
week, and annas 8 per day without boat. With boat they are Rs. 15
per month, Rs. 5 per week and Re. 1 per day. There is no close
season at present, and if the Boat-house is required to stay in, per-
mission must be obtained from the D.F.O., Pauri. There is no
charge for this. Shooting is also free.
Cost of Trip. We made a last minute change in our arrangements
owing to the tragedy on September 11th at Satkoli, when 22 buses and
34 men were washed away by the Nayer River suddenly rising 16 ft.
and running in two channels, one on either side of the high ground
used for parking in the bed of the river which it later inundated. No
bodies were recovered, but bits of debris from the buses were seen
_at Hardwar, 4o miles lower down. The suspension bridge was also
washed away and all traffic suspended for 5 days. We went up by
~ Rikkikesh on the opposite bank and this increased our expenses some-
what. The main items were as follows for three Upper and three
Lower class seats, one dog and 5 maunds of excess luggage.
RS. A. P.
Fares up plus eee. ae ... _I1Q-10-0
Coolies . = oe “e475, 8-0
_ Porters en ee fae ne 89- 0-O
Total ... 256- 2-0
Fares down via Kotdwara and luggage ... 107- 6-0 :
= Coolies ie ae ; re 18- 0O-O
Porters oe, 1%, 6 sb ... 89- 0-0
; Total ... 214- 6-0
Other items ‘on Ee er. ... 182- 8-o
Drink and food Sue a ... IIO- 0-0
Total costs ... 763- 0-o
=Rs. 254 per head
Railfares are of course not included.
CONn Gi wW SiO w
Until quite recently and before the motor roads were constructed
Guhna Lake was inaccessible in that it took 6 days of hard marching
from Ranikhet to reach it, but now it is within 14 miles of the bus
terminus and as easy, if not easier, than a lot of places in Kashmir
and Kulu, with scenery and fishing and shooting cheaper and _ better
than that obtainable anywhere in India.
With this in view I have given full details with maps, sketches,
and photos, so that others may be encouraged to visit this lovely lake
only 20 miles west of Trisul, with a delightful climate at 5,620 ft.
above sea level.
Our thanks are due to Mr. Stephens, Conservator of Forests, the
D.F.O. Garhwal, and the Range staff at Chamoli, for the help and
assistance given us both with information of the fishing, and our
arrangements. :
-
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF
GYMNOSPERMS IN EASTERN NEPAL
BY
M. L. Banerji
(Meerut College, Meerut)
(With a map)
Physical, regional and geographical conditions divide the Himalayas
lengthwise into more or less distinct zones; the Eastern, the Central
and the North-Western Himalayas. The Eastern Himalaya extends
over Bhutan and Sikkim and on to the Nepal-Sikkim border, from
whence the Central Himalayan portion begins covering the whole of
Nepal and extending up to the Kali river, which forms the boundary
between Nepal and Almora. Further beyond is the western zone which
includes Kumaon, Garhwal, Kunawar, Lahoul, etc.
For convenience of treatment, the Central Himalayas have been
divided here into the eastern zone and the western zone’, a line
through Kathmandu being the dividing line. The specification of the
area will afford better appreciation of terms like ‘extends to Nepal’
and ‘Central Himalayas’ used in older literature to indicate distribution
of species. Sometime ago the author had occasion to visit Eastern
Nepal and he made collections. right up to 17,500 ft. above sea level.
The present observations are primarily based on those collections.
The Gymnosperms are well represented in Eastern Nepal. There
are nine species belonging to seven genera occurring wild, besides —
some that are cultivated in and around Kathmandu and Tibetan
monasteries. They are. Avraucaria bidwillii Hk., Podocarpus macro-
phyllus Don., Podocarpus neriifolia Don., Cupressus funebris Endl.,
Cupressus torulosa Don., and Cedrus deodara {Roxb.) London. (Syn.
C. libani var. deodara Hk.f.). There are some species which have
been reported in some of the earlier works from this region but which
have not been recorded by me—such as Juniperus macropoda Boiss.,
Picea morinda Link. and Abies pindrow Spach.
Ephedra gerardiana (Wall.) Stapf. forms the principal constituent
of the vegetation from 12,500 ft. to 16,000 ft. Dr. S. K. Mukerji
of the Indian Botanic Garden collected the var. sikkimensis (Stapf.)
R. Florin along the Nepal-Sikkim boundary.
Juniperus is represented by two species: J. recurva Ham. and
]. pseudosabina Fisch et Mey. Both the species extend to Sikkim and
Bhutan in the east, while towards the west J. recurva reaches Afgha-
nistan and J. pseudosabina up to Kashmir. Consequently the two
species are continuous all over the Eastern Nepal. Don (1825) recorded
J. Ssquamata Ham. (Syn. J. recurva Ham. var. densa Hort. and var.
ne
1 Sir J. D. Hooker has used Central Nepal for the area where Wallich
collected .in 1821 and Eastern Nepal for the Tamur valley where he made his
collections in 1848.
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GYMNOSPERMS IN EASTERN NEPAL 157
squamata -Parlatore) but this species has neither been collected by
Mukerji nor by myself.
Laxus baccata Linn. which occurs at 6-11,000 ft. in the Himalayas
and extends from Afghanistan to Bhutan was only seen once at 9,000
ft., being locally abundant. At another place only a few individuals
were encountered. The belief of the local inhabitants that the species
does not occur anywhere else in Eastern Nepal was confirmed.
Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson (Syn. P. excelsa Wall.) is abun-
dantly present in Eastern Nepal between 6,000 ft. and 12,000 ft.
Dallimore and Jackson’s (1923, 1948) remark that it extends ‘east-
wards to Nepal’ is beyond any doubt, but ‘eastwards to Nepal’
does not give any definite extension. My observations show that
the species sometimes descends as low as 5,000 ft. and that it occurs
mostly in association with .Tsuga dumosa (D.Don) Eichler (Syn.
T. brunoniana Carr.). At lower altitudes the species occurs pure,
and at about 12,000 ft. it was noticed to occur with Abies spectabilis
{D. Don) Spach. (Syn. A. densa Griff. and A. webbiana Lindl.).
Pinus voxburghi Sargent (Syn. P. longifolia Roxb.) forms pure
stands between 1,500 and 5,500 ft. Pandit Sadanand Jairola is reported
to have noticed ‘Chir’ trees at elevations where ‘Sal’ ended (Troup
1921). From accounts which he (Pt. Sadanand) had heard, and judg-
ing from the drift wood he concluded that there were some extensive
‘Chir’ forests in the hills. Biswas (1933) mentions that the species
descends to the valleys of the Western and Eastern Himalayas. He
makes no mention of the Central Himalayas. I noted that P. roxburghii
appeared a little above ‘Sal’ but at one place ‘Sal’ was observed to
be higher than Pinus. I collected this species from many places
between Kathmandu and Darjeeling. The presence of the species
in Eastern Nepal is confirmed by Mukerji who collected it from Nepal-
Sikkim boundary. , : :
Tsuga dumosa (D. Don) Eichler (Syn. T. brunoniana Carr.) covers
the greatest area. It is decidedly abundant in the inner ranges. Accord-
ing to Hooker (1885) and Gamble (1902) Tsuga extends from 8 to
10,500 ft., whereas Troup (1921) and Dallimore and Jackson (19438)
mention 10,000 ft. as the upper limit, and the coniferous associates
as Picea spinulosa. 1 observed that in Eastern Nepal the greatest —
height reached by Tsuga is 11,000 ft. and it occurs mixed with Pinus
wallichiana and at places with Abies spectabilis.
Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Spach. (Syn. A. densa Griff. and A.
webbiana Lindl.) appears at 8,o00 ft. and extends up to 13,000 ft.
where it is localised at places well protected from cold and strong
winds. A. spectabilis generally occurs pure except for a few places
at 12,000 ft. where it is in association with Pinus wallichiana. From
about 12,500 ft. Abies appears to lose in height and in exposed places |
gives ground to Juniperus pseudosabina.
Larix griffitht Hk.f. which occurs at 8-12,000 ft. is restricted to
the extreme east of Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. (Hooker 1885).
Brandis (1874) believes it ‘to extend to the source of the Dud Kos:
river which descends from Mount Everest’. I failed to record the
presence of the species in the interior of the area, although I moved
along the Bhotea Kosi and the Dud Kosi. That it has been collected
158 TOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol, 51
from the Nepal-Sikkim border by Mukerji also shows that the species
is of restricted distribution, occurring in Sikkim and Bhutan.
The so-called Wild Species.
In Kathmandu there are some species that are cultivated, namely
two of Cupressus and Podocarpus and one each of Araucaria and
Cedrus. :
The present observations confirm the findings of Brandis (1874),
Gamble (1902), and Hooker (1885) that Cupressus funebris in Eastern
Nepal is cultivated. The species C. torulosa Don is a Western Hima-
layan species extending from ‘Chamba to Nepal’ according to Brandis
(1874), Gamble (1902), Troup (1921) and Biswas (1933) who quotes
Hooker. It is clear to me from my own observations that C. torulosa
does not extend to Eastern Nepal, although cultivated specimens
occur in Kathmandu.
Podocarpus macrophyllus Don var. maki Seibold has been collected
by me from the British Legation compound in Kathmandu where it is
planted. The species P. neriifolia Don is mentioned to occur in
Nepal by Brandis (1874), Hooker (1885), Gamble (1902) and Troup
(1921). Mukerji had not been able to observe it along the Nepal-
Sikkim border, nor have I been able to do so in the eastern half of
Nepal, although the species has been observed and collected by me
from the British Legation compound. It is possible that the various
botanists who have referred to the occurrence of the species in Nepal
have done so on the basis of Wallich’s sheet 6052A. . And that sheet
of Wallich may have been from a cultivated speciment. In all proba-
pility the species does not occur wild in Eastern Nepal.
Cultivated specimens of Araucaria bidwillii and Cedrus deodara are
of common occurrence in Kathmandu.
Si PNCKCHIne ISuamasDESHeRDELE
Brandis (1874) refers to Juniperus macropoda Boiss. as ‘said to
be plentiful in inner Nepal but not found further east’. Hooker (1890)
gives the distribution as ‘from Nepal westwards’. This being a
West Himalayan species it may be present in West Nepal, where it
will be quite natural. It is absent, beyond doubt, in Eastern Nepal.
Brandis (1906) says that Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. (Syn. Picea
morinda Link.) is common from Kashmir to Garhwal at 7-11,000 ft.
and in Sikkim and Bhutan at 8-15,000 ft. while Hooker (1890)
mentions that it is present throughout the range at elevation 6-
11,000 ft. Biswas {1933—p. 29) refers to its presence in Nepal,
and further adds ‘its association with Tsuga brunoniana also suggests
continuity of distribution of one and the same species in the West
and East Himalaya’. According to Dallimore and Jackson (1948) the
West Himalayan species, Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. (Syn. P.
morinda Link.) which forms forests with Abies pindrow, extends from
Afghanistan to Nepal. Picea spinulosa (Griff.) Henry, according to
them is the species occurring in the East Himalayas. During the
——
* Pinus royleana Jameson and P. nepalensis Royle, if they came from Nepal
were no doubt from the Residency Garden. (Ref. Hooker 1885 Vol. V, p. 651.)
GYMNOSPERMS IN EASTERN NEPAL 159:
present observations it was specially noticed that Picea is absent where
Psuga and Abies occur. These observations are also supported by
Mukerji who failed to collect any species of Picea from the Nepal-
Sikkim boundary. ;
Abies pindrow Spach., which is a western low level form, extends
from Afghanistan to Nepal. If this is so, it must be confined to.
Western Nepal, an area not under the present discussion.
SUMMARY
While studying the Gymnosperm flora of Nepal and consulting the
literature thereon it was found that there exists an indefiniteness as
regards the distribution of different species, particularly when the word
‘Nepal’ is used. Nepal being approximately 500 miles in length is
bound to have different species at the two extremes which are in con-
tiguity with Western and Eastern Himalayas. It has been observed
that from a. long list of species stated to occur in Nepal only nine
species are wild, six are cultivated and four are absent from Eastein
Nepal.
It may be remarked that the distribution of Picea seems very
peculiar. The genus occurs on either side of Nepal but I have failed
to find any trace of it in Eastern Nepal. It will be significant to find
out if this and Abies pindrow and Juniperus macropoda occur in
Western Nepal.
J wish to express my gratitude to Dr. S. K. Mukerji, Curator,
Indian Botanic Garden, for giving valuable information regarding his
collection and observations, and to Dr. V. Puri for his suggestions:
and inspiration,
j
ILE PRBRATRURD Cit mp
1. Biswas, K. (1933): The distribution of wild Gymnosperms in the Indian
Empire. Journ. Ind. Bot, Soc., Vol. XII, No. 1.
2. Brandis, D. (1874): Forest Flora. London.
3. — — — (1906): Indian Trees. London.
4. Dallimore, W. & Jackson, A. B.: A handbook of Coniferae including
Ginkgoaceae. I ed. 1923 & III ed. 1948. London.
5. Don, D. (1825): Prodromus Florae Nepalensis. London.
6. Gamble, J. S. (1902): A Manual of Indian Timbers. London.
Beet Oo|ciues| ae De n(L88o) ie ehloraot british. Undrar. Vol. V. Coniferae
London. :
. — — — (1854): Himalayan Journals, Vols. I & 11.
> 9. Troup, R. S. (1921): The Sylviculture of Indian Timber Trees, Vol. III.
Oxford.
WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: UTTAR PRADESH (U.P.)
BY
T. N. SRIVASTAVA, A.1.F.C.
Divisional Forest Officer, Dehra Dun
(Communicated by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton)
THE KANSRAO SANCTUARY
Introduction. In order to maintain and perpetuate the inte-
resting fauna of the Dehra Dun Siwaliks, and to give refuge to the wild
animals from the ruthless and indiscriminate shooting to which they
are subject in these forests, the Kansrao Shooting Block was con.
stituted a Sanctuary in 1940 under G.O. No. 195/XIV—132 dated
6th June 1940.
The Kansrao Sanctuary meets the essential requisites. It has
an ample water supply all the year round; and it is far away from
villages thus minimising the danger of the animals causing damage
to their crops, cattle, etc., and also the danger of diseases like rinder-
pest being conveyed to the wild animals by debilitated domestic herds.
Extent and Area: The Kansrao Sanctuary extends over
the submontane tract abutting the Siwaliks in Motichur Range of the
Dehra Dun Forest Division. The vegetation is largely comprised of
Sal poles of light to medium density with occasional] ‘tappas’ of
grass.
The total area of the sanctuary is 18,709 acres, or 29.22 sq. miles
Boundaries: North to west. Starting from pillar No. 8/32
along the outer boundary of Banbaha Block and Zamindari
Forests the boundary between Bahera and Jhabrawala blocks up
to Kansrao (Katapathar) Pass. ,
West to South. Siwalik Ridge up to Beribara Pass.
South to South-east. From Beribara Pass down along the boundary
between Koelpura and Bahera blocks to the new 1oo ft. line,
thence along it to the junction of Koelpura compartments 7,
6a and 8 thence along the right bank of Panwarwala rau to its
junction with the Dadnawala rau, thence along the Motichur rau
to its junction with the Julaha sot.
South-east to East. Thence up the Julaha sét to the Jamankhata
Peak No. 1924, thence down the Ambiwala sot, thence along
the compartment boundary between Suswa compartments 1, 2
and 3 to its junction with the Kansrao Gohri Road, thence along
the road passing through pillars 19, 18, 17, 16, to pillar No. 15)
thence along the block boundary of Chandi Suswa and Banbaha
blocks to pillar No. 23, thence along the outer boundary of
Banbaha block and Zamindari forest to starting pillar No. Sen
W ild L ife in the Area: Sambar, chital, barking deer
and pig constitute the greater proportion of the larger animals. Panther,
tiger, hyena, bear, elephant, and hog-deer are rather scarce.
~WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA: UTTAR PRADESH (U.P.) 161
The smaller animals comprise pine-marten, Himalayan squirrel,
porcupine, hare and other rodents. Among birds, kalij pheasant,
partridge, junglefowl, peafowl, doves and hornbills are noteworthy.
PRESENT POSITION
In the Dehra Dun Forest Division the incidence of poaching’ is
rather heavy owing to a good system of roads within the forests and
their proximity to habitation. Although the Kansrao Sanctuary has
afforded shelter, wild life continues to be scared in this Division.
It is, however, hoped the timidity of the game will gradually decrease.
The animals have not so far become reconciled to the sense of security
they should feel in the sanctuary, and get panicky and frightened
on seeing a human being or a motor car.
Maintenance. ‘There is no special staff for the maintenance
and supervision of the sanctuary. ‘The territorial staff 1s expected
to look after it, which is not an adequate arrangement. The total
expenditure incurred on the maintenance of this Sanctuary is only about
Rs. go per year, and that is the charge for clearing a demarcation
line.
Improvements suggested.
(1). It is suggested that the sanctuary be extended up to Koelpura
Chowki in order to effectively check poachers at the forest
gate;
(2) In order to enable visitors to enjoy and study wild life in its
natural environment, it is proposed that a few platforms and
observation posts be constructed at salient points;
(3) Some permanent staff should be engaged to look after and
improve conditions in the sanctuary as well as to help the
- Forest Department stop poaching all over the area, and
especially at ‘salt-licks’ and drinking places:
Editors’ Note. It is not surprising that even after eleven years
of ‘sanctuary’ the animals should be scared, timid and frightened at
sight of a human being or motor car for it is common knowledge
that sanctuaries without effective ‘watch and ward’ are nothing else
but a ‘poacher’s paradise’.
It would be interesting to know what is the arrangement for guard-
ing the publicised Rajaji Sanctuary (Vol. 49; p. 753) situated in the
same Siwaliks area, and whether the wild life there is also as scared
and timid as it is in the inadequately guarded Kansrao ‘Sanctuary’.
% % % *
A Note sy Lr.-Cot. R. W. Burton on WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES
tN INDIA
It’ may be of interest to some members to know the situation re-
garding wild life sanctuaries as existing under the Forest Department
Administration.
Wherever there is a Reserved Forest already containing a sufficient
resident stock of wild birds and animals, it is possible to establish
a wild life sanctuary. Such temporary sanctuaries have always, since
1
162 ([QURNAL, BOMBAY SNAVUIVAL SEM S lies OCU E by ema io] mot
the early days of the Forest Department, been in existence in all
the Provinces where the Shooting Block System has been in force |
also in the Madras State, in a number of Indian States and in Kashmir.
In forests under the Forest Department Administration, these sanc-
tuaries were (and presumably still are) notified as such in October
of each year when Conservators of Forests prepare a list of forests
closed absolutely as sanctuaries or for other purposes, or open to
shooting subject to rules and licence conditions. The ‘other purposes’
include closed for fire protection, ‘for special forest operations, as
sanctuary for some particular species of animal, as shooting blocks
for the troops in the vicinity of large cantonments (e.g., Dehra Dun,
Kamptee, Jubbulpore), or as Reserve for District Officers. ~For in-
stance, in the 19 Forest Divisions of Madhya Pradesh, 63 of the
457 shooting blocks were (in 1946) set aside for such ‘other purposes’.
The effectiveness of all blocks reserved as sanctuaries, and the
stock of game in the shooting blocks, naturally depended upon the
sense of duty and reliability of the subordinate forest staff; also upon
the amount of active interest displayed by the respective administrative
forest officers. Under that system, there were sanctuaries and there
were shooting blocks, and these were constituted as one or the other
according to circumstances. A watch was kept on the wild life
population so that necessary control could be exercised and_ stock
of animals maintained. The balance of carnivora versus herbivora
was also watched. A block might be open for shooting of carnivora
only, or a particular species of deer only, and so on. The system
is a good one if worked, as designed, for the benefit of the game
and sportsman alike, and if the forests are properly guarded.
Such has been the background to administration of the Reserved
Forests in regard to wild fife: It is now well known, and has to be
recognized, that in many parts of the country the stock of some
animals, deer in particular but also some of the hill species, has
very greatly diminished. It is therefore very necessary ‘that the former
system of control by the Forest Department should be intensively
exercised.
Kansrao is an instance of a shooting block converted into a per-
manent sanctuary.
THE NanpbA DEvi SANCTUARY
This recently formed sanctuary is in the mountainous part of
Kumaun, and is described as under by the Chief Conservator of
Forests, U.P.
Description. ‘The Inner Circle of Nanda Devi has been declared
a Sanctuary and is under the Commissioner of Kumaun Division. The
area of the Sanctuary is 125 sq. miles and it comprises the catchment
area of the Rishi Ganga above the junction with the Bagin Gul.
The area is a natural sanctuary because it is surrounded on all
sides by high peaks and mountains. As no shooting at all is per-
mitted in the area, it is presumed that this will be a sanctuary for
all species of hill birds and animals.
Entrance to the sanctuary is almost impossible except for a well- —
equipped expedition especially trained in mountaineering.’
WILD LIFE RESERVES IN INDIA; UTTAR PRADESH (U.P.) 163:
Sganitiny of the Saree of India map (4 miles=1 inch) indicates
the need for some clarification as to entrance to the sanctuary being
almost impossible, etc. ; for it is seen that there appears to be entrance
along the Rishi Ganga from where it joins the Dhauli River at an
elevation of 6,170 ft. in the vicinity of the villages Joghu Gwar and
Rini and the important road following along the Dhauli River. Boti
above and below the junction are a number of villages, and where
there are villages there are potential poachers.
Of course, the, way up the Rishi Ganga may not be at all easy,
but the “rlnalle of, the Rishi catchment would appear to be accessible
by the river route. Time will show whether the people of the Dhauli
Valley villages will respect this sanctuary in which there may be tahr,
bharal and other animals of the region.
THE CONTROL OF AQUATIC VEGETATION WITH ‘2, 4-D’
BY
R. Srinivasan (Hydrologist) ann P. I. Cuacko (Biologist).
Freshwater Fisheries Research Station, Madras
INTRODUCTION
It is well known that aquatic plants play an important role in the
economy of freshwater fisheries. During photosynthesis they liberate
the oxygen required for the respiratory needs of the animal and plant
life. They also afford shelter for the fry and fingerlings of fish and
extract inorganic nutritive materials of biological significance from the
soil, water and air. On decay, they add fertilising elements to the
medium and thus increase the nutritive value of the plankton, the
vital link in the fish food chain.
Some aquatic plants such as the water hyacinth (Eichornia spectosa),
Hydrilla verticillata, Najas graminea, Chara zeylanica, Nitella acumi-
nata, Vallisneria spiralis, etc., have a tendency to grow dense and
cover the entire volume of water. Their thick growth causes con-
siderable inconvenience to fishery activities, especially in the operation
of nets. The wild growth of submerged and emergent plant life
_leads to over-population of stunted fish and reduction in the fish crop.
Therefore, control of undesirable aquatic vegetation of fish ponds is
necessary for the healthy development of fish life.
Three main methods—mechanical, biological and chemical—are
employed at the present day in the control of aquatic vegetation (Speirs,
1948; Surber, 1949). The mechanical method consists of weeding,
cutting, raking or ploughing, draining, drying or burning by manual
labour, dredging and using of mechanical mowers, saws, wires and
underwater scythes. This method is laborious and often provides only
temporary benefit. The biological control consists of developing algal
bloom or dense growth of filamentous algae by the application of
fertilizers in order to ‘shade out’ the larger submerged aquatics (Swingle
and Smith, 1939 and 1942; Surber, 1946 and 1948).
While this may increase the productivity of the water, Ganapati,
Chacko and Srinivasan (1950) have observed that oxygen depletion
may occur, causing fish mortality. Another biological method is the
introduction of suitable species of fish which feed on aquatic weeds.
The carp, Cyprinus carpio, is said to control submerged vegetation
both by rooting it out and by increasing the turbidity of the water. In
Madras, the Gourami (Osphronemus gorami) has been found to check
to some extent the growth of weeds in irrigation wells (Gawapati,
1947). The chemical control consists of the application of a wide
range of chemicals such as nigrosine, orthodichlorobenzene, copper
sulphate, sodium arsenite, sodium chlorate, chloramine, etc. These
chemicals have not become popular because while they appear effective
for the control of plant life, they are toxic to fish life, higher animals
and man. .
As a result of further research in the direction of chemical control,
plant growth regulating chemicals such as ‘2, 4-D’ (2, 4-Dichlorophe-
a
* Published with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Madras..
THE CONTROL OF AQUATIC VEGETATION WITH ‘2, 4-D’ 165
noxy acetic acid) have proved of immense value in the control of
emergent aquatic plants (Bauman, 1947; Surber et al., 1947; Cornell,
1949; Snow, 1949; Omand, 1950). It is however, believed that the
practical use of this chemical compound is expensive (Walker, 1948),
particularly for the control of submerged plants (Gerking, 1948;
Surber, 1949).
2, 4-D is available in different forms known as sodium salts, amine
salts and esters. The authors got an opportunity to test the chemical
control of aquatic weeds at Madras in 1951, using ‘Dicotox’, an
M&B_ product, containing the ethyl ester of 2, 4-D.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
Laboratory experiments were first made to find the effect of ‘Dicotox” |
on submerged plants such as Hydrilla verticillata and Najas graminea,
and rooted plants such as Vallisneria spiralis and Nymphaea rubra.
A layer of sand to a thickness of about two inches was spread on
the bottom of four clay tubs, 3 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep. All were
filled to a depth of 1o inches with water from a nearby pond. A
number of vigorously growing plants of these four species were plant-
ed in each of the tubs. The roots of Vallisneria and Nymphaea were
properly set in the sand. The tubs, marked A, B, C and D, were .
treated with ‘Dicotox’ at the rates of 0, 1, 2 and 3 oz. per roo sq. ft.
of surface respectively. Daily observations were recorded on the per-
formance of the weeds. The water level in the tubs was maintained
constant throughout the experiment by the addition of adequate
_ quantity of water lost by evaporation. It was noticed that all the
four varieties of plants were killed; those in tub D in 6 days, in tub
C in 11 days, and in tub B in 19 days. The untreated plants in tub
A were alive and in good condition throughout the’ conduct of the
experiment. It was also observed that Hydrilla and Najas were more
easily affected by ‘Dicotox’. than Vallisneria and Nymphaea , which
were rooted forms.
EFFECT ON FISH
Experiments were carried out in order to find the effect of ‘Dicotox’
on fish. Three tubs, A, B and C, similar to those used in the fore-
going experiment, were filled with water and plants. Two specimens
each of Labeo fimbriatus, Cirrhina reba, Barbus sarana and Rasbora
daniconius, were introduced into each of them, ranging in size from
1% to 5 inches. Tub A was set aside as contro] and tubs B and C
were treated with ‘Dicotox’ at the rate of 1 oz. and 2 ozs. per 100.
sq. ft. respectively. The reaction of the fish and the weeds to the
chemical was carefully observed. While the weeds were killed in
tubs B and C at the end of 19 and 11 days respectively, the fish
withstood the ‘Dicotox’ concentrations successfully. The observations
were confirmed by a series of replicated tests.
A series of tests were planned and conducted to determine the
lethal concentration of ‘Dicotox’ for some of the common species of
fish, with a view to ascertain the safety limit for treatment with
‘Dicotox’.. In one test, four tubs A, B, C and D, each containing
two specimens each of Labeo fimbriatus, Cirrhina reba, Barbus sarana
and Rasbora daniconius, 14 to 5 inches in length, were treated at
the rates of o, 2, 3 and 5 oz. per 100 sq. ft. of ‘Dicotox’, The experi-
166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAFURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
ment was concluded after 8 days during which time there was no
mortality in any of the tubs. In another experiment, tubs Iai Bk (Ga
and D, containing the same number and kind of fish as above, were
treated with o, 6, 8 and 10 oz. per roo sq. ft. of ‘Dicotox’. All the
fish died in pot D on the 4th day and in tubs B and C the fish showed
signs of distress after the 4th day. From these tests it is possible
to assume that common carps are affected by a concentration higher
than 5 Oz. per 100 sq. ft.
EFFECTS ON FRESHWATER LIFE
The direct influence of ‘Dicotox’ on freshwater biota was also
examined. Two aquaria were filled with tap water and both phyto- and
zoo-plankton collected from a pond were introduced into them in
sufficiently large numbers. One aquarium was set aside as control
and the other was treated with ‘Dicotox’ at the rate of 2 ozs. per
100 sq. ft. It was noticed that the euglenoids and peridinians died
on the first day and formed a scum on the surface of the latter
aquarium. During the second, third and fourth days, the other phyto-
planktonic organisms, such as blue-green algae, green ‘algae and
diatoms, perished. On the other hand, the zooplanktonic organisms
such as rotifers, copepods and daphnids and the hydra not only
survived but also multiplied in large numbers.
FIELD EXPERIMENTS
The laboratory tests provided sufficient data on the concentrations
required for eradication of four types of aquatic plants without causing
harm to fish life. With a view to confirm these findings, and evolve
a practical method of application of the chemical, field experiments
were conducted in one of the ponds of the Chetput fish farm. The
pond had a water expanse of 1,000 sq. ft. and depth of three feet. It
contained plants like Hydrilla verticillata, Najas graminea, Vallisneria
spiralis and Nymphaea rubra, and fish like Catla catla (6-10 inches),
Labeo fimbriatus {5-8 inches), Cirrhina reba (4-7 inches) and Barbus
sarana (4-6 inches). The required amount of “Dicotox’ at the rate
of 2 oz. per 100 sq. ft. was dissolved in a bucketful of pond water
and the resultant opalescent solution sprayed over the water surface.
Most of the fish showed signs of distress the following day, and a
few of them died on the third day. Observations were recorded on
the physico-chemical conditions existing in the pond at the time of
mortality. They were :—
Colour of water ... green
Temperature 609 | ALOK C
Turbidity ORIG MISS
Dissolved Oxygen .... 17 mgm/litre
Free carbon-dioxide ... nil
Carbonates .. 6 4p.p.m.
Bicarbonates 0 ASO JObjOLpil
Chlorides .. 820 p.p.m.
pH we «84
Silicates sec Zapsp.i0s
Phosphates eaeUraces
It would appear that these physico-chemical conditions were not in
any way harmful to fish fauna. The day was cloudy and on the ~
THE CONTROL OF AQUATIC VEGETATION WITH ‘2, 4-D’ 167
previous day there had been some showers of rain, but these climatic
factors cannot account for the mortality as no fish died in the adjacent
untreated ponds that contained the same kind and size of the fish. In
addition the fish had withstood the particular concentration of ‘Dicotox’
in the laboratory tests. |
The experiment was therefore repeated in another pond of the
Chetput fish farm under identical conditions. This time the required
quantity of ‘Dicotox’ (at the rate of 2 oz. per roo sq. ft.) was applied
in three equal instalments at intervals of seven days. Not a single
- fish died during the 16 days of this experiment by which time all
the weeds were completely killed, indicating that the required dose
of ‘Dicotox’ calculated on the basis of area of water surface, should
not be administered at once but in two or three equal doses at definite
intervals. The experiment was repeated twice and the above obser-
vations were confirmed. A study of the biota of the ponds during
the course of the experiments indicated an increase in the zooplank-
tonic organisms from the fourth day onwards.
In collaboration with Sri S. Nagaraja Rao, m.sc., Assistant Director
of Fisheries, Anantapur, the Bellary fort moat fish farm, 4 acres
in extent and 8 to 15 ft. in depth, which was infested with a rank
growth of Hydrilla verticillata, was treated with ‘Dicotox’ at intervals
of a week at the rate of 1 gallon per acre (roughly 1 oz. per 100
sq. ft.). The weed was completely killed in three weeks and ~formed
a thick brown scum on the water surface which was wafted to one
side by the wind. The entire fish crop of the farm was unaffected.
DISCUSSION
‘Dicotox’ is a self-emulsifying formation containing the ethyl ester
of a growth regulating substance 2, 4-D. The principle involved
in the control of weeds by ‘Dicotox’ consists of the application of the
chemical to the leaves. It is absorbed by the leaf and translocated
to the roots through the stem. WVaas (1951) has observed that 2, 4-D
can kill floating types of vegetation like the water hyacinth but not
submerged plants like Hydrilla verticillata. Our experiments have
revealed that submerged plants like Hydrilla verticillata and Naijas
graminea are killed in about twenty days by ‘Dicotox’ application
at the rate of 1 oz. per 100 sq. ft. Brown streaks and edges develop
on the leaf surface of weeds a week after treatment and the weeds
are finally killed. Rooted vegetation such as Vallisneria spiralis and
Nymphaea rubra having their leaves shooting out of the water surface
is also killed.
Surber (1949) has remarked that ‘the phenoxy acetic compounds
such as 2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T are still too expensive to be used as
weed killers for submerged plants even though they are not toxic
to fish in concentrations required to kill vegetation’. The cost of
“Dicotox’ at present is Rs. 26 per gallon in a 40 gal. drum which.
works out to Rs. 7o-4-0 per acre if applied at the rate of 1 oz. per
100 sq. ft. 3 :
King and Penfound (1946), Evans (1948), Surber (loc. cit.) and
Vaas (loc. cit) have found that 2, 4-D does not have any harmful
effect on freshwater fish within the concentrations used in practical
applications. Our experiments with ‘Dicotox’ have confirmed this
and fish such as Catla catla, Labeo fimbriatus, Cirrhina reba and Barbus
168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
sarana, successfully withstood a concentration of 5 oz. per 100 Sq.
ft. of ‘Dicotox’ whereas the concentration required to kill Hydrilla
verticillata and Najas graminea in about 20 days is only 1 oz. per
10Q sq. ft.
King and Pentound (loc. cit.) sug ggested that the decaying weeds
might lower the oxygen concentration in the water to a marked extent
and thus might, harm indirectly the fish-fauna. Vaas (loc. cit.) found,
however, that no such harmful effect occurred in his experiments
under tropical conditions in Indonesia. Our field experiments with
‘Dicotox’ confirmed that the decaying weeds did not lower the avail-
able oxygen to the fish life. Our laboratory tests showed that all
the phytoplankton died and that only some of the zooplanktonic
organisms were killed. When the experiments were repeated under
natural. conditions in. the ponds of the Chetput fish farm, it was
observed that there was an increase in the phytoplankton from the
second day onwards and an increase in the zooplankton from the
fourth day onwards. Evidently the decaying weeds had encouraged
the development of plankton.
SOW Sit Gis
_ From the series of experiments it is concluded that (1) ‘Dicotox”
is able to eradicate submerged weeds like Hydrilla verticillata and
Najas graminea and the rooted plants such-as’ Vallisneria spiralis and
Nymphaea rubra; {2) a dosage of 1 oz. of ‘Dicotox’ per 100 sq.
ft. kills these four kinds of aquatic plants in about 20 days, or a
dosage of 2 ozs. per 100 sq. ft. administered in three equal instalments.
at intervals of 7 days, kills them in about 16 days; (3) neither of
these ‘Dicotox’ dosages is harmful either directly or indirectly to
freshwater fish such as Catla catla, Labeo fimbriatus, Cirrhina reba
and Barbus sarana; but there is a phenomenal increase in the density
of freshwater biota of a pond treated with ‘Dicotox’ from the fourtl:
day; (4) the cost of treatment works out to Rs. 70-4-o per acre.
‘SUMMARY
The role of aquatic vegetation in the economy of pond life and the
various methods that are in vogue for the control of aquatic plants
are recounted. From a number of field experiments it is concluded
that a concentration of 1 oz. per 100 sq. ft. of ‘Dicotox’ costing Rs.
70-4-0 per acre is capable of killing submerged plants such as Hydrillw
and Najas and rooted plants like Vallisneria and Nymphaea in about
twenty days. ‘Dicotox’ was also tested for its harmlessness to fish
and freshwater biota.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are thankful to Mr. A. P. Valsan, Research Assistant, for
technical assistance.
LITERATURE CONSULTED
Bauman, A. C, (1947): 2, 4-D and Some Emergent Aquatics. Progressive
Fish- Culturist, 9; 71-77.
Cornell, 7 H, (1949): Eradication of Emergent Aquatic Vegetation with
2, 4-D, Progressive Fish- Cultiaist, M1; 113-118..
é
THE CONZEROL OF AQUATIC VEGETATION WITH: 2, 4-D’ 160
Evans, L. S$. (1948): Controlling Water Hyacinth with 2, 4D. F.A.O.
Pamphlet.
Ganapati, S. V. (1947): Control of Aquatic Vegetation in’ Irrigation Wells,
Fish Ponds and Storage Reservoirs. Ind-Com, J., 3; 37-39.
Ganapati, S. V., Chacko, P. I. and Srinivasan, R. (1950): On a_pecutiar
case of Fish Mortality in a section of the Fort Moat fish farm, Vellore. J. Zool.
Soc. India, 2; 97-100. af
Gerking, S. D. (1948): Destruction of Submerged Aquatic Plants by 2, 4-D.
J. Wild Life Management, 12; 221.
Hildebrand, E. 1946): Herbicidal action of 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
on the Water Hyacinth Hichoriia crassipes. Science, 103; 477.
King, J. and Penfound, W. (1946): Effect of two of new Farmogenic Herbicides
on Bream and large-mouth Bass, Kcology, 27; 372.
Omand, D. N. (1950): An experiment in Aquatic Weed Control. Canadian
Fish Culturist, 7; 19-21.
Smith, E. V. and Swingle, H. S. (1942): The use of Fertilizer for Controlling
several submerged Aquatic Plants in Ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., TM; 94-101.
Snow, J. R. (1949): Control of Pond Weeds with 2, 4-D. Progressive Fish:
Culturist, 11; 105-108.
Speirs, J. M. (1948): Summary of Literature on Aquatic Weed Control.
Canadian Fish Culturist, 3; 20-32. |
Surber, E. W. (1946): The effects of various fertilizers on plant growths and
their probable influence on the production of small-mouth black bass in hard
water ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 13; 377-393.
— — — (1948): Fertilisation of a recreational lake to control submerged plants.
Progressive Fish Culturist, 10; 53-58.
— — — (1949): Control of Aquatic Plants in Ponds and Lakes. U.S. Dep.
Int. Fishery Leaflet, 344; 1-20.
Surber, E. W., Minarik, C. E. and Ennis, W. B. (1947): The Control of
Aquatic Plants with Phenoxyacetic Compounds. The Progressive Fish Culturist,.
9; 143-150. ;
Swingle, H. S. and Smith, E. V. (1939): Fertilizers for increasing the natural
food for fish in ponds. Trans. Am. Fish Soc., 68; 126-135.
Vass, K. F. (1951): Notes on the water hyacinth in Indonesia and its eradica-
tion by spraying with 2, 4-D. Cont. Gen, Agri. Res. Station, Bogor. Indonesia,
120; 1-59.
Walker, C. H, (1947): Cattail Control with scythe and 2, 4D. The Pro-
gressive Fish Culturist, 10; 153-154, ~~
cs * x 3 Me
[The Editor of our Botanical Section who needed clarification on
a certain point wrote to the author as under :— os:
‘In the paper you speak of so many ounces per square unit of ©
surface. On the other hand from the context ‘‘Dicotox’’ is not
spoken of as an oily substance that acts by spreading on the surface,
but going into the water. Surely in this case the volume of water
is more important than its surface. Is this correct? ‘We have tried
““Dicotox’’ in Bombay and it seems to form a perfect solution in water.”
Mr. Chacko offers the following explanation :—
‘ “Dicotox’’ is a self-emulsifying oil which is absorbed by the leaf
and translocated to the stem and finally to the roots. As such, it
is enough if this oily weedicide comes into contact with a portion and
not the entire plant. The plants Hydrilla verticillata, Najas graminea,
_Vallisneria spiralis and Nymphaea rubra have their leaves shooting
towards the water surface, and are easily killed. So we have spoke
in terms of surface area. Our. field experiments at Madras and at
Bellary in waters of varying depths have confirmed our view.’—Epbs. |
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA?
BY
SUNDER LAL Hora
(Direclor, Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta)
(With sixteen figures)
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION sai Boe Stic aS wae 170
History or INpIAN [FRESHWATER FiIsuH FAUNA 1% ae ee WA
PROBLEMS OF FisH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA ... Ai 7¥ 176
i. Uniformity of the fish-fauna of the Indus and the Ganga river systems 176
ij. Extension of the Indo-Gangetic fish-fauna into the Mahanadi and
Godavari river systems... ee Boor ete)
. Occurrence of the so-called Malayan forms in the Western Ghats and
the Satpura trend of mountains. : ee LS
. Dispersal of the fish-fauna of the We stern Ghais | to the Eastern Ghats,
Orissa Hills, Aravalli Range, Satpura. and Vindhya Ranges sno, Abas}
. Occurrence of the Sind fish-fauna in the Aravalli Range... nhoas ea dlite}
Absence of the so- called Malayan forms in the Western Himalayas ... 178
Coenen ae see ep ee ee soo. dtehe/
The Assam Link ae a An oe, fo Ate y/
The Dismemberment of the Gondwana Continent #58 Re Pci key//
The Palaeo-Climates of India sch fr. sy. soo | USSY/
The Deccan Traps Bad a ac a Sony, Aish
The Peninsular Tilt and the Indo-Brahm ads aie x 187
JREFERENCES ae 000 ai apc Boaat alerts)
IONSISRAOLDEU C IOLN
to
I greatly appreciate the honour, which the Council of the Bombay
Natural History Society has done me in inviting me to deliver an
address on the occasion of the Annual General Meeting. I am very
thankful to them for the invitation. The choice of the subject has
been influenced by two main considerations. Firstly, at the Annual
General Meeting of the Society in 1948, I gave to the members an
idea of the Satpura Hypothesis concerning the distribution of the
so-called Malayan plants and animals to Peninsular India. Secondly,
in view of repeated references to this Hypothesis in the Journal, your
energetic editor, Mr. Salim Ali, has been requesting me to sum up
in a popular form, for the benefit of Indian naturalists, the main
findings of the Satpura Hypothesis. As great advances have been
made since 1948. in our conception of the Hypothesis, I have thought
it worth while to place before you some aspects of biogeography, mainly
based on the distribution of fishes, which have shed a great deal of
light on the palaeography and palaeoclimates of India. Though some
of our findings will also be applicable to terrestrial plants and animals,
it must be clearly understood that the Satpura Hypothesis was pro-
posed and has since been intensely investigated only with regard to
the fishes of the torrential streams, which, on account of specialized
ecological features of their habitats, have restricted means of dispersal
(Hora, 1947).
* Text of the lecture delivered at the Annual General Meeting of the Bombay
Natural History Society on 29th July, 1952, at 6 p.m.
2
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA 171.
History OF INDIAN FRESHWATER FISH FAUNA
The first record of an Indian freshwater fish is found in the Maleri
beds of the Godavari Valley. These beds are of the Upper Triassic
age and are thus as old as 170 million years. The Dipnoan or Lung-
Fishes of the extinct genus Ceratodus were the only Indian. fresh-
Fig. 1. The Dipnoan fish Ceratodus (Neoceratodus forsteri from Cambridge
Natural History, T, p. 509, 1904).
water fishes of that period. As the name implies, they are double
breathers, i.e., capable of breathing with gills under water and of
utilising atmospheric air for respiration through the air-bladder
modified as lungs. They were thus marsh-loving fishes associated with
large rivers which flooded extensive areas at times to produce marshy
conditions. No Lung-fish is found in India today, though forms allied
to Ceratodus are living in Queensland (Australia), South Africa and
Fig. 2. Present-day distribution of the Dipnoan fishes (from Cambridge
Natural History, 7, p. 512, 1904).
South America. Such a discontinuous distribution of these fishes shows
their great antiquity.
Where from did the Dipnoan fishes come to India and why did
they die out here are the two obvious questions, which must be
answered at this stage. During the Upper Triassic, there was a
northern continent, the Angara (comprising part of Asia, Europe
and North America), and a southern continent, the Gondwana (com-
prising Australia, southern Asia, Africa and South America). These
two continents were separated by seas but had a land bridge, the
‘Assam Link’, between China and India. The Lung-fishes. would
- appear to have evolved during the Middle Devonian period (325
million years) in North America and Europe and later migrated to
the Gondwana continent over the ‘Assam Link’. From India as
centre, they got dispersed to Australia, Africa and South America.
Upper Triassic was a period of great desiccation in India so the fishes
172 JOURNAL; BOMBAY “NAD URAID TETS TESS OGUETINS Violen
died out altogether, but they continued to live in suitable ecological
pockets in other parts of the world. Those interested in more detailed
KK
G4
| (777 LAND 4
GG LU ZL
Att MOLE,
| ‘OF LAND LOLISGLGGLE
Fig. 3. The Continents of Angara and Gondwana during the Upper Trias.
(Modified from Seward’s map in Plant Life through Ages, 1931).
knowledge about the Indian Dipnoan fishes may see Hora and Menon,
1952.
On the return of moister conditions during the Jurassic period
(145 million years), there was again an invasion of freshwater fishes
Fig. 4. The Ganoid fishes of India. (a) Lepidotus, (b) Tetragonolepis,.
(c) Dapedius, (4) A Pycnodont fish, (e) Lepidosteus,
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA 173
from the Angara to the Gondwana over the ‘Assam Link’. This
time the Ganoids or Enamel-scaled fishes of the extinct genera
Lepidotus, Tetragonolepis and Dapedius colonised Indian freshwaters
and dispersed to Australia, Africa and South America in the same way as
the Dipnoans did before them. Another period of desiccation com-
pletely wiped off this stock also, though their near relations are still
living in other parts of the world. The fossil remains of the above
genera are now known from the Kota beds in the Godavari Valley.
Wet conditions returned again during the Cretaceous period (120
million years) and the Ganoid fishes of the genera Pycnodus and
Lepidosteus colonised the Indian freshwaters once again. They, how-
ever, became entombed in the extensive lava flows of the Upper
Cretaceous. Their fossils are known from the Lameta beds at
DISTRIBUTION OF EARLIEST FRESH-
WATER FISHES KNOWN FROM INDIA ;
REFERENCE
. DEOTHAN AND KGERL
. TAKLI
. PAHARSINGHA
. DONGARGAON, DHAMNI AND PHISDURA >»
. KOTAH-MALERI BEDS SHADED DARK ~
. KATERU
INDICATES THE PROBABLE AREA
COVERED BY THE DECCAN TRAP
Fig. 5. Map of India showing the probable area of Deccan Trap and the
distribution of freshwater fossil fish bearing beds of the ‘Triassic, Jurassic,
Cretaceous and the Eocene periods. After S. L. Hora (Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.
India, 4% (4), p. 398, 1938). ;
Dongargaon in Madhya Pradesh. These fishes also spread in the -
same way as those of the earlier two invasions.
When the volcanic activities had subsided and normal conditions
had returned in the early Eocene (60 million years), the existence of
in
Vol.
SOCIETY,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.
174
‘playa (2) ssidapoistigt (p) ‘snpupa (0) ‘snyjuvavdjog (q@) ‘Ysy pissojsacisQ VY (Y) ‘eipuy Jo Sots} ouso0%f JIssof oy, “9 “Sry
faim,
oe
~LATTTV
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA 175:
the ‘Assam Link’ permitted another invasion of freshwater fishes
from the mainland of Asia. The Ganoid fish Lepidosteus and certain
S@ DARJEELING
7 Ss VA
rd
\ SHILLONG
—_—_——,
FRESH WATERS .
DS STUARINE
Fig. 7. irae of the has of Bengal during the Eocene, Miocene and
Pliocene periods (Modified from Dr. M. S. Krishnan’s maps).
‘Teleostean fishes of the families Osteoglossidae, Gyprinidac! Anaban-
tidae and Nandidae colonised Indian waters but the Gondwana
continent had become partly dismembered by then and there was no
land connection between India and Australia, though land connections
176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
between India and Africa and between Africa and South America
are indicated by the distribution of fishes of that period. These
earlier fishes are now represented by their fossil remains at Deothan,
Kheri, Takli and Paharsingha in Madhya Pradesh. ‘This fauna be-
came entombed in the successive volcanic eruptions of the Eocene
and it appears that during the Middle Eocene, the ‘Assam Link’ gave
way due to the transgression of the Bay of Bengal northwards.
The earlier fauna eine been completely annihilated, the chances
of further invasions also became nil owing to the extension of the
sea. There are accordingly no fossil records of freshwater fishes
for the whole of the Miocene period (25 million years). As a result of
the Himalayan orogenic movements of the Pliocene (12 million years),
a continuous arc of Himalayan-Alpine System seems to have been estab-
lished for the spread of certain hill-stream fishes. Also Siwalik ecolo-
gical conditions became established at the base of these hills and these
facilitated the dispersal of marsh-loving Siluroid fishes of the genera
Chrysichthys, Mystus, Rita, Bagarius, Clarias, Heterobranchus, etc.
64 72 80 88 96
—
2 PLIOCENE
SP
SshNAcAR NG SEA Etanp QP FRESH WATER & ESTUARINE
SCALE
Miles 100 0 100 200 300 400 Miles
et
32
.
«eryree
ae | Gib
Besa NAHE
: *. ae t. ay a9)
pan stinG
Sp
NM WSHILLONG
rma. INO WE
eX & 24
Fig. 8. The Siwalik gulf of the Pliocene (Modified from Dr. Krishnan’s maps).
and of the Ophicephalid fishes. It would thus appear that the Carps,
which form the most predominant group of the Indian freshwater
fishes had not colonised Indian waters during the Pliocene, the reason
being the brackish waters at the head of the receding Bay of Bengal
of that period. Further. orogenic movements during the Pleistocene,
combined with successive waves of glaciation during the last million
years facilitated movements of freshwater fishes from east to west but
the later invasions did not extend beyond India to Africa. It will
thus be seen that almost the entire freshwater fish-fauna of India
consists of the Pleistocene migrants or of their modified descendants.
The problems of fish geography, arising out of the present-day dis-
tribution of Indian fishes, are, therefore, of the Pleistocene period
only and we shall now examine them one by one.
PROBLEMS OF FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA
Taking into consideration the broader aspects ef the distribution
of the present-day freshwater fishes of India, one can enunciate the
fale problems ‘that need elucidation :—
Uniformity of the fish-fauna of the Indus and the Ganga
river systems. ; |
177
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA
‘spray (f)
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178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
11. Extension of the Indo-Gangetic fish-fauna into the Mahanadi
and Godavari river systems.
iil. Occurrence of the so-called Malayan forms in the Western
Ghats and the Satpura trend of mountains.
iv. Dispersal of the fish-fauna of the Western Ghats to the
Eastern Ghats, Orissa Hills, Aravalli Range, Satpura
and Vindhya Ranges.
v. Occurrence of the Sind fish-fauna in the Aravalli Range.
vi. Absence of the so-called Malayan forms in the Western
Himalayas.
i. Uniformity of the fish-fauna of the Indus and the Ganga river
systems.—I have referred above (p. 176, text fig. 8) to the Siwalik
Gulf, which stretched as a narrow arm of the sea at the base of
the young Himalayas during the Pliocene and received the drainage
of the southern face of the Himalayas. As shown in the figure, a
considerable part of it towards the east contained freshwater in which
lived the Siluroid fishes of the Pliocene referred to above. The sedi-
ments deposited at the bottom of this gulf ultimately formed the
EARLY PLEISTOCENE
THE GREAT PREHISTORIC
RIVER OF NORTHERN INDIA
Vie
Kost ie -
pas
~~
SS
\
tif
Th
ASSAM=>
SRA RY,
ante aibtlty,}
“st x
NARBADA
TAN
5
TAPTI
BENGAL
Fig. 10. The Indo-Brahm River during the early Pleistocene. After D. N.
Wadia (Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 4%, p. 389, 1938). |
Siwalik Hills with its rich fossil fauna and flora. There is no fish
distribution evidence at this period that there was an Indo-Brahm or
Siwalik River as the fauna shows only extensive marshy conditions.
As the sea receded westwards, this guif must have become a con-
tinuous or a series of freshwater lakes, but during each Glacial period
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA 17>
of the Pleistocene, when precipitation was higher, evaporation was.
low and the run-off was greater, I presume this series of lakes may
have joined again and run as a broad river draining towards the west
and having its headwaters in Assam. Thus every Glacial period gave
us a mighty, roaring Indo-Brahm River of the geologist. The ecolo-
gical conditions during the Glacial periods brought into India the
migrants from the east and the Indo-Brahm River helped to carry
them to the extreme west of India.
On the northern side of the Himalayas also there was a similar
longitudinal trough which dispersed the fish-fauna from south-
west China to Seistan. There was also another longitudinal river at
the base of the Vindhya-Satpura trend of mountains which helped in
the distribution of the aquatic fauna to Peninsular India.
So far no racial studies have been carried out on the species com-
mon to the Indus and the Ganga-river systems, but taxonomically
they appear to be identical. Either there has been no significant
change in the ecological conditions of the species since. separation or
the date of separation is so recent that marked racial differences have
not yet had time to manifest themselves. It is believed by the geolo-
~ | Pe a
IS IEG LATE PLEISTOCENE
SAS AG
SESW Ga THE BIRTH OF THE INDUS
ed a NY)
FTP Ye jen, & AND THE GANGES
SS Qe,
M4, 358 NGG 7 tig td
SAY ye Wn, BD
ORY aa ee CE Son Ie Ne, e
Santas yy S> Ta tty, ¥
EEN 54 Sy
Sy LS Mode My,
os 3 > 4 ’ Nude
SS Z 7 ~ 05 ‘ \ URN
Zs tf phy
Se : ae
OS SS
45 SSS
3,56 BBS SSS
s > Ss SS
: = 22s
DLE ah
—“
==
GAN GES ee
Sie
01," e.
22
pe
NARBADA
TAP
BENGAL
Fig. 11. The dismemberment of the Indo-Brahm River during the late
Pleistocene. After D. N. Wadia (Ibid, 4, p. 389, 1938).
gists that the dismemberment of the Indo-Brahm occurred in the late
Pleistocene. There is some evidence for this belief from the fish
distribution as is shown below.
ii. Extension of the Indo-Gangetic fish-fauna into the Mahanadi and
Godavari river systems.—How did the fish-fauna of the Ganga migrate
to the Mahanadi and colonise it? The greater part of the fish-fauna.
180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
common to the two rivers is that of the plains and not of the head-
waters. The explanation of this riddle is to be found in the eustatic
movements of the sea during the height of any Glacial period. The
sea level fell by about 100 to 200 metres and vast stretches of the
coastal shallow areas of the present-day seas became dry lands. The
2 ZAL_lo-600
Eff 1 7] 600 -1200
Fig. 12. The physiography of the Garo-Rajmahal Gap. (a) Present-day
condition, (b) During the height of a Glacial Period. After S. L. Hora (ibid.,
AT, p. 4395 195i):
Ganga, as is well-known historically, was flowing more towards the
west. It seems that during the height of the Glacial periods, the
Ganga- and the Mahanadi may have formed a common delta thus
F—> JAMUNA
! (BRAHMAPUTRA)
Fig. 18. The Lower courses of the Ganga and the Mahanadi during the
height of a Glacial Period (Hypothetical).
permitting the fauna of the Ganga to colonise the bed of the
- Mahanadi. ;
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA 181
During which Glacial period did this transference of fauna occur?
The answer to this question in terms of Pleistocene geological events
must be (a) after the dismemberment of the Indo-Brahm River and
(b) after the tilting of the Peninsular block, for these two events
resulted in the birth of: the present-day Ganga and Mahanadi. So
we are led to solve other problems before we can fix the date of
the mixing of the waters of the Ganga and the Mahanadi.
I am indebted to Dr. M. S. Krishnan for the following chronology
of the Pleistocene Glaciation :—
Beginning of Years ago
. End of last glaciation Ca. 10,000
Last or 5th glaciation me Lehn hea? OS OOO
IV Interglacial period ,, 60,000
4th glaciation we sod gg . LAOS
III Interglacial period ,, 180,000
3rd -glaciation a7 ene 250,000
I] Interglacial period ,, 440,000
2nd glaciation oN Pe eG OOKOOO
I Interglacial period ,, 560,000
1st glaciation a3 ae 209 yp, COOKS
Pleistocene er | a. Venn RK OOOOOO
What factors caused these climatic variations is difficult to say and
is outside the scope of this article. In a recent paper in the Society’s
Journal (Vol. 50, No. 4, p. 718, 1952) on ‘The Climate of India’,
Banerji has stated: ;
‘Post-glacial time falls into three main stages: first, a period
of steadily increasing warmth, covering the establishment and
decline of northern coniferous flora; next a long period of maxi-
mum warmth, marked by the dominance of deciduous forests;
and finally an indication of decreasing -warmth accompanied
by gain of conifers at the expense of*deciduous species. These
results came from pollen analysis. There are minor variations,
namely, return to warm conditions a thousand years ago
and a present-trend to warmer and drier conditions, which
may be no more than a passing phase. In producing these
long-period changes some common cause was at work, which
has also been changing more or less rhythmically. There has
been much discussion over this common cause, but at present
attention is centred mainly on the variations of the seasonal
distribution of isolation in different latitudes through changes
in the constants of the earth’s orbit, the inclination of the
earth’s axis and the long-period changes in the solar radiation.’
I have quoted the above long passage to indicate that:
i. Climatic changes and the resultant factors bring about vast
changes in the ecology of organisms and induce specia-
tion.
182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
il. Biological objects can be good indicators of climatic varia-
tions in the past.
ui. here is no stability so far as climate is concerned, there being
short-period as well as long-period variations.
We have seen that there is no difference between the fish-faunas
of the Indus and the Ganga River Systems and from this it can
reasonably be inferred that their separation is of a recent date. Further,
the fluviatile forms living in a more or less uniform environment are
not likely to show a very rapid rate of speciation. Taking these two
facts together, it would seem probable that the separation probably
occurred during the third or fourth glaciation, at the most 250,000 years
ago. The geologists also consider that the present drainage system
of northern India was established during the Upper Pleistocene.
Due to the tilting of the Peninsular block, the species of the
Western Ghats, as will be shown below, have got dispersed over a
very wide area but so far as our studies have shown they have not
yet become differentiated into subspecies or races. I have an intuitive
feeling that the tilting of the Peninsula and the dismemberment of the
Indo-Brahm were probably results of the same force and occurred
simultaneously.
lil. Occurrence of the so-called Malayan forms in the Western
Ghats and the Satpura trend of mountains.—The occurrence of the
Malayan forms in the Western Ghats and other hill tops of peninsular
India has been known for a long time. The most accepted expla-
nation has been that both the Himalayan plants and animals retreated
to the south during glaciation and during the interglacial periods
went up to the hill tops to escape from the heat and dryness of the
plains. This also accounts for their discontinuous distribution at the
present time. Such a simple explanation could possibly fit in with
the mode of dispersal of terrestrial animals and plants but could
not account for the distribution of torrential fishes. Accordingly,
the Satpura Hypothesis was proposed in 1937 and field studies proved
some justification for the hypothesis. The main difficulty lay in the
presence of the Garo-Rajmahal Gap which had to be crossed over to
get access to the Satpura trend of mountains. The geological
evidence concerning the age of the Gap was often discussed but
proved to be ambiguous. However, it has now been found (Hora,
1951) that during each glacial period the level of the gap became
several hundred feet higher relative to the sea level on account of
eustatic movements of the sea (Text fig. 12). Owing to the increased
precipitation, less evaporation and greater run-offs during the Glacial
periods favourable ecological conditions were thus established for the
dispersal of torrential fishes across the gap.
Extensive field investigations have shown (Menon, 1951) that the
route of migration of the torrential fishes lay along the Satpuras and
not along the Orissa Hills and the Eastern Ghats. From a detailed
taxonomic study of the fish isolates in Peninsular India, Silas
(1952) has found that there were 5 invasions corresponding to the
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA 183
5 Glacial periods of the Pleistocene. I believe that the researches so
far carried out in the Zoological Survey of India have supported the
Satpura Hypothesis. The contribution of this hypothesis in regard
to the dispersal of the terrestrial. forms lies in the fact that the
mountain ranges or hill tops developed favourable ecological condi-
- tions earlier and such conditions persisted there longer than in the
plains. At all suitable heights favourable conditions persist up to the
MAP SHOWING AREAS
INVESTIGATED SINCE 1937
ROUTE OF MIGRATION OF MALAYAN ELEMENT
IS ALSO INDICATED AS KNOWN IN 1937, |
MADRAS
fa)
————> SATPURA HYPOTHESIS
@® AREAS INVESTIGATED SINCE 1937
ao ZA mountainous REGIONS
By
= CEYLON
8 84
Fig. 14. Map of India to show the route of migration of the Malayan fishes
and places of investigation in connection with the Satpura Hypothesis.
present and that is why the relict forms are now isolated on hill tops
in Peninsular India.
IV. Dispersal of the fish-fauna of the Western Ghats to the Eastern
Ghats, Orissa Hills, Aravalli Range, Satpura and Vindhya Ranges.—l
184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
have referred above to the tilting of the Peninsular block during
the late Pleistocene. Menon (1951) has dealt with this point exhaus-
‘PRE-TIL T’
DRAINAGE
Oaeoes g No BALE =a
eG EN p YA
” ARBADP z
‘SAT
io
Khandesh Se
es PLEISTOCENE ALLUVIAL
DEPOSITS
‘POST--TILT |
DRAINAGE
{
W Bombay
fa PLEISTOCENE ALLUVIAL © Vizagapatam
DEPOSITS
76 Sa 0
Fig. 15. Pre-tilt and Post-tilt drainage of Peninsular India. After A. G. K.
Menon (Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 11, pp. 493-494, 1951).
tively and very lucidly so I propose to reproduce 3 of his drawings
here which are self-explanatory. It is surmised that the tilting of
the Peninsula occurred not more than 250,000 years ago and that
DISTRIBUTION
OF
@ c. BOoPIs Day.
( )B, (PUNTIUS) AMPHIBIUS (C. V.).
GB. (TOR) KHUDREE Sykes.
GB G. MULLYA (Sykes).
@® L. BOGGUT (Sykes).
Ay P. TENTACULATUS (Annandale).
@ N. DAYI HORA.
Fig. 16. Dispersal of the Western Ghats fishes as a result of ithe tilting of
the Peninsula. After A. G. K. Menon (ibid., 17, p. 495).
was probably contemporaneous with the dismemberment of the Indo-
Brahm river.
v. Occurrence of the Sind fish-fauna in the Avavalli Range.—
Hora and Mathur (1952) have dealt with this problem very recently.
They have shown that a sunken ridge exists under the desert sand
which may have been a regular chain of hills connecting the Sind
Hills with the Aravalli Hills. It was probably along this chain that
Labeo nigripinnis of the Sind Hills migrated to the Aravallis. This
migration must have been, geologically speaking, quite recent as there
appears to be no racial differentiation between the Sind and the
Aravalli specimens. Such a migration may have been facilitated by
the ecological conditions associated with the Glacial periods.
vi. Absence of the so-called Malayan forms in the Western Himala-
yas.—This problem is forcibly brought home to any one who studies the
fauna and flora of the Himalayas. The so-called Malayan element
186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
predominates as far as the Teesta drainage but thereafter towards the
west it becomes less and less. It was this fact that made me propose
the Satpura Hypothesis in 1937 in the following terms:
‘As the Himalayas rose to a great height in the region of the
isthmus (mostly the western part of the Assam Himalayas
and eastern part of the Nepal Himalayas) all the evidence
concerning the north-eastward extension of the Indo-Brahm
seems to have been obliterated. The uplift movement was
probably most active in this region as we find practically
all the highest peaks of the Himalayas clustered round this
area. This differential movement which probably occurred
late in the Miocene period, must have obliterated all traces
of the eastward extension of the Indo-Brahm and also acted
as a barrier between the eastern and the western Himalayan
fishes. The new stocks of specialized hill-stream fishes from
the east, not finding means to cross this barrier, were
deflected towards south-west along the Satpura Trend wh’ch
probably at that period stretched across India as a pronounced
range from Gujarat to Assam Himalayas. From Gujarat the
hill-stream fauna migrated towards the south along the Western
Ghats and spread to the hills of the Peninsula in the extreme
south.’
The portion of the above passage italicised now gives an idea of
the original conception of the Satpura Hypothesis... Just as many of
the original ideas had to be changed with regard to the Satpura
Hypothesis in the light of further investigations, in the same way
the above views with regard to the size of the Himalayas have under-
gone many changes. For instance, text fig. 7 shows that there
was a transgression of the Bay of Bengal in the region of Assam
from the late Eocene to the Pliocene. It would thus appear that the ©
Assam and the Darjeeling Himalayas are fea‘ures of the post-Pliocene
physiography of India. In fact, it has now become clear that the
Central Asian uplift is, geologically speaking, very recent (Hora, 1952).
There is abundant geological evidence that there was another major
uplift of the Himalayas after the Pliocene. It is during the Pleistocene
period, therefore, that the marine, estuarine or freshwater marshy
gap between India and the countries to the east and north seems to
have been filled up. The monsoons as they are established in India
today, could not have been established till their passage to the
Central Asiatic region had been blocked by a mountainous barrier in the
north-east. I am informed by Dr. S. K. Banerji that the south-west
monsoon, in its present form, apparently commenced to be established
at the close of the Wurm glaciation. The present system of monsoon,
according to Dr. Banerji, must have developed when the Himalayas
attained a height of 10,000-15,000 ft., which is also roughly the depth
of the south-west monsoon.
_ When the Phocene Assam Gap in the Himalayas was filled up
and the Himalayas had attained a height of 10,000-15,000 ft., only
then could the monsoon rains produce torrential conditions in the
Himalayas favouring the dispersal of the torrential fishes coming from
the east. Evidently, this period is limited to about 20,000 years and
thus there has not been sufficient time for the so-called Malayan
—
RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA - 187
forms to spread their range westwards along the Himalayas. Our
present stud.es have shown that a gradual spread westwards is taking
place, for instance, Amblyceps has already gone as far as the Kangra
Valley and Psilorhynchus as far as Delhi. Several other forms have
been found in the Kosi and Gandak drainage systems. Mr. A. G. K.
Menon is working on this peonlem and his results will be published
shortly elsewhere.
CONCLUSION
I have so far discussed the fish geography of India, but now in
conclusion I wish to point out in what respects advances have been
made in elucidation of the palaeography of India.
The. Assam Link.—During the Triassic period when there were
only two large continents, the Angara and the Gondwana, separated
from each other by seas for the greater part of their coast
lines, there was a land connection between them over the Assam
region. This connection seems to have persisted up to the upper
Eocene when a transgression of the Bay of Bengal separated them.
The marine gap thus created continued in existence till the Pliocene
when brackishwater marshy conditions set in. The true land connection
seems to have been established again in the Pleistocene but it was not
until about 20,000 years ago that the Himalayas in this region covered
the gap with high mountain ranges.
The Dismemberment of the Gondwana Continent.—The Gondwana
Continent seems to have started breaking up in Eocene and by Upper
Eocene Australia had separated off. Not very long after but still
within the Upper Eocene, South America became separated from Africa.
Though Africa also got separated from India for the greater part of
its extent but retained a connection with India in the north-east, up to
the middle pleistocene.
The Palaeo-Climates of India.—Both during the Upper Triassic
and Jurassic periods there was intense desiccation so that all aquatic
forms seem to have died out. Recolonization seems to have occurred
again and_again so long as the ‘Assam Link’ existed. The monsoon,
as it is established at present, commenced only about 20,000 years
ago when the Himalayas had attained a height of 10,000-15,000 ft.
and the gap in the Assam region had been walled up. There were
five well-defined periods of glaciation which gave India pluvial con-
ditions and converted its plains into plateaux owing to the eustatic
movements of the sea.
The Deccan Traps.—The lava flows, that have given us the Deccan
Traps, seem to have commenced in the late Cretaceous period and
continued at long intervals up to the Upper Eocene. They annihilated
the flora and fauna during each active phase and the intervals between
successive flows were of sufficiently long duration to permit of coloni-
zation by plants and animals.
The Peninsular Tilt and the Indo-Brahm.—It is postulated that the
tilting of the Peninsular Block and the dismemberment of the Indo-
Brahm occurred simultaneously about 250,000 years ago. The
Mahanadi and the Godavari were flowing north-westwards before
the tilt and the drainage of Assam then discharged into the large
188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
river, the Indo-Brahm, that flowed into the Arabian sea. The Indo-
Brahm River is shown to be a successor of the Siwalik Gulf, thus the
two views of the geologists are reconciled. It is also postulated that
the Ganga and the Mahanadi had a common delta during the last two
phases of glaciation.
REFERENCES
Hora, S. L. (1947): Torrential Fishes and the significance of their Distribution
in Zoo-Geographical studies. Bull. Nat. Geogr. Soc. India, 7; 1-10.
—— — — (1951): Some observations on the palaeogeography of the Garo-
Rajmahal Gap as evidenced by the distribution of the Malayan fauna and flora
to Peninsular India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 17; 437-444.
— — — (1952): Fish Distribution and Central Asian uplift. (In Press).
Hora, S. L. and Mathur, B. (1952): On certain palaeogeographical features
of Rajasthan as evidenced by the distribution of fishes. Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci.
India, 1.
Hora, S. L.. and Menon, A. G. K. (1952): Distribution of Indian Fishes of the
Past and their bearing on the Geography of India. 1. The Extinct Freshwater
Dipnoan and Ganoid Fishes of India. Everyday Science, 1. (In Press).
Menon, A. G. K. (1951): Further studies regarding Hora’s Satpura Hypothesis.
1. The role of the Eastern Ghats in the distribution of the Malayan fauna
and flora to Peninsular India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 11; 475-497.
Silas, E. G. (1952): Further studies regarding Hora’s Satpura Hypothesis. 2.
Taxonomic Assessment and Levels of Evolutionary Divergences of fishes with
the so-called Malayan affinities in Peninsular India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India,
18; 223-248.
A NOTE ON SOME NATURAL BARRIERS IN BURMA
BY
J. M. D. Macxenziz, 1.¥.s. (Retd.)
(With a map)
This paper was drafted before I saw Smythies’s ‘Birds of Burma’.
His introduction contains a scheme for dividing Burma into a number
of faunal districts. I am not a systematist, and do not really under-
stand the relative importance of various differences, generic, specific
and subspecific. I tried to make lists of birds peculiar to one or more
of his districts and could not do so even to my own Satisfaction.
While I agree that there are such areas, I am not competent to deal
with them. I therefore reverted to my original intention, to discuss
the barriers which separate certain areas of which I have experience
rather than the areas themselves and their fauna.
Col. J. K. Stanford was good enough to lend me reprints of his
various papers about the birds of north-east Burma. While they
settled any remaining doubts about my ability to deal properly with
faunal areas in Burma, combined with Smythies they left me uncertain
about the relationship between natural barriers and distribution limits.
Factors limiting distribution are many. One curious case is the
— Elf Owl Micropallas whitneyi in arid North America. It nests in the
holes of two woodpeckers, Centurus uropygialis and Colaptes chry-
soides mearnsi in giant cactus Cereus giganteus. The woodpeckers
make holes in other species and places, but the owls do not use them;
not all cactus areas are within the range of the woodpeckers, but
outside it the elf owl is not found (Allee, p. 234). Birds of really
high altitudes occur in north-east Burma only; it seems essential
for them to be near snow. The same applies to the Takin Budorcas
taxicolor. At the other extreme, many tropical Malaysian birds extend
into Burma in Tenasserim, sometimes as far north as Karenni. The
limiting factor seems to be temperature and/or humidity. In the
south there is no physical barrier although with the blood pheasants,
etc. in the north it might be held that the low ground—a comparative
term as their low limit seems to be about 7,000 ft.—forms a barrier
and prevents spreading. They must apparently have higher ground,
at least 10,000 ft. within reach. At lower altitudes, many hill species
do not descend below a certain level, often 2,500-3,000 ft., while
other forms do not go higher than this. The Dry Zone is a special
case where a few birds and the thamin Cervus eldi seem to be limited
to areas of excessively small rainfall, in fact to conditions nearing
those of a desert. .
A temperature or humidity change when it is a matter of latitude
is difficult to see as a physical barrier to the extension of the range
of a species. One requires at least a rainfall map with isotherms.
196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
The factor may operate on the animals themselves in that they do
not thrive outside certain limits, or on their food or their hab.tats.
Certain Hawaiian honey eaters, Drepanids, live in dense tropical rain
forest. A road was cleared through, and although they live on both
sides, they are said never to cross the gap. An American humming
bird Agyrtria boucardi, is common in one place for a month when
a particular flower is in bloom. In nearly 100 years it has not been
found elsewhere, nor in the other 11 months of the year (Griscom, p. 49,
73). There are other, similar cases. We can see a gap in dense-
forest or a blooming flower; they are limiting factors but hardly
natural barriers. (
The most obvious natural barrier is the sea. We can under-
stand that an animal cannot cross it unless it can fly—there are
exceptions, animals dispersed on drifting rubbish—and that powers
of flight must be of a special kind; but the willow warbler Phyllos-
copus trochilus for instance looks an unlikely candidate for crossing
the English Channel, and a small gull with a broken wing once swam
the Atlantic Ocean (Hickey, p. 38). In the case of penguins and
seals, etc., it 1s the land which is the barrier. The Amazon, and even
its bigger tributaries limit some birds, and Grand Canyon, a wrinkle
on the face of the earth a mile deep, has different subspecies of
some small mammals on each side. When we come to mountains,
we seem to be on solid ground. One cannot very well miss the
Himalayas, the Rockies or the Andes with their altitudinal changes
in vegetation. We can see these and the change in temperature may
be obvious in a day’s march. The same applies in a lesser degree
to the Chin Hills and the Maymyo plateau. But it is not a physical
impossibility for a bird or a mammal to cross mountains. They can
fly in short hops or walk the whole way—we do it ourselves. Small
warblers have been found dead at very great altitudes {18,000 ft.) on
migration, although many migration routes run along instead of over
hills. It is not the mountains in themselves which set limits, but the
conditions which they produce. It is the same with the Dry Zone;
the Irrawaddy-Chindwin valley is bounded -on the east and west by
high ground, but from the south northwards we get first tropical
conditions as far as Prome, then extreme aridity to Monywa followed
by a wet subtropical belt in the north, without any obvious physical
change in altitude or conformation.
One is driven to the rather illogical conclusion that a natural
barrier must be something which can be seen and which is a natural
feature which can be shown to limit the range of a number of. species.
Latitudinal changes in temperature are gradual while the tolerances
of different species vary; so their limits also vary and do not result
in the more or less definite demarcation line found with altitudinal
changes. This does not perhaps apply to the far north where a certain
isotherm not very much above freezing point thaws the ground and/
or allows vegetation and insects to become active and so provides
cover and food which is absent below it.
A mountain range, while it is a barrier to plains species, forms a
dispersal route for those of higher altitudes, and the same is true
of other barriers.
ae 4 A rq”
‘ a bak des i
L
Sia?
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Mt Victoria
Nt)
a
Rangoon Mou! mein
4 NOTE ON SOME NATURAL BARRIERS IN BURMA 191
at
INTRODUCTION
“a. General
When stationed in the Upper Chindwin Forest Division, Burma,
1912-15, I collected eggs which are mostly in Stuart Baker’s collec-
tion in the British Museum, and also made collections of mammal
skins for the Society’s Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon.
They came mainly from between the Chindwin and the Manipur
boundary, which here runs along the ridge of the Chin Hills, but
included some from the east bank of the river. Shortridge and
Macmillan, the Society’s collectors, came to the district for about
three months in 1914, and I handed over to them about too skins
which contained some new species, e.g. Callosciurus macmillant.
Unfortunately my name was erased or cut out from the labels, which
makes it necessary to see them to identify the skins by the writing, the
date and the locality, as I was using Shortridge’s printed labels.
I have seen some in the British Museum, including the type of
C. macmillani. |
b. Geography
To understand the problem, a sketch map is given, simplified to
_ bring out the essentials. The Chindwin-Irrawaddy -Valley—broken
ground with swamps but all under 2,000 ft. elevation—thrusts itself
up to or nearly up to the Hukawng Valley. It is about 100-150
miles wide, including the two flood plains, that west of the Chindwin
not being very wide. From a point north of Monywa nearly down
to Prome, the rainfall is very low, 8-12 in. only, and temperatures
are very high, up to 120°F. at times. This is the Dry Zone, with
profoundly modified vegetation, which is an even more formidable
barrier to the dispersal of hill species than the wetter and cooler
low ground in the north and south with about 80 in. of rain.
The hills form an elongated horse-shoe: from the north of the
Hukawng Valley, the Naga Hills, Manipur and the Chin Hills run
down to Mt. Victoria (10,400 ft.) on the west at heights of 5,o00-
7,000 ft., with Saramati in the north, 12,500 ft., unexplored in 1915?.
To the south this ridge is continued at a lower level as the Arakan
Yomas. To the west lie the Khasia Hills, with no considerable
rivers between, forming part of the same mountain mass. To the
east, the Kachin Hills, the Shan States and Karenni are parts of
a similar ridge or plateau of high altitude, very high indeed in the
north-east where altitudes are greater than in the west. There are
various high points over 5,000 ft. at least down to the level of Moulmein
where Muleyit Mountain is 6,300 ft. Others are Thandaung, near
Toungoo, and Taunggyi. East of this again lies the Salween river and
beyond that the Mekong; the high ground between these rivers may
give another dispersal route for hill species. The mountains north
and west of the Hukawng Valley run into the Himalayan system,
and to the east, into the Chinese mountains.
1 Still largely so.—Ebs.
192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
A cross-section anywhere across the Irrawaddy-Chindwin Valley
gives much the same features: High ground over 3,000 ft. to the
west, the Naga-Chin Hills; then 150 mies of ground under 2,000
ft., the valley, followed by the Kachin-Shan ridges and plateaux.
To the east again is the Salween with a high ridge beyond it and the
Mekong beyond that again.
Between the Manipur-Chin Hills ridge and the Chindwin, the Yu
and Myittha rivers form the Kabaw Valley and its extension to the
south, low lying flats with a ridge of hills not over 3,000 ft., the
Yomas, between them and the Chindwin. (Yoma is the generic term
in Burmese for any ridge or hills.) The Chindwin Yomas are well
wooded and with the Kabaw Valley, serve to isolate the Chin Hills
high level fauna; that of the Yomas is of a low altitude type.
There are no big towns in the west, Kampetlet, Haka, Falam and
Fort White being in 1915 little more than Military Police posts,
although Imphal in Manipur is bigger. In the east, Kalaw, Taunggyl,
Maymyo and Mogok are all big towns from which collections have
been made.
In the Dry Zone, Mt. Popa, 5,000 ft., forms an island habitat
with comparatively high rainfall.
The Chindwin is shorter than the Irrawaddy, and was said by
captains of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company to be faster. It is sug-
gested by Shortridge (Wroughton, 1916 a) that islands formed in
the Irrawaddy by cutting out bends were connected first with one bank
and then with the other, thus allowing animals to pass over the
river. Such islands are certainly uncommon on the Chindwin if they
have existed at all to an important degree. I have seen what was
reputed to be one of them on the Irrawaddy, where a big bend had
been short-circuited and later joined up to the opposite bank, a cold
weather land bridge being formed in a very short time. All appear-
ances pointed to this having occurred, and if so a considerable bit
of land, 2 or 3 square miles, had been transferred from one bank
to the other, with its inhabitants. Whatever the reason, the Chindwin
acts as a natural barrier to the distribution of squirrels; with one
small exception noted below, the species and subspecies occurring
on each bank are distinct. The Chindwin, although not as big as
the Amazon, is still a big river, and it is fast.
But in the same area there is another type of barrier. The flood
plains of the two rivers, separated by over roo miles of low-lying
land, cut off the hills on the west from those in the east, and the
only high ground link is through the Hukawng Valley in the north.
This effectively limits the distribution of animals living at 3,000 ft.
and over.
CoIDISOCRPSAIL IXOUPOCE
From this it will be seen that the normal routes for dispersal are
north and south. The western ranges, Naga-Manipur-Chin Hills,
with Mt. Victoria and the Arakan Yomas, join the west end of the
Hukawng Valley mountains. From the east of this valley, the snow-
capped tops of the northern mountains near Fort Hertz (Putao) run
A NOTE ON SOME NATURAL BARRIERS IN’ BURMA 193
south with the high points mentioned above right down to Muleyit
Mountain, the Kachin Hills, Shan States and Karenni. Except for
Stanford’s papers on the birds to the north and east of Myitkyina,
I have not seen much from this area; I have no good library available.
The Vernay-Cutting expedition made extensive mammal collections in
the north-east. There is more than one route south giving isolation
for differentiation in the Irrawaddy-Salween and Salween-Mekong
ridges. .
2. SQUIRRELS
Thomas and Wroughton (1916 a) give a list of squirrels found on
each bank of the Chindwin. This, amended by subsequent papers
(Thomas, 1916, c and d) is given in Table 1. Except for Ratufa the
squirrels have all been massed as Callosciurus by Ellerman who has
been followed here. Ratufa gigantea is found on both sides of the
Chindwin in the north, and Lord Cranbrook tells me that he saw
these animals (and gibbons) almost daily up to a pass about 6,500 ft.
between the drainages of the Mali-Kha and the N’mai Kha, the west
and east branches of the Irrawaddy. Although no barrier was appa-
mene neither of them was seen or heard beyond this point. In the
south on’ the Chindwin Ratufa splits into R. g. lutrina on the west
and k. g. fellii on the east, the latter being a light coloured animal
probably produced by the conditions of the Dry Zone; on the west,
they spread into the hills, but on the east they are confined between
the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin and so are isolated. The Irrawaddy
seems to be a barrier for this big squirrel.. All the other squirrels
are found on one bank or the other only, except for C.. mearsi virgo
at Homalin. The species probably crosses on rafts or boats; I have
seen similar ground squirrels elsewhere on bamboo rafts when tied
up to the bank; they are sometimes very long and the animal is
found round villages and huts so is accustomed to man. Coming
down the Chindwin in flood, I have seen very big rafts of rubbish,
in extreme cases perhaps an acre in extent, and on them were snakes,
lizards, rats and possibly other animals. They may be stable enough
to bear a man. I have seen a tiger, a pig, two barking deer and
tame elephants swimming in mid-stream, but doubt whether anything
‘smaller could cross alive in this way.
. These squirrels show the Chindwin as a barrier to their spread.
‘The river varies considerably in width both from place to place and
with the season, from a quarter of a mile to well over a mile.
The narrowest places are gorges where the river cuts. through a
ridge, and here the two sets ef squirrels (Table 1) come to within
about 4oo yds. of each other without mixing. But it is not at
such places that rubbish rafts will lodge as the current is too strong
it is the wider stretches which provide shallows suitable for ea:
ing. Here there are usually big areas of elephant grass (kaing)
on ground flooded when the river is high, which. offer an almost
insurmountable obstacle to reaching the trees beyond them. Squirrels
can also jump considerable distances and so have every chance to
get ashore again when the raft first floats. They are more active
than snakes or rats.
13
194. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
3. OTHER SPECIES
In the Chin Hills, I collected considerable numbers of rats (Thomas,,
1916 b and Wroughton, 1916 b). Of these, Rattus manipulus is.
confined to the western hills. All the specimens in the British Museum
are from the Chin and Naga group except one, collected by Wickham
on Mt. Victoria, which is only an extension of the same ridge. There
are 3 skins of R. nitidus obsoletus (Hinton, 1918), all collected by
me in the Chin Hills. R. bowersi mackenziet has been collected
in the Chin Hills, the Naga Hills and the Khasia Hills. There are
two skins which want comment. One was collected by S. F.
Hopwood and the locality on the label is ‘Kindat, Chin Hills’. In reports.
this has been shortened to ‘Kindat’, which was on the west bank
and then the headquarters of the forest division covering the north
Chin Hills. Hopwood (not to be confused with J. C. Hopwood) was.
working near the Chin Hills, 20 to 30 miles west of Kindat, and in
three years collecting from Kindat, I did not get this species any-
where in the plains or near Kindat, so I think this specimen came
from the same locality as my own, the Chin Hills and not Kindat.
The other is a rat collected by Lord Cranbrook, B.M. No. 32.11,
1.83, named R. b. mackenziei and labelled ‘Hills E. of Nam Tisang’.
This again is shortened to ‘Nam Tisang’ in reports. He.tells me
that he went north from Myitkyina, and most of his things came from
the Adung Valley, 28°10’ N. and 97°40’ E., just east of the Hukawng
Valley, near Putao (Fort Hertz). The skin is listed by Ellerman
as the only mackenziei skin with the hindfoot not under 52 mm.; it
is 52 mm. The hindfeet of R. bowersi feae are given as 51-52 mm..
but there are or were then only two known specimens, one in the
British Museum the type, a spirit specimen, and one in Genoa. 1
am not qualified to name a disputed rat, but on the hindfoot and
perhaps the skull plus the distribution probabilities I think this
specimen of Cranbrook’s is either the third known skin of R. b. feae
or a new subspecies.
So we have three rats confined to the Chin-Naga-Khasia hill
group to the west of Burma. They are all hill species and presum-.
ably the barrier to their spread is the Chindwin-Irrawaddy flood plains
and valley. The typical FR. bowersi bowersi seems to have a wider
distribution, including the general area of mackenziei in the west and
feae in the east. I got skins from the same camps as mackenziei but
have no data as to the possible niches of the two subspecies. It
might be elevation as specimens came from above and below my camps.
at about 3,000 ft., both were said by the Chins to be jungle as
opposed to village rats, and to be found near shifting cultivation,
but they might differ in preference for, e.g. trees and actual culti-
vation. The Chins ate them both and say they resemble chicken.
The same type of distribution is found in many birds: for instance.
Phasianus humiae humiae in the west and P. h. burmanicus in the-
east; | Trochalopteron phoeniceum bakeri and ripponni; Trochalopteron
erythrocephalum erythrolaema and woodi; these two seem doubtful,
but have been separated.| Janthocincla cineracea cineracea and
styant; Dryonastes galbanus and sannio; Garrulus leucotis oatesi and”
leucotis, and many others. Some butterflies and other insects are-
A NOTE ON SOME NATURAL BARRIERS IN BURMA 19E
limited in the same way, and there may well be other differences in
both animals and plants.
In 1914-15, I made small botanical collections in the Chin Hills},
some of which were damaged when a porter fell into a flooded Fiver
and was nearly drowned. Most of the specimens were trees and
shrubs. <A good botanist (I think either C. G. Rogers or H. H. Haines)
told me that they seemed to be allied with India rather than with
Burma-Malaya-China, but I have no further details about them and
cannot trace the collection which was made officially and presumably
went to Dehra Dun. Dr. Frank Kingdon Ward very kindly tells me
in a letter that in the north, there are a fair number of identical
species in the Alpine regions of Burma and Assam, from the Himalayas
to China. But Primula filipes and P. sherriffiana are found both
sides of the Assam Valley (Himalayas and the Naga-Manipur hills)
and neither has been found east of the Chindwin. Rhododendron
arizelum -is found in the north of Burma, extending. westwards to
Tsangpo further north still, and is replaced by R. macabeanum west
of the Chindwin. The lilies east and west are different, Liliwm mack-
linae (Manipur) and P. nepalense and L. wallichianum (Assam
Himalaya) being replaced by L. primuliniwm and ‘L. bakerianum east
of the Chindwin. He thinks that the flora of Manipur (and hence of
the Chin Hills) differs considerably from that of the Htawgaw area in
north-west Burma at corresponding altitudes. The former is more
closely related to the Himalayan flora across the Assam Valley than
to the Chinese flora across the Chindwin and Salween Valleys. The
Htawgaw flora is markedly Chinese. There is a wind gap at 4,000 ft.
where the Chindwin turns west in the Hukawng Valley, between that
valley and the Assam Valley. It may be that a much larger river
than the Chindwin, perhaps the Dihang, flowed through it in glacial
or pre-glacial times and constituted a formidable barrier to spread.
I have been unable to get anything definite about trees, except
that although the pines east and west are considered at present to
be the same, their resins are different. It has also been suggested
that the Dipterocarps and wild mangoes are different, but I have
not been able to find a forest botanist with the requisite special
knowledge of the two areas to take this further and give names.
There is a consensus of opinion that there is a difference in the trees,
and I have to thank those who have answered my questions to the
best of their ability. The old Burma Forest Service now being
scattered all over the world, it is difficult to get into touch.
As regards insects, Brig. W. H. Evans has most kindly given me
the following in a letter. Capt. E. V. Watson divides butterflies.
into three groups:
1. Low elevations up to 2,000 ft. 288 species.
2. High elevations over 2,000 ft. 92 species.
3. All elevations, 67 species.
Group 1 is typically Burmese; one-third are Burmese not reaching
India; one-sixth are north-east Indian, not going further south or
east; the rest typical of Burma and India.
+ A list of the plants collected is filed at Kew Gardens.
196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Group 2 is almost entirely east Himalayan. Only 7 out of the
92 reach Malaya. )
Group 3: 64 fly throughout Burma, 3 do not go south of the
Chin Hills. Of the 64, 2 do not go further north, 42 are of universal
distribution. Four reach the west Himalayas, and 4) only reach the
north-east Himalayas.
A good many north-east Indian species have been found in the
Karen Hills and Shan States and vice versa, but always with a more
or less intensified subspecific difference. Specific instances are:
Teinopalpus imperialis imperialis becomes T. i. imperatrix; Euploea
Rlugu becomes E. crassa; Euthalia julii appiades becomes E. J.
xiphiones.
Brigadier Evans also tells me that two Chinese butterflies occur
in the Chin Hills. They are common at Ta Tsien Lou in Szechwan
and occur nowhere else in India or Burma. They are Carterocephalus
dieckmanni at Fort White and Abraximorpha davidii on Mt. Victoria.
The special interest of this is that I obtained a flying squirrel,
Petaurista sybilla in the Chin Hills, a female and one young one
from a nest. The only closely related species come from China.
They seem to have followed the high hills round the north of the
Hukawng Valley and come down the Naga-Chin Hills into Burma,
perhaps living at a lower altitude in the Chin Hills than in the north,
as some birds do.
4. CLINES
Another point comes out especially from the squirrels. Apart from
distinct species on the two banks, there are a number of colour clines.
The most striking of these is Callosciurus sladeni of which the typical
form is found at Kindat and extends eastwards. To the north,
millardi, haringtoni, careyi, fryanus, and shortridgei are first succes-
sively paler, almost to cream, and then go back to grey. To the
south the red in sladeni develops it into a bright red animal, rubex.
There is a good colour plate of these animals in the Society’s Journal,
XXIV, 1916. Huxley (1942) refers to them on p. 219 and 227, saying
that there are two colour clines separated by a tributary, presumably
the Uyu, which is not very big, but has areas of elephant grass.
I am not a taxonomist, but for the field worker it is desirable to
have a method of distinguishing clearly between a red, an iron grey,
a cream and an olive grey animal.
Another cline is Callosciurus erythraeus on the west bank; from
south to north, kinneari, nagarum and crotalus occur, and there is
more than one form of each of Ratufa gigantea, C. rufigenis, C. mearsi
and C. macclellandi, the old genera Tomeutes, Dremomys and
Tamiops for which I have an old-fashioned hankering.
It seems that when distribution or spread is coneentric and extends
in all directions, the development of variations is prevented or at
least retarded by the ability of the stock to mix with others round it.
But when a linear barrier is reached, this ability to spread and mix
is restricted and consequently variations have a better chance to become
fixed. |
It has been suggested that the colour changes in C. sladeni are
related to the different bark on trees in each area. I did not make
A NOTE ON SOME NATURAL BARRIERS IN BURMA . 197
observations on this point, but my recollection is that the trees remain
very much the same throughout the 250 miles over which this cline
exists. The play of shadows in such jungle creates a broken pattern
on a self-coloured animal when at rest, and when moving, the ability
of all squirrels to disappear round a tree is astonishing. Unlike an
animal living in a grassy plain, a squirrel is never more than a few
feet, usually only a foot, from the complete cover from observers or
predators which is afforded by a tree trunk or a big branch. I have
never ceased to be surprised at the way in which squirrels with an
apparently obvious colouration can disappear completely in a moment ;
the red squirrel in Great Britain is an adept at it. Procryptic colour-
ation is perhaps not of great importance on this account, and the
tail is another thing which disturbs the aim of predators. Colour
changes in these animals may therefore not be associated with habitat
changes.
Een DIES) CAUESESEILONN
The Chindwin-Irrawaddy drainage illustrates a number of points
about barriers and limits. It lies ‘in an elongated horseshoe of
mountains, separated by low ground and running into the Himalayas
in the west and into China in the east. These high hills are the
primary feature of the drainage, and form both a barrier to the spread
of plains species in the middle and a dispersal route for those of the
hills. To take the hills first, the plains in the middle isolate the two
sides from each other, and there are many differences in the eastern
and western subspecies. This is not only shown by birds, but by
mammals, insects and plants at least. ‘Rattus bowers: is a hill species
with mackenziei in the west and feae in the east, and R. b. bowersi
in both. R. manipulus does not extend to the east, but is found in
the Khasia Hills. Some squirrels are confined to the hills, e.g.
C. macmillani, on the west only. Dryonastes is a laughing thrush with
several species: D. sannio on the east and galbanus on the west between
roughly 2,000 and 5,000 ft. D. ruficollis is found in the centre plain
below 2,000 ft. Above 5,000 ft., D. caerulatus occurs in the east
and at least in the Naga Hills and Manipur in the west. If it does
not occur in the Chin Hills, it may be because the ground over
5,000 ft. is limited. But of the other three, sannio and galbanus
are separated physically by the low ground while ruficollis is isolated
by perhaps a more ecological barrier, its preference for low ground.
It appears to be limited to the south by the Dry Zone. The distinc-
tion is perhaps more apparent than ‘real as a preference for habitats
between 2,000 ft. and 5,000 ft. might be thought to be ecological
also. In the north-east where mountains are higher, Stanford records
‘species which are absent from the west, such as the blood pheasants,
Ithagenes. YVhey are limited to ground higher than that in the west.
It is well known that ranges of hills isolate hill species and tend to
cause differences to develop.
In the plains and foothills the situation is somewhat different.
There are considerable climatic differences between the north and
the south, and the Dry Zone seems to be a barrier to some species ;
it has a small number of species peculiar to itself. But while there
is no barrier in the north to the spread of birds within the plain
198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
(which includes foothills), for squirrels and perhaps other animals,
the river Chindwin isolates the different species on each side. For
reasons suggested above the Irrawaddy is not a barrier, except to
Ratufa g. fellu. So while it may be true to say that certain species
occur on the east or west of the Chindwin, this does not cover the whole
facts. The boundary is in some cases the river and in some the
foothills on either side of the plain. In the north-east there is an
altitude limit at heights not found in the west. The edge of the
Dry Zone may be another barrier, and especially in the south-east,
the barrier to the spread northwards of some tropical birds (and
mammals) seems to be an undefined climatic combination and varies
considerably for different species.
TABLE I
West Bank River East Bank
Chindwin.
Hkamti. Boyray INhs Se SSRI)? 1%,
0 miles,
Callosciurus erythraeus crotalus Callosciurus sladent shortridget
% mearst virgo teal similis owenst.
*; stevenst a! rutigents optimus
me (Tamiops) macclel -
landz.
Ratuta g. gigantea. Ratuta g. gigantea.
Zo miles.
C. sladent fryanus.
65 miles.
C. evythraeus nagarum. C. sladent careyt.
85 miles.
C. (Tamiops) mantpurensts. C. sladent haringtont
105 miles.
C. mearst virgo.
C. sladent millardz.
C. mearst virgo
160 miles,
—C. e. kinnearz.
C. macmillani C. rufigents adamsont.
C. mearsz bellona |
C. pernyt. i) 5
Ratuta g. lutrina
180 miles.
C, sladeni sladent.
250 | miles.
C. mearst mearst. C. sladeni rubex.
| Ratuta g. tetlit.
300 | miles.
C. pygerythrus janetta
Also on west bank: Also on east bank :
Rattus bowerst mackenziet. Rattus bowerst teae.
Rattus nittidus obsoletus. :
Rattus mantpulus.
Note. Species etc. are only shown above when they change.
A NOTE ON SOME NATURAL BARRIERS IN BURMA 199
REFERENCES
Allee, W. C. et. al. (1949): Principles of Animal Ecology. W. B. Saunders.
Ellerman, J. R. (1940-49): The Families and genera of Living Rodents, Vols.
W and III. London. Trustees of the British Museum.
Griscom, L. (1947): Modern Bird Study. Harvard University Press.
Hickey, J. J. (1943): A Guide to Bird Watching. Oxford University Press.
Hinton, M. A. C. (1918): Report on the House Rats of India, Burma and
Ceylon. J.B.N.H.S., 26; 59, 384, 716, 906.
Huxley, J. S. (1942): Evolution: The Modern Synthesis. Harper. New York.
Stanford, J. K. and Ticehurst, C. B. (1935): Notes on some new or rarely
recorded Burmese Birds. Ibis, 1935; 38-65, 249-279.
— — — (1938-39): On the Birds of Northern Burma. Ibis, 1938, 65-102,
197-229, 391-428, 559-638; 1939, 1-45, 211-258.
Stanford, J. K. and Mayr, E. (1940-41): The Vernay-Cutting Expedition to
eae Burma. Ibis, 1940, 679-711; 1941, 56-105, 213-245, 353-378 and
Stanford, J. K. (1941): Some Ornithological Results of the Vernay-Cutting
Expedition of 1938-39 to Northern Burma. J.B.N.H.S., 42; 242-254.
Thomas, O. (1916 b): Two New Indian Bats. Scientific Results from the
Mammal Survey, No. XIII, J.B.N.H.S., 2%; 415-417.
— — — (1916 c): On Squirrels of the Genus Dremomys. Ibid. 24; 417-418.
Thomas, O. and Wroughton, R. C. (1916 d): The Squirrels of the Tomeutes
tokroides and mearsi group. Ibid., 24; 419-422.
— — — (1916 a): On the Squirrels obtained by Messrs. Shortridge and
Macmillan on the Chindwin River, Upper Burma. Scientific Results from the
Mammal Survey, No. XII. Ibid., 24; 224-229.
Watson, E. Y. (1897): Notes on a Collection of Butterflies from the Chin
Hills and Upper Chindwin district. J.B.N.H.S., 10; 634-687.
Wroughton, R. C. (1916 a): B. N. H. S. Mammal Survey of India, Burma
and Ceylon, Report, No, XX, J.B.N.H.S., 24; 291-300.
— — — (1916 b): do. Report No. XXV. Ibid. 24; 758-773.
FINN’S BAYA (PLOCEUS MEGARHYNCHUS HUME)
BY
HuMAyun ABDULALI
I recently had the opportunity of examining a weaver bird sent
to the Bombay Natural History Society by the Victoria Gardens,
Bombay, where it had died in captivity in September 1949. Its
provenance was unknown. ‘The underparts of this specimen are yellow
from chin to lower belly and it also has a yellowish wash on the
head, thereby agreeing with the published description of Finn’s Baya
(Ploceus megarhynchus). It was sexed as a female on dissection.
An examination of the literature available indicates that much of
the mystery and confusion that surrounds this species stems from the
doubts cast upon O’Donel’s records of Ploceus megarhynchus breed-
ing in the Duars. In 10933, Whistler writing in “The Vernay
Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats’ (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, p. 882-883)
observed that while. Hume’s type and co-type, ‘two females or males
in winter plumage’, were large and could not be matched in a large
series of philippinus and burmanicus, the series of skins from the
Duars in the British Museum as well as ‘others given or loaned to me
by Mr. H. V. O’Donel and Mr. Inglis belong beyond dispute to
burmanicus. ‘The series of ‘skins presented by O’Donel to the
Bombay Natural History Society can no longer be traced.’
In 1935 Salim Ali visited Kaladoongi ca. 500 ft. (the type locality)
in search of -this species, but failed to find it. He however re-
scrutinised the literature and had a fresh search made in the
Society’s collections which now revealed. four weaver birds collected
y O’Donel in the Duars, one female in 1912 and three birds in 1925.
These were sent to Whistler who identified them all as burmanicus
including the ro12 female. Concerning the last mentioned specimen
his report. reads in part: ‘the crown and nape and sides ‘of the face
are olive brown strongly ‘washed with yellow and _ practically
unstreaked, these parts contrasting with the rest of the upper
plumage. The chin, throat, breast and flanks are largely” canary
yellow. In all other respects the bird agrees entirely with the rest
of the series, and I have no doubt that it is the same form buymanicus.
I have a female of Ploceus p. philippinus which has much yellow
on it of a similar type and this evidently merely means that some
particularly vigorous female assumes an incipient breeding plumage.’
On the identity of these specimens O’Donel’s records of :P.
megarhynchus breeding in the Duars, quoted by Stuart Baker in the
Fauna and Nidification, were dismissed by Whistler as incorrect.
A fresh examination of the Society’s collection now reveals 2 more
weavers collected by O’Donel in 1912 on the same date and in the same
Attention might here be drawn to Finn’s note in tthe Journal of the Asiatic
Sue of Bengal 1899, p. 251 ‘There are in ithe Indian Museum several speci-
mens of P. atrigula (=p. burmanicus) showing an admixture of yellow with the
buff of the breast, some of them procured by myself in Calcutta alive and kept
so for a time to see if they would develop more of the yellow colour which they
did not.’
FINN’S BAYA (PLOCEUS MEGARHYNCHUS HUME) 201
locality as the above Q@—(Nos. 3 and 5 on the accompanying’ list).
Together, these specimens seem to form a series obtained from the
same breeding colony. ‘All the three birds were originally diagnosed
as passerinus -|=burmanicus| as shown on the labels in Kinnear’s
handwriting. The male, however, has later been corrected on the
label to megarhynchus in Stuart Baker’s handwriting and over his
initials. There seems to me no doubt that this specimen, as well as
the other two, are in fact not burmanicus but Ban CRUS (or an
undescribed species ?).
O’Donel’s claim that his Duars breeding colony belonged to P.
megarhynchus 1s supported by his description of the nests. ‘The
colony’ he says, “was in a vast area of grass more or less intermixed
with scrub, and the nests were larger. than those of manyar and
were loosely and carelessly put together with no lining, and attached
te the stems of grasses, sometimes several. The colony consisted
of at least 20 pairs but was loosely scattered’.
Incidentally it may be mentioned that the Bhutan Duars are
only a few hundred feet above sea-level and there is so far no
evidence of this species breeding at 3,000-4,000 ft. as suggested in
the Fauna.
Another possible source of doubt and error concerning the species
megarhynchus has also suggested itself:
At a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1899, Finn
exhibited two eee specimens of a weaver- purchased from a Mr.
W. Rutledge (of Entally), and described them as a new species
under the name P. rutledgiu. They were described as similar to the
imale Or 1? passerinus in breeding plumage but easily distinguishable
by their larger size and entirely yellow undersurface. Finn added:
‘both have the same coloration and are of about the same size, but
as one has a stouter head and is brighter than the other and con-
stantly sings, it is possible they are male and female, and that the
sexes will prove to be similar in the species.’ At a later date when
the birds went into winter plumage: ‘both specimens similar, but
one was slightly duller than the other and also slenderer in make’,
Finn decided that they were in reality Hume’s megarhynchus, and
his rutledgii therefore became a synonym. One or both these birds
were presumably sent to London, because specimen No. 23704, now
in the Indian Museum marked co and in undress plumage, bears
the legend on its label ‘Exhibited in 1899, purchased from W.
Rutledge whose supplier obtained it from Naini Tal area’. Another
skin (presumably the second of . Finn’s original rutledgii) marked
‘Indian Museum No. 24746. Zoological, Society’s Gardens London,
recd. 18-6-1901 . died 1-7-1904’, is no’ longer available in the
Indian Museum. The information concerning it is from Salim Ali
who obtained it on loan from the Zoological Survey of India in 1935
and in addition to examining and measuring it, also made,a colour
sketch of the skin. :
Now, Stuart Baker in Nidification states that the only eggs known
are those laid by Jamrach’s birds in captivity on September roth,
1901, which would be well within the life span of the above two
specimens. Piecing the data together, I am inclined to hazard a
guess that Rutledge’s (Finn’s) birds reached the Zoological Society,
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Date and Source Origin Sex Ae Wing Tail Tarsus | Remarks
. £3
ae
| a } EN
1, Dec. 1866 A. O. Hume .. | Kaladoongi, below ; 21:5 mm. 77 mm. 56 mm. oo Both in non-breeding plumage ori-
% Naini Tal ginally referred to as females,
Type sp. in B.M. | but this has been queried by
2. Dec. 1866 A, O. Hume ... | Kaladoongi, below ? 22mm. | 805mm. $9 mm. C09 | Whistler.
Naini Tal
Cotype in B.M.
3. 25th May, 1912 H. V. O’Donel Bhutan Duars. ¢ 23 mm. 83 mm. 59 mm. 25mm, _ | Marked megarhynchus by E.C.S.B.
: j B.N.H.S. Collec- This is the brightest yellow of
tion. | | all. The yellow cap does not
| extend to the nape. Underparis
| | | all yellow except vent. Rump
| brown; yellow margin to one
feather on back.
4. 25th May, 1912 H. V. O’Donel Bhutan Duars 2 20 mm. 74 mm. 55 mm, 23mm. | Yellow wash on forehead and
B.N.H.S. Col. | | distinct pale yellow on chin,
throat and breast.
§. 25th May. 1912 H. V. O’Donel Bhutan Duars g 20 mm. 76 mm. 55 mm, 24mm Yellow wash on crown; less
: B.N.H.S. Col. | yellow on underparts than in 4;
| | | lower belly white.
Nos, 3, 4 and 5 are acknowledged in the Journal, xxi, p. 1360 as P. passerinus
6. 12th Sept., 1949 Victoria Gardens. ie, (9) 20 mm. 73mm. |525mm. |23'5mm. |Yellow wash on head; pale
Bombay. Died in yellow from chin to lower belly;
captivity me vent white. . .
7. 19th Aug., 1936 Dr. S. C. Law’s ? é 23 mm. 80 mm. missing 24 mm. Yellow cap as bright as in 3, and
i ad Aviary, Calcutta. extending to nape; rumpand all
Died in captivity underparts including feathers
on legs yellow.
8. Ist July, 1904. {Indian Museum sp. ? Jo (?)| 205mm. | 835 mm. 56 mm. 23 mm. Upper tail coverts and all under-
No. 24746 marked parts yellow; upper plumage
* Zoological Socie- | drab brown, probably one of
ty’ss Gardens, two referred to by Finn and
London. Recd. unless other specimens are dis-
18-6-1901. Died: covered, *this or the next also
1-7-1904"- responsible for egg Iaid on 19th
Sept. 1901. .
Tor So
isxbipicoa 1
iss9— Purchased
Tarsus thaa 5"
from W. Rutledge Dr.
whose supplier ob- Survey of India advises:
tained it from | was kept more or less exposed
Naini Tal area’ — | | | for a good many years and this
may perhaps be the cause of the
present condition of our only
specimen,’
2nd May, 1950 Dr. W. Koelz «. | Agia, near é 21mm, 80 mm. 57 mm. 23 mm, In undress plumage with traces of
Goalpara, yellow on white chin and near
Assam. eye. Head not concolorous
with back, but browner.
11, 3rd May, 1950 Dr. W. Koelz .. | Agia, near é 22 mm. 82 mm. 59 mm. 26 mm, Yellow cap with undersurface
Goalpara, yellow except vent and under-
Assam. | tail coverts which white. Trace
| of yellow on back and upper
| tail coverts.
Nos, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11 are appreciably darker above than passerinus from Burma but can be matched with fAi/ippinus from India.
(a) Average measurements of all listed (11 specimens) «| 21:2 mm. { 78.7mm, | 56:°2mm, | 23:5 mm.
(20-23 mm,)} (73-83°5 (52°5-59 |(20-25 mm.)|
mm.) mm.) |
(6) Average measurements of four males (Nos. 3, 7,10 and J1) ... 23 mm, 81°5 mm. 59 mm. 24:5 mm.
(c) Average measurements of three females (Nos. 4,5 and6) ... 20 mm. 74:3 mm, 53:1 mm. 23-5 mm. |
(73-76 mm.)
(d) Average measurements of four others (Nos. 1, 2,8 and 9) ... 21 mm. 79'5mm. | 56°25 mm. | 21:5 mm.
: (20-22 mm,)} (77-83:5 |(54-59 mm.)
mm |
16-18 mm.-| 68-75 es 45-50 mm. | 19-20 mm.
16-18 mm, | 69-78 mm. | 46-50 mm. about
(very few be-| 20 mm.
low 72 mm.)
(e) Measurements of P. pAilippinus in Fauna, Vol. III. p. 68
(f) Measurements of P, passerinus in Fauna, Vol. Ill, p. 70
(g) Measurements of nine skins of P. p. burmanicus (=passerinus)
from Bengal and Assam in B.N.H.S. Coll. co 19'4 mm. 74 mm. 49'3 mm. 20:4 mm.
(18-20 mm, )|(70-76 mm.)| (45-56 mm.)|(19-22 mm.)
19°6 mm. 755mm. | 503mm. 21 mm.
19 mm. 713 mm. 476mm._|_20 mm.
In (g) and (A) are included 2 specimens which deserve mention
(1) A male collected by E. O. Shebbeare at Goalpara, Assam on 5th March 1910 measures: Bill 19 mm., wing 76 mm,; tail 56 mm. and
tarsus 22mm. The measurements overlap with megarhynchus but the coloration is typical of burmanicus.
(2) A male obtained from Calcutta market by the Indian Museum has unequal bright rufous patches on each side of the breast and traces of the
same colour on its upper-parts. This cannot be matched with anything in our collection. ‘I'he measurements agree with durmanicus: Bill 20 mm.; wing
73 mm. ; tail 49 mm. ; tarsus 20 mm.
* Dr. B. Biswas has referred me to two notes in the /dis, 1902, p. 169 and the Bulletin of the British Ornithological Club (1903), vol. 14,
pp. 23-24 in which Mr. E. W. Harper record§ a male of the large Indian Weaver-bird obtained from the Calcutta Bird Market said to have been bought
eu COED (300 miles south-east of Naini Tal), Mr. Harper adds that one of the specimens obtained by Finn ‘is still living ia the Parrot-house of
the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park. The Indian menagerie on view at Earl’s Court Exhibition last year contained 9 or 10 of these birds.’
It is interesting to note that so ma i i i i i i i
are now favailable: 4 ny were available at one time but there is no information as to how they were disposed of or if the skins
(2) Six males from above om on
(i) Three females from above ere
204. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NARU RAI ISIE YS OCTE DY SSViolnmp
London, via Jamrach (a dealer in wild birds and animals), and it was
in fact the doubtful ‘male’ illustrated by Finn [Jbis (1901), p. 32]
which laid the eggs referred to by Stuart Baker. |
I have taken this opportunity of examining, with the assistance
of Mr. J. Gabriel of the Prince of Wales Museum (Natural History
Section) all the specimens available in Bombay together with those
very kindly lent by the Zoological Survey of India, Dr. S. C. Law
and Dr. W. Koelz who recently obtained this species further east near
Goalpara in Assam. The measurements and notes are tabulated
on pp. 202-203.
The following position emerges from the investigation :
(i) P. megarhynchus differs from the other bayas in that the
female acquires a breeding plumage which is almost as bright yellow
on the underparts (from chin to lower abdomen or vent) as the male’s.
Whether she also acquires a yellow head is not clear from the
material available, whose sexing cannot be considered indubitable
in all cases.
(ii) That a breeding colony of Ploceus megarhynchus was in
fact obtained by O’Donel at Hasimara in the Buxa or Bhutan Duars
in t912 as recorded in the Fauna and Nidification seems established.
P. philippinus burmanicus appears to be the more common breeding
weaver in that area. Specimens obtained from Hasimara by Inglis
and O’Donel include both these species.
(iii) The average measurements of tarsus, bill, wing and _ tail
tn megarhynchus are much larger than in either P. philippinus or P.
burmancus.
(iv) The outermost. tail feathers in megarhynchus are shorter
than the longest feathers (central pair) by more than 5 mm., while
in the other species there is appreciably less difference.
(v) The male is evidently larger, and in breeding dress brighter
than, the breeding female.
(vi) The nest is different from that of P. p. burmanicus, and as
in P. manyar has no entrance tube.
& REFERENCES
Baker, E. C. Stuart (1926): Fauna of British India, Birds (2nd Edition) III;
69-70.
— — — (1934): Nidification of the Birds of the Indian Empire, IIT; 4.
Finn, F. (1899): Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, p. 77.
— — — (1899): Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, p. 250-252.
— — — (1901): Ibis, 1901; pp. 29-32.
Hume, A. O. (1869): Jbis, 1869; p. 356.
— — — (1875): Stray Feathers, III; 108.
— — — (1875): Stray Feathers, Til; 406.
— — — (1878): Stray Feathers, VWI; 400.
Oates, E. W., (1890): Fauna of British India, Birds (1st.Edition), II; 177.
Salim Ali, (1935): Mainly in Quest of Finn’s, Baya, Indian Forester, p. 365.
Whistler, Hugh (1933) Vernay Scientific Survey of Eastern Ghats (Ornitho-
logical Section) J.B.N.H.S., 36; 832-833.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF
INDIAN BOTANY
BY
Hi. SANTAPAU, S.J.
Parr IT
(Continued from page 548 of Vol. 50)
GPANCEDTAV CC EVAUES
Burkill, I. H.
1911. Determination of the Prickly Pears now wild in India.
RBSI. 4: 287-322, map.
Vaupel, |
Gag. (Caciwiceae, Jem. (Sk A) WOR Air
CAMPANULACEAE
Beddome, R. H. .
1907. An annotated list of the species of Campanula. Journ. Roy.
Hort. Soc. (London) 32: 196-221.
Candolle, A. L. P. de
1830. Monographie des Campanulacées. Paris.
Lothian, J. E.
1947. Critical notes on the genus Wahlenbergia Schrad. with
descriptions of new species from the Australia region. Proc.
Roy. Soc. New South Wales 1946: 201-236, 1947.
Marquand, C. V. B.
1924. Revision of the genus Cyananthus. Kew Bull. 1924: 241-
255, ff. 1-12.
Wimmer, F. E.
1948. Vorarbeiten zur Monographie der Campanulaceae—Lobel-
ioideae. II. Tribus Lobelieae. Ann. Natur. Mus. Wien.
56: 317-374-
CANNACEAE
Kraenzlin, Fr.
NO MZ © aliMnaccae. mulaiV CCl 50) 1-77) .h. T=10.
Winkler, H. . ,
1930. Cannaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 15a: 640-654, ff. 290-295.
CAPPARIDACEAE
Gagnepain, F.
1908. [Essai d’une classification des Capparis d’Asie. Bull. Soc.
- Bot. France 21: 53-65.
206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
KouGZ a
1874. Note on the Indian Species of Crataeva. JB. 12: 193-1096,
plates 147-148.
Pax, F. & K. Hoffmann
1936. Capparidaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) vol. 17b.
Blatter ee
1927. Capparidaceae. JBNHS. 31: 897-907.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE
Hutchinson, J.
1909. Notes on the Indian Species of Sambucus. Kew Bull. 1909:
IQI-193.
Rehder, A.
1903. Synopsis of the genus Lonicera. Rep. Missouri Bot. Gard.
14: 27-232, plates 1-20. |
CARICACEAE
Anonymous.
1g50. Carica. Wealth of India 2: 76-82, ff. 36-37, plate no. 5-
Harms, H.
1925. Caricaceae. —Pfam~ (ed) 2) vol. 21.
Kumar, L. S. S. & A. Abraham
1943. The Papaya, its Botany, Culture and Uses. JBNHS 44:
252-256, plates 1-4.
1944. A new Variety of Papaya: Carica papaya var. flava from
Travancore. Ibid. 44: 602-605, figs. 1-3.
— CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Gagnepain, F.
1908. Contribution a la connaissance du genre Polycarpaea Lamk.
Journ, de Bot. 21: 275-280.
Gartner, H.
1939. Zur systematisches Anordnung einer Arten der Gattung
Cerastium . . . Mit ror Abbildungen auf 19 Tafeln.
Fedde, Rep., Beth, 113.
Pax He ozlastoimann
- 1934. Caryophyllaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) vol. 16c.
Williams, F. N.
1898. Enumeration provisoire des especes du genre Cerastium.
Bull, Herb. Boiss. 6: 893-904.
CELASTRACEAE
Candolle, A. P. de
1825. Celastrineae. In DC.,. Prodr. 2: 2-18.
Loesener, T. -
1897. Uber die geographische Verbreitung einiger Celastraceen.
Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 24: 197-201.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 207
Narayanaswami, V.
1941. A New Gymnosporia from Bastar State, India. JIB. 20:
, 191-193, plate 1.
Sprague, T. A.
1908. The Prickly-fruited species of Euonymus. Kew Bull. 1908:
29-36.
CERATOPHYLLACEAE |
McCann, C.
1934. Observations on Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. JBNH‘S-:
37: 681-687, pl. I-II.
CHENOPODIACEAE
Ulbrich, E.
1934. Chenopodiaceae. Pfam, (ed. 2) vol. 16c.
Ungern-Sternberg, F.
1876. Salicorniearum Synopsis. Att. Congr. Intern. Bot. Fierenze
1874: 259-343, ff. 1-22.
COMBRETACEAE
Bor, N. L. & M. B. Raizada
1944. Combretaceae. JBNHS 45: 1-4, col. plates Nos. 18-19,.
uncoloured plates 2.
Blatter, E.
1929. The Indian Species of Terminalia, Linn. JIB. 8: 245-262.
Exell, A. W. |
1931. The Genera of the Combretaceae. /B 69: 113-128.
Parkinson, C. E.
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Slooten, D. F. van . ?
1924. The Combretaceae of the Dutch East Indies. Buitenz. (ser.
3) 6: 11-64. |
COMMELINACEAE
Barnes, E.
1946. Some observations on South Indian Commelinas; two new
species of Commelina from South India. JBNHS 46:
70-89.
Blatter, E.
1928. New Commelinaceae from the Western Ghats. JBNHS 33>
73-77:
- Brueckner, G.
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208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Clarkes ©. Bb:
1874. Commelinaceae et Cyrtandraceae Bengalenses (paucis aliis
ex terris adjunctis additis). Calcutta. Pp. 1-133, i-ii, tt.
I-42.
1881. Commelinacede. In DU:, Mon. Phan, 3% 113-324, tt. 1-S:
Sprague, ee wc Cw an Cam Luischier
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COMPOSITAE
Anonymous |
1950. Chrysanthemum. In Wealth of India 2: 143-148, f. 63,
plate no. 11.
Bentham, G.
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Blake, S. F.
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Clade, (, 183.
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Defillon, F.
1922. Contribution a |’étude comparée de |’Artemisia vulgaris L.
et l’Artemisia selengensis Turcz. (A. verlotorum Lamot-
te): ‘Lyons, 1922.
Garabedian, S. ,
1924. A Revision of Emilia. Kew Bull. 1924: 137-144.
Govindu, H. C,
1947. Some Compositae of Bangalore and their economic import-
ance. Journ. Mysore Univ. 8: 19-32.
Koster, |e) Gh:
1935. The Compositae of the Malay Archipelago. I. Vernonieae
and Eupatorieae. Blumea 1: 351-536.
1941. Notes on Malay Compositae. Blumea 4: 482-402.
Moore, A. H.
1907. Revision of the Genus Spilanthes. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts
& Sci. 42: 521-560.
Pampanini, R.
1923. Contributo alla conoscenza_ dell’Artemisia Verlotorum
Lamotte., Bull. Soc. Bots tal. 1923): 76-90,; Do doe
1925: 188-199. Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital. 33: 438-460, .
1826; 34: 171-181, 1927; 36: 395-547, 1929; 37: 262—
S€q., 1930; 40: 183-224, 1033.
1927. Materiali per lo studio delle Artemisie asiatiche. Nuov.
Gior. Bot. Tials 34% 1032-713, 192713 20>..375-855, 1920)
RB UC\ MWloy WORA- .
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 209
Robinson, B. L. es
t913. Revisions of Alomia, Ageratum and Oxylobus. Proc. Amer.
Acad, Sci. 49: 438-491.
Robyns, W.
1924. Revision of the genus Sphaeranthus. Jew Bull. 1924: 177-
IQQ.
Sabnis, TP. S. & M. G. Phatak
1935. A note on the Classification of Indian Safflower. Ind.
, Journ, Agric. Sci. 5: 705-714.
Santapau, H.
1946. Artificial Key to the Compositae of Bombay Presidency.
Ind, Ecol. 1 (1), April 1946.
Sen Gupta, J. \N.
1949. ~The Growing Menace of Assam-lota (Eupatorium spp.)
and how to combat it. Ind. For. 75: 351-353.
Sineiatt, Ike” 18,
1932. Revision of the Genus Cosmos. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,
| Chicago, Bot. Ser. 8 (6): 401-447.
1937. The Genus Bidens. Ibid. 16: 1-709, Tt. 1-180.
Venkatesh, C. S.. 3
1947. Key to the Compositae of Bangalore. Journ. Mysore Univ,
(B) 8: 1-8.
Widder, ta sU). |
1923. Die Arten der Gattung Xanthium. Beitrage zur einer Mono-
graphie. Iedde, Report., Beith. 20, 1923.
Wilson, F. C. .
1923. Revision of the genus Dichoma. Kew Bull. 1923: 377-388.
aa, IRS Vale
1921. Compositae. Pfreich..75: 1-288, ff. 1-27; 76: 289-576, if.
28-44; 577-864, ff. 45-59, 1921; 79: 865-1146, ft, 60-
79, 1922; 82: 1147-1705, fil. 80-92, 1923.
CONIFERAE
Biswas, Kk. | :
1933. The Distribution of Wild Conifers in the Indian Empire.
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Bore, ING Wx
1935. The Conifers of the Balipara Frontier Tract, Assam. Ind.
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Dallimore, W. & A. B. Jackson
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Fitzpatrick, H. M.
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210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
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Bor, N. L. & M. B. Raizada
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Choisy, J. D.
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Indiae Orientalis herbariis observatae et descriptae,.
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1838. De Convovulaccis Dissertatio Secunda, complectens recen-
sionem generum Batatas, Exogonium, Jacquemontia,
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1841. De Convolvulaceis Dissertatio Tertia complectens Cuscu-
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Englemann, G.
1859. Systematic arrangement of the Species of the Genus Cuscuta
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Hallier, H.
1893. Mersuch einer natitrlichen Gliedrung der Convolvulaceen.
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1897. Bausteine zu einer Monographie der Convolvulaceen :
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House, H. D.
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Merrill, E. D.
1936. The identity of Convolvulus reptans Linnaeus. Philip. Journ.
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Ooststroom, S. J. van
1934. A monograph of the Genus Evolvulus. Meded. Bot. Mus.
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1938. The Convolvulaceae of Malaysia. Blumea 3: 62-94, 1938;
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4II, 1943; 689-691, 1945.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 21%
Santapau, H.
1947. Notes on the Convolvulaceae of Bombay. JBNHS 47: 337-
_ 354-
Yuncker, T. G.
1932. The Genus Cuscuta. Mem. Torrey Bot. Club. 18 (2): 113-
331. /
CORNACEAE
Hemsley, W. Botting
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Wangerin, W.
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CRASSULACEAE
Berger, A.
1930. Crassulaceae. Pfam. (edit. 2) vol. 18a.
~Hamet, M. R. -
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Anonymous. :
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Bailey, L. H.
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Blatter, E.
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Burtt, B. L.
1948. On Farsetia hamiltonii Royle. Kew Bull. 1948: 495-408.
Prain, D.
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Sabnis, T. S. & M. G. Phatak
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Schulz, O. E. |
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Thellung, A. |
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/
—_—
212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 51
Cow ICAUEREB AICHE TAGE
Arnott, G. A. Walker
1840. On the Cucurbitaceae. Hook. Journ, Bot. 3: 271-280.
Baileytele-arle
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Cogniaux, A.
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Cogniaux, A. & H. Harms
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Kunduy Baie:
1939. New Species and Varieties of Trichosanthes Linn. from
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1942. A Revision of the Indian Species of Hogsonia and Tricho-
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Naudin, Ch. : -
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Whitaker, Th. W.
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Blatter, E. & ©. McCann
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Clarke, C. B.
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Kuekenthal, G. ee’,
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Sedgewick, L. J.
1918. The Cyperaceae of the Bombay Presidency. /BNHS 2
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°
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CYRTANDRACEAE
Clarke, C. B.
1883. Cyrtandraceae. In DC., Mon. Phan. 5: 1-303, tt, 1-32.
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DATISCACEAE
Gilg, E.
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Dh: EAN 1 AGG Ev E
Gilg, E.
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DIOSCOREACEAE
Burkill, I. H.
1951. The Rise and Decline of the Greater Yam in the service
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Knuth, R. S
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Prain, D. & I. H. Burkill
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Santapau, H.
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Uline, E. B. 7
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DIPTEROCARPACEAE
Cowan, J. M. & A. M.
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Dhareshwar, S. S.
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Gilg, E.
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Arnott, G. A. Walker
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Dielsrmles
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Bakhuizen van der Brink, R. C.
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1936. Revisio Ebenacearum Malayensium. Buiteng. (ser. 3)
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Hemsley, W. Botting
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Servettaz, C.
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Koernicke, F.
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Ruhland, W.
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EUPHORBIACEAE
Baillon, M. H.
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Berger, A.
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Gage, A. 1.
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Gehrmann, K. ;
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Haines, H. H.
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Jablonszky, E.
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Mueller, J. (Muell.-Arg.)
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1910. Euphorbiaceae. Pfreich. 42: 1-148, ff. 1-45, 1910; 44:
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1931. Euphorbiaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 19c: 11-233, ff. 6-123:
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Sherff, E. E. .
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White, A., R. A. Dyer, & B..L. Sloane
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BPAGACEAE
Camus, A.
1928.. Les chataigniers. Monographie des genres Castanea et
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1934. Les Chénes. Monographie du genre Quercus. vols. 2.
King, G.
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ARBG 2: 17-107, 1-111, plates 15-104.
BPUACOURTIACEAE
Blatter, E.
1927. Flacourtiaceae. JBNHS 31: 910-915.
Gagnepain, F.
1908. Essai de classification des Scolopia et Flacourtia asiatiques.
Journ. de Bot. 21: 164-173.
Gilg, E. )
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FLAGELLARIACEAE
Engler, A.
1930. Flagellariaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 15a: 6-8, f.1.
FUMARIACEAE
Hutchinson, f.
1921. The Genéra of Fumariaceae and their distribution. Kew-
Bull. 1921: 97-115, 7 f.
GENTIANACEAE
Clarke, C. B. :
1875. Notes on Indian Gentianaceae. JLS 14: 423-457.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 217
Don, D.
1837. Descriptions of Indian Gentianaceae. TLS 17: 503-532.
Franchet, A.
1899. Les Swertia et quelques autres Gentianes de la Chine.
Bull. Soc. Bot. France 46: 302-324. :
Gilmour, J. L. S.
1937. Notes on the genus Centaurium. I. The nomenclature of
the British species. Kew Bull. 1937: 497-502.
Goebel, K.
1890. Morphologische und biologische Studien. VI. Limnanthemum.
Buitenz. 9: 120-126.
Grisebach, H. R. A.
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Knoblauch, E.
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GERANIACEAE
Knuth, R.
1912. Geraniaceae. Pfreich. 53: 1-640, ff. 1-80.
1930. Geraniaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 10a: 43-66, ff. 20-34.
GESNERIACEAE
~Beddome, R. H. es |
1908. Gesneriaceae with annotated fist of the genera and species.
which have been introduced to cultivation. Journ. Roy.
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Santapau, H.
1949. Notes on the Gesneriaceae of Bombay. /BNHS 48: 489-
3 492.
GNETACEAE
Bertrand, C. E.
1874. Anatomie comparée des tiges et des feuilles chez les-
Gnetacées et les Coniféres. Ann. Sci. Nat. Paris, (ser.
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Ghose, T. P. et Al.
1929. Ephedra. Ind. For. 55: 215-226.
_ Groff, G. W. & G. W. Clark
1928. The Botany of Ephedra in relation to the yield of physiolo- |
gically active substances. Univ. Caltfornia Public. Bot..
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Markegraf, Fr.
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Singh, D. P.
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Indian Ephedras and théir supply. Ind. For, 76: 288-289.
Stapf, O.
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Blatter,
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Bamboos. Wealth of India 1: 145-153, pl. 23.
Bambusa. Ibid. 1: 153-154.
Cymbopogon. Ibid. 2: 411-419, f. 150.
WwW.
The World’s Grasses; their differentiation, distribution,
economics and ecology. i-xii, 1-408, ff. 1-48. ‘
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541-559. This is a revision of Gamble’s monograph;
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34: 135-141, 447-467, 1930. |
E. & C. McCann
Gramineae. JBNHS 32: 14-33, 281-298, 1927; 408-435,
622-649, 1928; 33: 7-25, 1928; 229-243, 480-496, 753-
Ti SLOZO 8 Ae - 20,1 O80. ee
Two new species of Grasses from Panchgani (Satara District).
/ BINIENS mc 2tnas'7-35 0 smear
The Bombay Grasses. Sci. Monogr. No. 5, Imp. Counc.
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A List of the Grasses of Assam. Ind. For, Rec. 1 (3):
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Three new Genera of Indian Grasses. Ind. For. 66: 267-
A Note on Ischemum robustum Hook. f. Ibid. 66: 333-334.
Recent Changes in the Names of Indian Grasses. Curr.
Go OS ARUN. |
Gramineae. In Flora of Assam, by Kanjilal, ete. See above;
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The Genus Hystrix Moench. in India. Ind. For. 66: 543-
545 - ;
Common Grasses of the United Provinces . . . Ind. For.
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(x):
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 219
1942.
1942.
1946.
1949.
1948.
1948.
1948.
LOTS:
1949.
Ou ioe
1949.
1949.
1949.
£950.
1950.
(O51.
Camus, A.
IQT4.
1920.
1g2t.
1g21.
1g2t.
(930.
The Genus Aeluropus Trin. in India. Ind. For. 68: 293-
299, tt. 19-21.
Thyncheletrum Nees and Tricholaena Schrad in India.
Ibid. 68: 523-530, tt. 28-30. |
A New species of Dactyloctenium from India. Blumea,
Suppl. 3
New Species of Poa from India, Burma and Tibet. Kew
Bull. 1948: 138-144.
Bhidea Stapf: a new Genus of Indian Grasses. Ibid. 1948:
445-447, fi. 1-14.
Arundinella pumila (Hochst.) Steud. and A. pygmaea Hook.
f. JIB. 27: 61-63.
Arundinella villosa Arn. ex Steud. Ibid, 27: 63-67, f.1.
Two new Grasses from India. Kew Bull. 1949: 69-70.
Two new Species of Isachne from India. Ibid. 1949: 95-96.
Pogonachne Bor: a new Genus of Indian Grasses. Ibid.
1949: 176-178, ff. 1-11.
A new Species of Capillipedium from India. Ibid. 1949:
222-223.
Sporobolus capillaris Miq. Ibid. 1949: 224.
Two new Grasses from India. Ibid. 1949: 571-572.
Two new Species of Ischaemum. Ibid. 1950: 187-188.
Two. new Species of Ischaemum from Bombay. JBNHS
49: 165-168.
A New Genus of Indian Grasses. Kew Bull. 1950: 385-
388, ff. 1-9, plate no. 4.
Note sur les especes asiatiques du genre Eremochloa.
Lecomte, Not. Syst. 3: 85-88.
Note sur le genre Themeda Forsk. (Graminées). Bull. Mus.
Hist. Nat. Paris 26: 266-273.
Note sur les especes asiatiques du genre Sehima Forsk.
Ibid. 27: 372-373.
Note sur le genre Dichanthium Williaa Ibid. 27: 548-
550:
Les Andropogonées odorantes des regions tropicales, Rev.
Bot. Appl. 1: 270-306.
Le genre ‘Bothriochloa’ Kuntze. Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon
76: 162-165.
Camus, E. G.
1913.
Les Bambusées. ‘Monographie, biologie, culture, princip-
aux usages. Paris; Pp. 1-215, Atlas 1-100.
Chatterjee, D.
1947.
1948.
Duthie, J.
1886.
Botany of the Wild and Cultivated Rices. Nature (Lond.)
160: 234 seq., Aug. 1947.
A modified key and enumeration of species of Oryza Linn.
Ind. Journ. Agri. Sci. 18: 185-192.
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Illustrations of the Indigenous Fodder Grasses of the Plains
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1888. The Fodder Grasses of Northern India. Roorkee; this is
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Evans, G.
1908. Varieties of Wheat grown in the Central Provinces and
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Howard, A. & G. L. ©..& A. Re Khan
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McClure, F. A:
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Munro, W. é
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Rangachari, K. & C. Tadulingam
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Saint Yves, A.
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Sedgwick, L. J. |
1914. A List of Grasses from Ahmedabad and Surat, with notes
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GUTTIFERAE
Engler, A.
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Planchon, J. E. & J. Triane
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Dandy, J. E.
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CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 223
HYDROPHYLLAGCEAE
Brand, A. .
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HyPOXIDACEAE
Baker, J. G.
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Brackett, A.
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JUNCACEAE
Buchenau, F. |
1885. Die Juncaceen aus Indien, insbesondere die aus dens
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1906. Juncaceae. Pfreich. 25: 1-284, ff. 1-12.
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~Chaytor, D. A.
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Epling, C.
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Mukerjee, S. K. 3 |
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1942. The Genus Chelonopsis Miq., recorded for the first time
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1908. Patchouli. Kew Bull, 1908: 78-82.
224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol, 52
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Miquel, F. A. W.
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Bentham, G.
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1865. Notes on Pueraria, DC. correctly referred by the author
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1865. Description of some new genera and -species of tropical
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1871. Revision of the genus Cassia. TLS. 27: 503-591, pl: 60-63.
1875. Revision of the Suborder Mimoseae. TLS. 30: 335-068,
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Blatter, E. |
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Bor, N. L. & M. B. Raizada_
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Brand, A. |
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Burkill, I. H. ;
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Candolle, A. P. de
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Be Capitaine, Lio). |
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mineuses. Bull. Geogr. Bot. 23(a): 1-500, pl. 1-27.
Chatterjee, D.
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Craib, W. G.
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Dalzell, N. A. | |
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Dunn, S. T.
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Gagnepain, F.
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226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST,; SOCIETY, Vol. 51
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1915. Classification des ‘Bauhinia’ d’Extréme-Orient. Compt.
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Gamble, J. S. |
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‘1923. A Note on the Genus Butea. JIBS 3: 233-234.
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Pettit, A. S. ~ pent
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Piper, C.-V.
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1917. Notes on Canavallia with descriptions of new _ species...
Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 30: 174-178.
Piper, ©. Va cadyess Dunne
1922. A Revision of Canavallia. Kew Bull. 1922: 129-145.
Piper, C. V. & W. J. Morse
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Popov, M. G. Bes
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Prain, D. | oe Ee
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1g0o1. The Asiatic Species of Dalbergia. Ibid. 70: 39-65.
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IO: i-Iv, i-lv, I-114, tt. I-Q1.
1908. A new species of Butea, with notes on the Genus. Kew
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Prain, D. & E. G. Baker
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Santapau, H. |
1949. Artificial Key to the Papilionaceae of Bombay Province.
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Schindler, A. K.
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1926. Desmodii generumque affinium ‘species et combinationes.
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Schulz, O. E.
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Seiewick, bo He
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Shaw, F. J. F. & R. D. Bose é
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Sirjaev, G. ; See |
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Sprague, T. A.
1927. Atylosia or Cantharospermum. Kew Bull. 1927: 134-135.
Sprague, T. A. & E. Milne-Redhead .
1939. The Correct Name for Sesbania aculeata. Kew Bull. 1939:
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Urban, I.
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Watt, G. 7
1902. The Indian Acacias. A Review of available information
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LEMNACEAE
Hegelmaier, F.
1895. Systematische Ubersicht der Lemnaceen. Engl. Bot. Jahrb.
21: 268-305. Y
ISUGZ-OE
1867. Enumeration of Indian Lemnaceae. JLS 9: 264-268, pl. 5.
McCann, C.
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Barnhart, J). El:
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Benjamin, L.
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Blatter, E. & C. McCann
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Goebel, K. ;
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Lloyd, F. C.
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Oliver, D.
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Santapau, Ha
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Baker, J. G.
1875. Revision of the genera and species of the Asparap acess
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CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY -OF: INDIAN BOTANY — 229
Berger, A.
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Krause, K. xe po
1930. Liliaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 15a: 227-386, ff. 81-161.
LINACGEAE
Hallier, H. ")
192r. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Linaceae. Beth., Bot. Centralbl.
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Nestler, H. :
1933. Beitrage zur systematischen Kenntnis der Gattung Linum.
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Winkler, H.
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PoecanrachAr
Bentham, G. ;
1856. Notes on Loganiaceae. JLS 1: 52-114.
Hill, A.. W.
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1917. The Genus Strychnos in India and the East. Jbid. 1917:
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LORANTHACEAE
Baillon, H. E.
1862. Mémoire sur les Loranthées. Adansonia 2: 330-381.
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Danser, B. H.
1929. On the Taxonomy and the Nomenclature of the Loranthaceae
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| 510.
THORS a New System for the genera of Loranthaceae Loranthoideae
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1941. The British-Indian Species of Viscum revised and compared
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Engier, A. & K. Krause ‘
1935. Loranthaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) vol. 16b.
230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
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1926. Loranthaceae of Southern India and their Host Plants.
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Rao, PaySstft
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LYTHRACEAE
Blatter E. & F. Hallberg
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JBNHS 25: 7o1-722; 26: 210-217.
IKkoehne, E.
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MAGNOLIACEAE
Dandy, J. E. aie:
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Good, R. D. O.
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King, G.
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Markham, E. aM
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Bentham, G.
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Boulenger, G. A.
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RUBIACEAE
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Cowan, J. M.
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Haviland, G. D.
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Jaramillo-Arango, J.
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Kuntze, O. pena
1878. Monographie der Gattung Cinchona L. Leipzig, 1878.
Markham, C. R. aes
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Parkinson, C. E. & M. B. Raizada /
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Ridley, C. M. G.
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Robyns, W.
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Spracue, i. Als
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Fernald, M. L. & K. M. Wiegand
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McCann, C.
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Anonymous
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Baillon, H. E. :
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Iwi, Sg
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Andersson, J.
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Dode, L. A.
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Pilger, R.
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Haines, H. H.
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Baehni, C.
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Engler, A.
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_Murbeck, Sv. |
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1884. Studien tber die Scrophulariaceen-Gattungen Ilysanthes,
Bonnaya, Vandellia und Lindernia. Bericht. Deutsch.
Bot. Ges. 2: 429-442.
SIMARUBACEAE
Boas, ie
1913. Beitrage zur Anatomie und Systematik der Simarubaceen.
Beith. Bot. Centralbl. 29: 303-356, ff. 1-7.
Engler, A.
1931. Simarubaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 19a: 359-405, ff. 166-190.
SSovileeeAl CabrAGE
Candolle, A. de.
1878. Smilaceae. In DC., Mon. Phan. 1: 1-217.
SOLANACEAE
Bitter, G.
1919. Die Gattung Lycianthes. Vorarbeiten zu einer Gesamtschr-
ift. Abhandl. Naturw. Ver. Bremen 24: 292-520.
Bor, N. L. & M. B. Raizada
1942. Solanaceae. JBNHS 43: 1-10, col. pl. no. 10, uncol, plates
8, ff. 1-5; 115-120, col. pl. no. 11, uncol. plates 3, ff. 1-9..
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY — 253
Comes, O.
1899. Monographia del genere Nicotiana. Att. Ist. Incor. Napoli
1: 1-80, plates 7. A French translation of this paper
was published the same year under the title: Monographie
du genre Nicotiana comprenant le classement botanique
des tabacs industriels; Naples, pp. 1-80, plates 1-7.
Dunal, M. F.
1813. Histoire naturelle, médicale et économique des Solanum, et
des genres qui ont été confondus avec eux. Pp. 1-248
pl. 1-26.
1856. Solanaceae. In DC., Prodr. 13 (1): 1-690.
Fingerhuth, A.
1832. Monographia generis Capsici. Diisseldorf; pp. 32; i-iv; col.
plates 1-10,
Hitchcock, C. L.
1932. A Monographic study of the genus Lycium of the Western
Hemisphere. Ann. Missouri Bot, Gard. 19: 179-374.
Howard, A. & G. L. C.
1910. The Types of Nicotiana tabacum L. Mem. Dept. Agric.
Ind, Bot. Ser, 3 (2): 59-176, plates 1-58.
Irish, H. C. @
1898. A Revision of the genus Capsicum with especial reference
to Garden varieties. Rep. Missouri Bot. Gard. 9: 53-
110, plates 8-28.
Luckwill, L. C.
1943. The genus Lycopersicon. An_ historical, biological and
| taxonomic survey of the wild and cultivated tomatoes
Aberdeen Univ. Studies No. 120.
Miers, J. _ .
1854. On the Genus Lycium. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 2) 14:
I-20, 131-141, 182-194, 336-346, 1854.
Muller, C. H.
1940. A Revision of the genus Lycopersicon. U.S. Dept. Agric.
Misc. Public. 382.
Safford, W. E.
1921.,.Datura—an inviting genus for the study of heredity.
Journ. Hered. 12: 178-190, ff. 22.
1921. Synopsis of the genus Datura. Journ. Wash. Acad, Sct.
t1 (8): 173-180.
1922. Daturas of the Old World and New: an Account of their
narcotic properties and their use in oracular and initiatory
ceremonies. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1920 : 537-567,
plates 1-13. ; ,
Santapau, H, |
1948. Notes on the Solanaceae of Bombay. JBNHS 47 :-652-662.
254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
SMe, le |p, lo 6 Alo IR. IXlaain
1929. Studies in Indian Chillies. (1) The Types .of Capsicum.
Mem. Dept. Agric. Ind., Bot. Ser. 16: 509-82, col. plates
2-5.
Terracciano, A.
1891. Contributo alla storia del genere Lycium. Malpighia 4:
ai 2a
Weitz, R.
1921. Les Lycium européens et exotiques. Recherches historiques,
botaniques, chimiques et pharmacologiques.
Sim E RIG LUE sIEpANGHE AGE
Blatter, E.
1931. Sterculiaceae. JBNHS 34: 877-885.
McCann, C. ,
1946. Field Observations on the Sterculias of Bombay Presidency.
Ibid. 46: 445-453, plate.
Radieyratl a Nese :
1934. Firmiana and Erythropsis. Kew Bull. 1934: 214-217.
Stapf, O. ;
1913. Nomenclature of Visenia. Kew Bull. 1913: 317.
6
SS) DY) RAC ANC EAE
Perkins, J.
1907. -Styracaceae. Pfreich. 30: 1-111, ff. 1-18.
SYMPHOREMACEAE
IDO oy 1k.
1933. Les Symphoremoidées de ? Indochine. Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat.
Toulouse 65: 635-640. ,
Moldenke, H. N.
See under Avicenniaceae and Eriocaulaceae.
SYMPLOCACEAE
Brand, A.
Tg0o1l. Symplocaceae. Pfreich. 6: 1-100, ff. 1-9.
Guillaumin, A.
1924. Observations sur les Symplocos d’Extréme Orient, partic-
uliérment d’Indo-Chine. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 71:
273-288.
1925. Revision des Symplocos. Lecomte, Not. Syst, 7: 939-946.
ATACOICP ANG SEEAGEY
Limpricht, W.
| LQ28.) slhaccaceae-y sai Cicli 1 1O2) ser la32 mn emeh ost
McCann, C. . - !
1930. Notes on Tacca pinnatifida, Forst. JBNHS 34: 597-598.
Raxeue ke
1930: _Taccaceae. . Pfam. (ed. 2) 15a? 434-437, f.-no. 103:
Or
Gt
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY
THEACEAE
Airy-Shaw, H. Kk.
1936. Notes on the genus Schima and on the caeeaCation of the
Theaceae-Camellioideae. Kew Bull. 1936: 496-499.
Anonymous. 5 os
1950. Camellia Linn. In Wealth of India 2: 26-51, ff. 16-22,
plate no. 2. ;
Choisy, J. D.
3 1854. Mémoire sur les familles des Ternstroemiacées et Camell-
iacées. Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Genéve 14: 91-186.
&
Sprague, T. A.
1923. Notes on Theaceae. JB 61: 17-109, 83-85.
THYMELEACEAE
Domke, W,
1934. .Untersuchungen uber die systematische und geographische
Gliederung der Thymeleaceen nebst einer Neubeschreibung
ae Gattungen. Bibl. Bot. vol. 27, no. 111; pp. 1-151,
1-7, f. I, maps 1-5.
Burtt, B. L.
rOcG A note on the Himalayan daphnes. Kew Bull. 1936: 433-
_ aap
Smith, W. W. & G. H. Cave 3
1913. A note on the Himalayan species of Daphne. RBSI. 6:
45594:
er Ley A Cab ACE
Anonymous. :
1950. Corchorus Linn. In Wealth of India. 2: 326-346, ff.
122-129, plate no. 15.
Blatter, E.
1931. Tiliaceae. JBNHS 34: 885-802.
Burkill, I. H. & R. S. Finlow
1907. The Races of Jute. Agric. Ledg. 1907: 41-137.
Burret, M. |
1926. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Tiliaceen. Notizbl. Bot, Gart..
Berlin 9: 592-880, 1926: 1161-1174, 1927.
Chatterjee, D. |
1948. Correct name of Corchorus antichorus Raeusch. Kew Bull.
1948: 372-373-
Drummond, J. R.
tg11. The Crenies of Roxburgh. JB 49: 329-337-
Hole, R. S.
1917. Indian Species of Grewia of Forest importance. Ind, For.
43: 312-317.
256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
Merrill, E. D.
1951. Notes on Elaeocarpus Linnaeus. Journ. Arn. Arb. 32: 157-
200.
ene
Narayanaswami, V. & R. Seshagiri Rao
1951. A Preliminary Notes on the Indo-Burmese species of Grewia
Linn. jIB 29: 177-190.
Wildeman, E. de
1952. Etudes sur des formes africanes du genre Triumfetta L.
(Tiliacées). Rev. Zool, Bot. Afric. 21: 193-240.
: a)
PRO PAE O LAGE A Eb
Buchenau, Fr.
1902. Tropaeolaceae. Pfreich. 10: 1-36, ff. 1-14.
Ferenholtz, H.
1931. ‘Tropaeolaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 19a: 67-82, ff. 35-42.
TURNERACEAE
Gilg, E.
1925.. Turneraceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) vol. 21
Urban, I.
1883. Monographie der Familie der Turneraceen. Jahrb. Bot.
Gart. Berlin 2: 1-152, plates 1-1).
Ih YP PHAGE AUR
Grabner, P.
1900. Typhaceae. Pfreich. 2: 1-18, ff. 1-4.
Kronfeld, M.
1889. Monographie der Gattung Typha Tourn. . . . Verh, Zool.
Bot. Ges. Wien 39: 80-192, pl. 4-5.
Kurz, S:
See under Pandanaceae.
Wives El 1 eheE ReACE
Domin, K.
1908. Monographische Ubersicht der Gattung Centella L. ee
Bot. Jahrb. 41: 148- se
Nannfeldt, J. A... |
1824. Revisions der Verwandtschaftskreises von Centella asiatica
(I.)) Urb. Suenks,, Bot. Didsky. 18): %397-426, pl. 6-750
tigeet 22
Wolff, H.
1910. Umbelliferae. Pfreich. 43: 1-214, ff. 1-24, 1910; 61: 1I-
305, ff. 1-42, 1913; 90: 1-308, ff. 1-26, 1927.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN- BOTANY 257
URTICACEAE sens. lato.
Hutchinson, le
r918. Taxorophis and Balanostreblus. Kew Bull. 1918: 147-153.
King, G.
1887. The Species of Ficus of the Indo-Malayan and Chinese
countries. ARBG 1: i-xii, 1-66, pl. 1-86, 1887; 67-185,
pl. 87-225, 1888. Appendix: pp. 1-51, pl. 226-232, & I-V.
1889. The Species of Artocarpus indigenous to British India.
Ibid. 2: 1-36, pl. 1-14.
1888. Observations on the genus Ficus, with special reference to
the Indo-Malayan and Chinese species. JLS 24: 27-44.
Lauterbach, C.
1913. Die Ulmaceen Papuasiens nebst einer Revision der Trema-
Arten des Monsun-Gebietes. Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 50: 308-
327:
Miquel, FP. A. W.
1847. Prodromus monographiae Ficuum. Lond. Journ. Bot. 6:
514-588, 1847; 7: 64-78, I0Q9-116, 221-236, 425-442,
451-471, pl. 3, 1848.
1867. Annotationes de Ficus speciebus. Miquel, Ann. Mus. Bot.
Lugd-Bat. 3: 260-300.
Weddell, H. A.
1854. Revue de la famille des Urticées. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV.
Bot. 1: 173-212.
1856. Monographie de la famille des Urticées. Archiv. Mus. Hist.
Nat. (Paris) 9: 1-590, pl. 1-20, 1856-57.
1857. Considérations générales sur la famille des Urticées suivie
de la description des tribus et des genres. Ann. Sci. Nat.
IV. Bot. 7: 307-396.
Winkler, H. & H. Schroter
1935. Monographie der Gattung Elatostema s.1. Fedde, Repert.
Beth. 83 (1): 1-56, pl. 1-8, 1935; 83 (2): 1-174, pl. 9-40,
1936.
Wicumel<eies) 1D (Gr
1938. Revision of Micronesian species of Peperomia. Occ. Papers
Bishop Mus. 14: 7-25, ff. 1-9.
1946. The genus Peperomia in the Galapagos Islands. Ibid. 18;
no. 16, Sept. 1946.
VERBENACEAE
Balfour, J. H.
1862. Description of a New Species of Clerodendron from Old
Calabar, which flowered in 1861, in the Royal Botanic
Garden of Edinburgh. . . Edinburgh New Phil. Journ.
(UN cSo) TGR 27-35, oll, Wie
Bor, N. L. & M. B. Raizada
1942. Verbenaceae. JBNHS 43: 291-297, col. pl. no. 12, uncol.
plates 4, ff. 1-3, 1942; 539-552, col. pl. no. 13, ff. 1-9.
17
258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol, 51
Danser, B. H.
1929. Uber die Niederlandisch-Indischen Stachytarpheta-Arten und
ihre Bastarde, nebst Betrachtungen uber die Begrensung
der Arten in Allgemeinen. Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenz. 40:
1-40, plates i-x.
Dop, P.
1923. Contribution a l’étude du genre Premna L. Bull. Soc. Bot.
France 70: 437-446, 829-836.
1928. Les Vitex de l’Indo-Chine. Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Toulouse
; 57: 197-211, pl. 2-4.
1935. Les Callicarpa de 1l’Indo-Chine. Ibid, 64: 497-513.
Fletcher, H. R.
1936. On the identity of Premna corymbosa Rottl. & Willd. and
Premna integrifolia Linn. Notes Bot. Gard. Edinburgh
19: 177-178. :
1938. The Siamese Verbenaceae. Kew Bull, 1938: 401-445.
Junell, S.
1934. Zur Gynaceummorphologie und Systematik der Verbenaceen
und Labiaten nebst Bemerkungen iiber ihre Samenent-
wicklung. Symb. Bot. Uppsala 1 (4): 1-219, pl. 1-8, ff.
1-257.
Levon, lal, Ife |
191g. The Verbenaceae of the Malayan Archipelago together with
those from the Malayan Peninsula, the Philippines, the
Bismark Archipelago, and the Palaw, Marianne and
-Caroline Islands. Pp. 1-370, plates 1-3.
1922. Notiz uber Vitex. Buitenz. (ser. 3) 5: 175-178.
Lam, H. J. & R. C. Bakhuizen van der Brink
1921. Revision of the Verbenaceae of the Dutch East Indies and
surrounding countries. Buitenz. {ser. 3) 3: 1-116, 1-ill.
\
Marquand, C. V.
1930. Revision of the Old World species of Buddleja. Kew Bull.
1930: 177-208.
Wiceusene AND ame |
1942. Notes on Javanese Verbenaceae. Blumea 5: 66-80.
Merrill, E. D.
1951. Tatea EF. Mueller (Pygmaeopremmna Merrill) and Premna
Linnaeus. Journ. Arn. Arb. 32: 73-78.
Moldenke, H. N.
1935. A Monograph of the genus Tectona as it occurs in America
and in cultivation. Phytologia 1 {4): 154-164.
1936. A Monograph of the genus Callicarpa as it occurs in America
and in cultivation. Fedde, Repert. 39: 288-317; 4o:
38-131.
1936. A Monograph of the genus Priva. Ibid. 41: 1-76.
1938. A Monograph of the genus Chascanum. Ibid. 45: 113-156,
301-319, 1938; 46: 1-12.
1940. A Monograph of the genus Bouchea. Ibid. 48: 16-20.
See also under Avicenniaceae and Eriocaulaceae.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY — 259
WAT Onl AUG Ee ALE
Melchior, H.
1925. Wiolaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) vol. 21.
1925. Die phylogenetische Entwicklung der Violaceen und die
natiirlichen Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse ihre Gattungen.
Fedde, Repert., Beth. 36: 83-125, pl. 1-3.
XYRIDACEAE
Malme, G. O. A.
1930. Xyridaceae. Pfam, (ed. 2) 15a: 35-38, ff. 11-15.
) Ja ONO Ob ON a OND DI: D)
Anonymous.
1950. Curcuma Linn. In Wealth of India 2: 401-406, f. no. 148,
col. pl. no. 17.
Lisboa, J. C.
1887. Notes on Mahableshwar and other Indian Arrowroot-yielding:
plants. JBNHS 2: 140-147, plate one.
~Loesener, Th.
1930. Zingiberaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 15a: 541-640, ff. 236-289.
Santapau, H. ~
1945. Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. JBNHS 45: 618-623.
Schumann, K.
1903. Zingiberaceae. Pfreich. 20: 1-458, ff. 1-52.
Turrill, W. B.
1914. Hedychium coronarium and allied species. Kew Bull. 1914:
368-372, plates 2 with 6 figs, and 2 text figs.
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE
Engler, A.
1931. Zygophyllaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 19a: 144-184, ff. 68-87.
(Concluded)
REVIEWS
1: SOME GAME BIRDS OF WES] AFRICA’ By We AG
Fairbairn, Pp. 92, (84” x54”). With 9 colour plates by P. M.
Summer, illustrating 50 species. Edinburgh (Oliver & Boyd). 12/6 sh.
net.
Although there is a steady stream of popular illustrated books
on the birds of Britain and various European countries, this is the
first one of its kind on African birds that has come under our
notice.
For a book intended as a guide for the average shikari and
interested layman, the illustrations perhaps matter more than the
text; and it must be admitted that one cannot feel enthusiastic over
those before us either as specimens of draughtsmanship or of printing.
The book covers 50 species of game birds including francolins, quails
and guinea-fowl, as well as bustards of which Africa can boast of
many more varieties than we have in India. Each species is dealt
with in a rather stereotyped manner, but the book should serve a
useful purpose for those sportsmen who would only like to know
what they have shot.
Hee Ae
2. ‘“PAMBUGAL’ (Snakes). By M. Ekambaranadhan. Pp. vi+
4o. Size 81”%~x 54”. 35 illustrations (photographs and line draw-
ings). Madras (M. Swaminadhan), 1952. Price Re. 1.
Popular literature on biological topics in Indian languages is very
meagre and any worthy addition is greatly welcome.
Mr. M. Ekambaranadhan, Professor in Dr. Alagappa College,
Karaikudi, South India, deserves to be congratulated on his having
brought out ‘Pambugal’, the first of the series he proposes to publish
in Tamil.
This booklet is but an enlargement of an article ‘Visha Pambugal’
(poisonous snakes) once published by him in ‘Tamizhar Nesan’—a
Tamil daily. It contains four chapters and an Appendix. The first
chapter deals with the structure and habits of snakes in general, the
second with the poisonous species, the third, the harmless and the
fourth includes an account of snake venom, snake bite and its treat-
ment, together with a key to the identity of poisonous snakes based
on that of Col. Wall. Snake-lore, in verse form, is the Appendix,
and makes interesting reading.
The subject has no doubt been ably treated and the author has
tried to dispel some of the false beliefs regarding snake life pre-
valent among laymen and to bring home to them the important role
snakes play in maintaining the balance of nature. A few points
in the subject matter however require to be revised in a subsequent
edition. |
‘Kuzhaipambu’—Eart snake—(p. 21) of the text and illustration
21, refers to Russell’s Earth-snake or the Red Earth-boa (Eryx
REVIEWS 261
conicus) and reference is also made to John’s Earth-snake or the
Black Earth-boa—Eryx johni. The chief diet of these two Indian
species of Boa is small mammals such as squirrels, rats and mice and
not insects and worms as stated. ‘Iruthalai Pambu’—Double-headed
Snake—can be more appropriately applied, and usually is, to the
latter species, the Black Earth-Boa.
Illustration 33 and description on p. 28-29, refer to the Checbertd
Keelback (Natrix piscator) and not to Helicops.
The effects of the respective bites of ‘Pacholai Pambu’—the Whip
Snake (Dryophis nasutus) and the “‘Kombarumurkan’ the Bronze-back
(Dendrelaphis tristis) cannot be the same as the former is opistho-
glyphous (rear-fanged) colubrine and the latter aglyphous (solid-
toothed) colubrine which does not possess any poison gland.
A majority of the illustrations have been reproduced from the
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, The Thanatophidia
of India (1874) by J. Fayrer and The Snakes of South Africa (i912)
by F. W. Fitzsimons and they are quite good and useful. But a
few of them such as those of ‘Saraipambu’ the Rat Snake, ‘Olai-
pambu’ the Common Wolf Snake, ‘Neersarai’ the Checkered Keelback,
and the Coral Snake will need a good deal of improvement if they
are to assist identification.
The chapter on snake venom, snake bite and its treatment, the
respective effects of venom and fright in a snake-bitten patient and
the key to identity of poisonous snakes, compiled from authentic
published sources, enhances the usefulness of the booklet.
The style is simple and elegant, the get-up good and the price
within the reach of every one.
Other publications in this series are awaited with interest.
Wo TIK, Ge
3. BEES: Their vision, chemical senses and language. By.
Karl von Frisch. Pp. xiii+119 with 61 text blocks and _ figures.
Ithaca, New York (Cornell University Press), 1950. Price $3.00.
This book formed the main text of lectures delivered at various
American Universities in 1949 by Karl von Frisch, the well-known
zoologist of Munich who has experimented with honeybees for some
40 years with a view to interpreting the activities of their complex
social organisation. The results, detailed herein in simple and
non-technical style, are amazing. At first, they appear to be in
direct conflict with the estiaoihned biological theory that the be-
haviour of the lower animals like insects, is more instinctive than
intelligent. But Prof. Frisch proves by simple experiments that the
various behaviour patterns of bees are meaningful and deliberately
designed as means of communication among themselves in the day-
to-day life of their colonies.
Dwelling briefly, at the commencement, upon the interrelation-
ship of flowers and bees von Frisch investigates the colour sense
of bees, and convinces the reader by successive steps through easy
experiments that these insects can recognize four colours—yellow,
262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
blue, blue-green and ultra-violet. He also establishes their sensiti-
vity to different shapes.
The author then deals with the location and the degree of dis-
crimination of organs of smell and taste. Of the four tastes—
sweet, salt, sour and bitter—he infers that bees readily recognize
the former three while bitter has no effect on them.
The third chapter is the most interesting as it deals with the
‘language’ of fbees. Prof. Frisch used gilass-walled cases and to
facilitate easy identification he had the bees marked with spots of
different colours.
The ‘language of bees’ consists of calculated movements or
‘dances’ on their return by foraging members of the colony by which
they communicate the source, distance, direction and quality of the
food supply to the rest of the bees. A ‘round dance’ means availa-
bility of food somewhere in the vicinity of the hive within 100
metres. The richer the supply the livelier are the dances. Food
source beyond this distance gives place to ‘wagging dance’ (so called
because the dancer wags the abdomen right and left alternately in
the course of the dance) which is indicative of both distance and
direction. The number of turns made in a given time is 4
measure of the distance while the upward run or the downward
run of the dancer in the vertical hive denotes the direction. If
upward the food supply is located in the direction of the sun and
if downward it is away from the sun.
Food source occurring at angles of 60° and 120° to the sun is
communicated by means of angular motions which the other foragers
readily understand and act upon.
In a horizontally placed hive, however, the scout bee points in
the direction of the food like a compass needle even should the hive
be subjected to constant rotation.
Sunlight, Prof. Frisch has discovered, is an essential factor in
the indication of the direction of the food-source, as the dancers seem
confused and come to a stand-still, if the source of light is cut off.
It is this relationship between the eye of the bee and sunlight, in
deciding direction of food source, that forms the subject-matter of the
Appendix following chapter 3.
A bibliography of references and an index at the end, are useful
additions which add to the value of the book. There is no doubt
that this work will be of great interest to laymen and naturalists as
well, while it has a special appeal to bee-keepers.
Wesker:
4. THE BRITISH AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES. By Dr.
Malcolm Smith. Pp. 318, 18 colour, 33 black-and-white photographs,
5 drawings in monochrome and 88 text figures. Size 81” x 6”.
(The New Naturalist series, No. 20). London (Collins) 1951. Price
ZEUS Nee
The author with his experience of a life time spent in the study
of herpetology has produced this authoritative treatise which should
prove a boon to serious students of the subject, as well as to the
REVIEWS 263
layman who takes up the subject as a hobby. Especially for the
latter the author has struck the happy medium of explaining his
subject without becoming too technical or ‘dry’. ‘Dryness’ of
scientific literature is supposed to be one of the main causes which
makes the budding field naturalist shy away from the subject !
The plan of the book is simple. To quote from the author’s pre-
face ‘The main part of it is devoted to the 14 British species arranged
in their four natural and easily recognisable groups. Each group
is dealt with separately, and its chapter begins with a consideration
of it as a whole, with particular reference to the British forms!’ The
description of each species is exhaustive and deals with all aspects
of the life of the species.. The chapter on the Parasites of the species
described makes interesting reading and should be of help to those
interested in the subject. The author’s suggestions for further re-
search would be equally applicable to our region, though in this
connection it is with regret that one notes the complete apathy of
our Indian zoologists towards thi§ branch of natural history.
The beautiful colour photographs of the species described enhance
the usefulness and attractiveness of the book considerably, for howso-
ever lucid a description may be, the value of good plates, such as
these, as aids to identification is undeniable.
One can be sure that the aim of the editors of this remarkable
series ‘To create interest in the general reader in the wild life of
Britain’ will be fulfilled as far as this book is concerned,
CIDE
The following books have been added to the Society’s library since
August 1952 :—
1. THE GOVERNMENT OF BoMBAY GAZETTE, Part IV-B, Rules
and Orders (other than those published in Parts I, I-A and I-L) made
by the Government of Bombay under the Bombay Acts. Agriculture
and Forest Departments Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds
Protection Act 1951. (The Government of Bombay, 1952.)
2. THe British AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES. By Malcolm Smith.
(Collins, 1951). (A Review copy). ,
3. THe Story or AnimaL Lire, Volumes I and II (Invertebrates
and Vertebrates). By Maurice Burton. (Elsevier Publishing Co. Ltd.,
1949). (Review copies).
Brrp RECOGNITION, A
Pelican Book. By James Fisher. oes Books, 1951). ((Brcsented
by Mr. Humayun Abdulali).
5. Pianr HUNTER IN Manipur. By F. Kingdon-Ward. (Jonathan
‘Cape, 1952). (Presented by Mr. Humayun Abdulali).
6. THREE MonTHs’ LEAVE IN SOMALILAND—being the Diaries of
the late Captain J. C. Francis published after his death. By Captain
J. C. Francis. (R. H. Porter, 1895). (Presented by Lt.-Col. R. W.
Burton). |
7. THE PHEASANTS OF THE WoRLD. By Jean Delacour. (Country
Life Ltd., 1951). (A Review copy).
MisC EEE ANEOUS NOTES
1. POSSIBLE OCCURRENCE OF THE SNUB-NOSED
MONKEY (RHINOPITHECUS ROXELLANAE) IN ASSAM
Lt.-Col. H. S. Wood, 1.m.s. (Retd.), has described a monkey which
he saw in Assam some years ago, which appears to be the Snub-nosed
Monkey, or Golden Monkey, (Rhinopithecus roxellanae). Dr. W. C.
Osman Hill of the London ‘Zoological Society, who is an expert on
monkeys, is very anxious to have this piece of information followed
up. I pass on his request, as it 1s possible that some members of
the Bombay Natural History Society or their friends may have some
more news of this monkey being found in India or Pakistan,
Apparently the localities given by Lt.-Col. Wood are Kanjupkut
in Manipur State and in Sythet ‘E. of the province in the Cossya
[Khasia| hills frontiers’. Dr. Osman Hill remarks: “His (Lt.- Col.
Wood’s) descriptions would certainly fit the beast and not, as far
as I know, any other monkey. It is just possible that the range
extends down the Mekong valley beyond Chinese territory, but {
still cannot see how it could get into Assam unless its western
range in Tibet is greater than we think’.
Tate Regan in his ‘Natural History’ describes the snub-nosed
monkey as follows: ‘Closely resembling the Himalayan Langur in size,
_habits and its power to withstand cold is the snub-nosed monkey , which
inhabits the forests of Szechwan in China, and takes its name from
the face being disfigured by a little, triangular nose, up-tipped in
such a way that the nostrils open forw ards. The colour of this monkey
is brownish above and yellowish below and on the cheeks; but other
species from China are differently coloured.’
Doyane T.E.,
OaTING e.OF Dig TRS (Gdele
ASSAM,
»~
May 30, 1952.
[We are indebted to the Secretary of the Fauna Preservation
Society for the following remarks by Dr. W. S. Osman Hill, the
Prosector of the Zoological Society, London, in whose opinion Col.
Wood’s description of the monkeys seen tallies with R. roxellanae
except for size.
TROUT cs: -——There are four kinds of snub-nosed monkeys from
the far east. Three belong to the genus Rhinopithecus, the remain-
ing one is now placed in a separate genus Presbytiscus. The full
geographical distribution of none of these is adequately known, but
so far there is, to my knowledge, no record of any of them from
Assam and I would very much like to have proof that such is the
case, as I am collecting data on this genus for my book.
_ From the known facts concerning the geography of the group,
I surmise that the Tonkin snub-nosed monkey {Presbytiscus avunculus)
is probably the most likely member to sion further west, or alter-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. | aS A 265:
natively that one of the forms from eastern Tibet extends further:
south than has been suspected.
The facts are as follows :—
R. roxellanae—E. Tibet and N. W. China to Koko Nor.
Rk. biete—Yunnan, left bank of Mekong and right bank of Blue
River.
R. brelichii—Van Gin Shan Mts., north of Kwei-chow Province,
Central China.
Presbytiscus avunculus—Tonkin. Van Gin Shan Mts., north of
KXwei-chow Province, Central China.’—Eps. |
2. RIOTOUS BEHAVIOUR OF MATING BEARS
(MELURSUS URSINUS)
On the night of June 11th bears overturned a Craven Power
Sprayer (in a coffee clearing), bit through one of the wheels, chewed
the tarpaulin covering it, gnawed some of the spray hose, and smashed
down several 4-year old Silver Oak (Grevillea) saplings. Next
morning they demonstrated at spraying labourers and others on a
tractor trailer and, after the hurried departure of the labour, over-
turned a barrel of Bordeaux mixture and two or three empty casks.
I received the news of the bears’ misbehaviour on my return from
a visit to our ragi farm. In the evening I saw the bears (three of
them) in the distance, but it was too late to go after them. On
the 13th morning I spotted them in the same place. <A large discon-
solate male kept at a safe distance emitting plaintive howls, while
another male, slightly heavier, accompanied the female alternately
caressing (so it appeared) and frantically chasing her. The lone male
frequently sat up on his haunches to get a better view of the pro-
ceedings. Twice he went up to Kydia calycina trees (locally known
as ‘Benday murra’) and tore off great strips of the bark—whether
solely in rage or also urged by hunger I am not sure. But a sub-
sequent examination of the trees and surroundings indicated that some
of the bark had been eaten.* ;
By the time I had got near the bears they had shifted their posi-
tions somewhat. I found myself within a fair distance of a bundle
of bears up against a rock. Which was which I couldn’t tell and
they may have been in coitus. My first shot mortally wounded
the larger male and he dropped dead within a few seconds. The
she-bear was then badly hit and disappeared into a nearby deep cave.
It was obvious that the disconsolate male, though frightened off by
the shots, would return, which he did right soon. He proceeded to
fall upon the dead body of his erstwhile rival with a savagery which
had to be seen to be believed, screaming at the top of his voice the
whole time.
In spite of three hard hits, rolling him over each time, he was
able to get away. He skirted 5 caves, went down to water (which
was his undoing) and finished up half inside a shallow cave, having
travelled 2 miles mortally wounded; bears are tough.
The she-bear had to be smoked out as the cave was too deep 1o
penetrate normally, and she died from. suffocation. Three years ago.
266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vola ol
I had crawled into the same cave after what I thought was a dead
bear. It was a most foolhardy thing to do; instead of one dead
bear there were two live ones within and I was fortunate to escape
with my life!
* For the last 3 or 4 years bears have been tearing off the bark
of fir trees planted nearby; it was evident that some of the bark had
been consumed. The period referred to covers a succession of very
dry years. Bears normally eat little during their mating season;
when this coincides with abnormally dry years it is likely they will
go for the bark of certain trees (the bark of Kydia calycina is a
favourite food of elephants). It is presumed the Silver Oak shade
saplings were ‘tasted’ in hunger; or smashed in an abandon of
temper.
HONNAMETTI ESTATE,
ATTIkan P.O., | R. C. MORRIS
vIA Mysore,
June 20, 1952.
3. CASES OF UNWOUNDED GAUR OR INDIAN BISON
(BIBOS GAURUS) CHARGING
In Vol. 48, No. 3 of the Society’s Journal I referred to a case of
a solitary bull bison’s apparently unprovoked charge when met on a path
in evergreen jungle. For some days a tiger had been harassing bison in
this area. About the same time another case occurred of a bison
charging a well-known sportsman at the foot of the Nilgiris as it
trotted out of a tiger-beat. This bull also had not been fired at.
More recently, two beaters were killed by a bull bison in a tiger
beat, the animal charging them at close quarters.
In each case a tiger was in the area. ‘Nerves’ induced by the
‘presence of tiger and/or, possibly the noise of a beat, would appear
to infuriate unwounded bulls which are then apt to charge intruders
or beaters.
In my lifetime in India quite a number of instances have occurred
to refute the assertion that no unwounded gaur will attack.
HONNAMETTI ESTATE,
ATTIKAN P.O., R. C. MORRIS
viA Mysore,
jume 23, 1952.
4. WILD BUFFALOES AND TAME
(With a photo)
In Narayanpur tahsil of Bastar district a wild buffalo bull had been
driven out from the wild herd and had become solitary. Subsequently
‘a herd of tame buffaloes was taken into his jungle for summer grazing.
He killed the stud bull of this herd and used to accompany the tame
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 267
ye
animals during the day in the jungle. In the evening he used to
bring the herd back to the encampment and then leave, to meet them
again the next morning when they reached the jungle. The accom-
panying photograph was taken when he was returning in the evening
with the herd. The cow in the picture is a tame one, which however
always accompanied him even when he left the herd at night. The
close companionship between these two animals was _ extremely
unusual; it seemed to be much more than just sexual.
JAGDALPUR P.O.,
Districr Bastar, M.P., R. P. NORONHA
June 21, 1952.
-
[A review in The Oriental Sporting Magazine 1877, p. 267 of
Capt. Baldwin’s ‘The Large & Small Game of Bengal’ reads in part:
‘The Assamese keep no tame bull buffaloes so they are dependent
on the wild bulls for keeping up the breed. They let their cows loose
and a wild bull soon finds them out, takes possession of a herd and
will not leave it till he has been either killed, or so wounded by various
devices as to be glad to leave their vicinity. We have frequently
shot these bulls at the request of the villagers. They lose all fear of
man, and often will not allow the cows to be picketed at night and
even if they are so tethered, the bull remains close by all night,
and in the morning returns with them into the losals grass. Sometimes
villagers are killed by them’ ge D S|
i)
fon)
wD
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
5. WHAT IS THE BEST MEANS OF- CONTROL AND!
DESTRUCTION OF FLYING FOXES [PTEROPUS
GIGANTEUS (BRUNN.)]?
With reference to the note on the above subject in Vol. 50, No. 2,
pages 401-403, this question has been studied by Messrs. I.C.1. (India)
Ltd., and they advise the use of explosives where possible. The
full text of their note on the matter is given herewith:
‘The suggested method of killing flying foxes is by concussion.
It is essential, in order to produce a shock-wave of sufficient intensity,
that a fairly big charge is fired instantaneously. We suggest that a
to-lb. charge, suspended from a branch of the tree in which the
flying foxes roost but not in contact with any of the branches, would
produce a big enough blast to kill most of the flock.
It is difficult to predict the effect of air blast on such things as
windows as this depends largely upon'the topography of the surround-
ing area. We consider however that a distance of 200 yds. from
a bungalow, provided windows are opened and personnel within that
radius are under cover should be sufficient for safety. We agree
with Mr. Gee’s suggestion that an Electric Exploder should be used
as by this method the charge can be prepared and later fired from
a safe distance at the best time.
The explosive which we suggest is Opencast Gelignite which has
a high velocity of detonation when primed with a No. 6 Detonator.
‘This explosive is available in 50-lb. cases which contain five 10-lb.
cartridges. No. 6 Detonators, Electric or Ordinary, can be obtained
readily from stock.
As regards the device for scaring away other wild life (e.g. wild
elephants), we suggest that Mr. Gee approaches a firework manu-
facturer who should be able to make up crackers suitable for his.
purpose.’
Doyanc TEA ESTATE,
ONGINGE RAO, De 125 (Eddie:
ASSAM,
September 11, 1952.
6. OUR VANISHING WILD LIFE ~-
The almost complete absence of pig, muntjac and porcupine from
the higher altitudes (4,500 ft. to 5,500 ft.) of this range (the Billigiri-
rangans—North Coimbatore) possibly account for the comparative
rarity of panther in these parts—a feature of the past seven or more
years. During this period wild dog have also become uncommon,
while bear have increased greatly. Tiger appear in the same area far
less frequently now than in the war and pre-war years. This, I think,
is due to wholesale poaching of the sambar on the hills during the
MISCELLANEOUS, NOTES 269
years following the war—so much so that I consider that sambar
now number only about 25% of their pre-war numbers.
-HONNAMETTI ESTATE,
’ ATTIKAN P.O., R. C. MORRIS
vid Mysore,
july 8, 1952.
7. BIRD MIGRATION ACROSS THE HIMALAYAS
Do migrating birds systematically follow the line of least resistance,
i.e., go over the lowest passes and thence follow the course of the
nearest river, or do they take the shortest route and risk the rigours
and rarified atmosphere of high altitudes?
This is a subject for careful and prolonged research over a vast
amount of country, but if the snippets from individual experiences of men
who have lived half a century in and around the Himalayas, will serve
any purpose, I gladly give my opinion, backed by few notes and—
largely from memory—for what it is worth.
I would most definitely say that both routes are followed, and
as many migrants, if not more, go over the higher passes and
mountain ranges, as follow the courses of rivers.
For many years in autumn I watched and heard skein after skein of
geese, (Bar-heads—Anser indicus) flying over the Seoj plateau near
Bhadarwa in Kashmir State. They obviously came from the great
Tibetan lakes—Pangong, and perhaps the Tso Morari, right over the
Chamba Lahoul Ranges flying at perhaps 15,000-17,000 ft., and dropped
down to the Chenab and Tawi waters between Akhnur and Jammu.
Their passage over my camp at Seoj was usually after sundown, both
in the spring on their upward journey and in the autumn when they
=
came down. The latter, I noticed, was a little later, about 9 or
IO p.m. which probably meant the distance between Seoj and the
Indian plains was much less than that between Seo] and the lakes
whence they came.
Had they been at all worried by altitudes what would have been
easier for them than to drop down into the Chenab watershed and
follow the course of that river, or into the Ravi River near Chamba?
A very much longer journey, but indeed the easiest of the lot as
regards height, would have been down the Indus where it would have
only been necessary to cross one range of mountains, the Kailash
Range. But the birds obviously preferred the shorter route, even
though it meant the crossing of four mountain ranges and passes
of 15,000 ft. and over, before they could reach their winter quarters
in the plains of the Punjab. This migration route I was familiar with
because Seoj was my favourite shooting ground, and I spent a night
or two there, two or three times a month, over a period of about 11
years.
On one occasion I was camped on a pass known as Bhal Pudhree,
in the Chamba State, and not more than 25 miles or so from Seoj.
I was after Kashmir stag, of which there were not a few in this
part of the country. It was, I think, the end of February with :
brilliant full moon. I was aroused from my sleep by the most infernal
din I had ever known geese to make. I went out of my tent and
270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
‘looked up to see not one but a dozen or more skeins flying in echelon,
across a Clear sky. As far as I could judge they were flying a couple
of thousand feet above me and heading straight for the Pangong Lakes.
The time was about 11 p.m. and I went back to bed again. My
alarm woke me at 4 a.m. and synchronized almost perfectly with the
din made by the geese in the earlier part of the night.
The moon was fast getting behind a high peak as I looked out,
to find to my amazement. the geese coming back again. What did
this portend? I soon forgot all about the birds as my shikari and
I took my rifle and shotgun and proceeded to the haunts of the deer
where we had seen their tracks the day before.
The going was frightful. Three feet deep snow, with the top
crust hard and a few inches below surface soft powder, into
which one sank right up to the thighs and the crunch, crunch of
the breaking crust audible to everything within several hundred
yards. This was hopeless so we gave it up and decided to wait till
the sun came up and did something about melting that top crust.
[ put on my poshteen and long Gilgit boots, got into my flea-bag and
prepared to have another 2 hours sleep, with the alarm set for
7 o'clock. A second chota-hazri was most welcome, also the infor-—
mation that the sky was absolutely clear and the sun should soon
be over the top of the mountains. As I sipped my tea I again heard
the honk honk honk of geese and it sounded almost on top of my
tent. I was out in a second and there were two separate skeins
heading away from my tent, rising steadily as they went apparently
straight for the plains. They were obviously agitated and frequently
breaking formation and carrying on a sort of desultory conversation
in a higher key than the usual honk. JI watched them for a little
time as my thoughts went back to a similar occasion, some years
previously when I witnessed the most amazing spectacle of skeins
of geese being broken up by a pair of golden eagles, and thereafter
of putting up odd lots of one to half a dozen, in a dense spruce
forest.
Here at least were two memorable days and nights I shall never
forget, when literally many thousands of geese were winging their
way over 10,000 to 11,000 ft. passes with many higher ranges to
come. .
The greatest altitude I have ever seen birds flying at, always
excluding choughs, lammergeiers, mountain finches and_ griffon
vultures which might be found most of the summer at well over
15,000 ft., was a ‘camel flock of pure white birds. It was in May
and I was at an altitude of about 12,000 to 13,000 ft. when I saw
what I first took to be some feathers floating in the clear air. My
glasses however, revealed what I took to be the great Siberian Crane
(Grus leucogeranus). This seemed a bit late for them to be leaving India
on migration, but the birds were certainly bigger than spoonbills
with a much more slow and leisurely flap, though for the most part
they flew on steady outstretched pinions. They must have been quite
2,500 to 3,000 ft. above me. I lost sight of them as they approached
the Spiti. range beyond. I was at the time some 20 miles from Rampur.
(Bashahr State), up the Ganwi Gad and the River Sutle} straight
below me not 5 miles away as the crow flies.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 271
The Common Crane (Grus grus) I have seen over and over again
leave the Kangra swamps fly right over my house in Dharmasala and:
go over the Dhoula Dhar at 14,000 ft. in small lots varying from one
pair to a dozen birds. This migration, perhaps only a local one, took
place invariably in the middle of May.
I have watched eagles on migration on two occasions. Where
they crossed over into the Kangra District I do not know, but i
imagine over the Humpta Pass into Kulu, as one of the flights I saw
was above Naggar, in Kulu, and the other over the Mandi State
hills near Jathingri. On both occasions all the birds flew in single
file, one behind the other; sometimes close to each other, or followed.
by long gaps of a minute or two. All the birds were young Imperials
in the lineated plumage, and strangely enough all flew with wings.
half flexed and each passed over practically the same ground, to within
a few feet, as the one before it. Not one more than just turned its.
head as it went passed, to look at a dead chikor I threw out, and
none took any notice of a sparrowhawk sitting on a rock devouring
a dead chikor. They were just not feeding.
I have frequently seen duck (species unidentified) flying at a great
height obviously following the course of a river very far below but
not going down to it.
From my limited experience I should say as many birds fly high
over the mountains as keep to the courses of rivers. With larger
birds such as geese, cranes, spoonbills, etc. I would say by far the
most go straight over the ranges, and thus take the shortest route. To.
go along the course of any river would double and treble the distance
for no advantage. Besides there are very few places on the way
where a big gaggle of geese, for instance, could find sufficient space
to rest or feed until they reach the plains of India, so it would be
infinitely better for them to get there by the shortest route.
Does rarified atmosphere worry them at all? I do not know, but
very obviously they do not seem to be affected one way or the other
at 14,000 to 15,000 ft. and an extra thousand or so would take them:
over almost any pass in the Himalaya. I agree with you, however,
that many more birds than we know of, must cross the passes at
much higher levels than they need and I am pretty certain in my
own mind that a far larger number take the direct route across the
mountain ranges than those which follow the courses of rivers, and
thus run the risk of being hemmed in on both sides by mountains,
and at a considerable disadvantage from the attacks. of birds of prey.
Crort MAatpocu,
DorNocu, SUTHERLANDSHIRE, C. H. DONALD
SCOTLAND,
June 20, 1952.
8. BIRDS NESTING ON TELEGRAPH WIRES
_ With reference to Miscellaneous Note No. ro in Vol. 50, No. 3, dur-
ing 1943 and 1944 when travelling between Gauhati and Manipur Road’
on the Assam Railway several colonies of Bayas (Ploceus philippinus)
were observed nesting on the telegraph wires along the railway. They
272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
were not in one spot only but scattered for a considerable distance
along the line.
On the lower part of the Ghat road up to Shillong from Gauhati,
where it passes through dense tropical evergreen forest, the telegraph
line crosses the road frequently in the course of loops and zigzag’s
of the latter. There are always numbers of bundles of grass to be
seen attached to the wire, so rough that at first sight they would
hardly be taken for nests, and they puzzled me _ considerably
until I saw one being visited and entered by a Longtailed Broadhbill,
Psarisomus dalhousiae. These nests were usually isolated from others
and nearly always built where the wires crossed a ravine or cutting
so that they were a great height from the ground and far from any
neighbouring trees or vegetation.
HUNNERSLEY,
BURLEY, rN: BEDS
NR. RINGWOOD,
FLANmS,. Wry
ANI RUISS py MONS
[Nests of the Longtailed Broadbill hung similarly from electric
light wires spanning a nullah have been recorded from Mussoorie,
Uttar Pradesh, in Vol. XXIII of the Jowrnal (1915), pp. 360-
‘61.—EbDs. |
g. MUSCICAPA WESTERMANNI INDOCHINENSIS.
A SYNONYM OF M. W. AUSTRALORIENTIS
In my paper, ‘A Collection of Birds from the Naga Hills’ which
appeared in the Journal, Vol. 50, No. 3, April 1952, I have used the
name Muscicapa westermanni indochinensis on p. 507 to describe the
Eastern Little Pied Flycatcher. In the text I have referred to the fact
that I had revised this species (1952). Unfortunately the name as
printed is a nomen nudum. In my revision, ‘A Note on the Species
Muscicapa westermanni’, (Proceedings of the Biological Society of
Washington, Vol. 65, pp. 71-74, April 25, 1952), I described this
eastern continental population as Muscicapa westermanni australorientis,
and in this publication I extended a valid description to this name.
Number 3, the April 1952 issue of the Journal actually appeared on May
2oth, 1952, and consequently that name, indochinensis, which was used
entirely in error, and by inadvertence on my part, must stand as a
nomen nudum is synonymy with the new form Muscicapa westermanni
australorientis.
PEABODY MUSEUM OF NATURAL History,
YALE UNIVERSITY,
New Haven 11, Conn. U.S.A.; S. DILLON RIPLEY
August 14,.1952.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 273
ro. A NEW BIRD FOR INDIA—MONTIFRINGILLA
DAVIDIANA POTANINI (SUSHKIN)
On March 4th 1952 near Lachen in North Sikkim, we came across
a large flock of Montifringilla brandti feeding on the path where
patches were clear of snow. We had experienced freak weather with
heavy snow for three days. Among this large flock was a smal!
snow finch which was secured. At the time I thought it was M.
blanfordi but it proves to be an adult male of Montifringilla davidiana
potanim: Sushkin. This small snow finch comes near ruficollis and
blanfordi which differ from all other snow finches in having the outer
tail feathers largely white with a broad blackish terminal bar or spot
cand sides of neck cinnamon-buff. A key to these three species is:
Throat white; no black on forehead as ... ruficollis
Throat black; black streak on white forehead eve blanfordi
Throat black; whole forehead black ne .. davidiank
There are two races of M. davidiana, the nominate race inhabiting
_ the country from Koko Nor and Nanshan to Dolon Nor. It is darker
more earth-brown above with fairly well defined dark centres to mantle
feathers.
M. d. potanint Sushkin inhabits north-western and northern
Mongolia, from Kobdo Basin to Urga, the Mongolia Altai and
Central Gobi. It is a paler sandier bird than the nominate race, the
-dark centres to feathers of mantle being paler and more dilute.
The wing of our Sikkim bird measures 86 mm.
The interesting part of this discovery is that this single bird must
have got ‘caught-up’ with a flock of Montifringilla brandti: somewhere
in central Asia and was unable to extricate itself, for the specimens
of brandti secured at the same time, are not the North Sikkim race,
but the form from Northern Tibet and the Farim Basin.
I append a short review of Montifringilla brandti which has already
been discussed by Hellmayr (field Mus. Nat, Hist. 1929: 51-57), by
Stegmann (Journ. f. Orn. 10932: 111-114), by Stresemann (Orn.
Monatsb. 1939: p. 177.) and by Vaurie (Amer. Mus. Novit. No. 1424.
1949: 24-28).
M. b. brandti (Bonaparte). 1850. Turkestan.
Inhabits the Tianshan and East Tukestan. Wings 115-125 mm.
M. b. haematopygia Gould. 185% ‘Tibet’. A more exact type locality
should be Ladak.
Inhabits the Himalayas from Gilgit to Sikkim. Lesser wing
eoverts without red fringe: mantle browner and distinctly streaked.
Wings 112-121 mm.
M. b. walteri Hartert.. 1904. Szechwan, N. W. China.
A darker bird with black crown; mantle and rump dark lead-
brown, the latter with rosy fringes; upper tail-coverts dark brown with
white tips; lesser wing-coverts brown without red fringes. The wing
of type 118 mm.
_M. b. pallidioy (Bianchi). 1908. North Tibet. !
A much paler bird than any of the above. Wings 115-123 mm.
18
274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
M, b. pamirensis (Severtzov). 1883. Pamirs.
Differs from M. b. brandti in having red fringes on rump more
distinct and with a darker mantle. Inhabits the Altai and Trans Altai
Mountains, the Bokhara Hills and Pamir. Wings 112-121 mm.
M. b. margaritaceae Madarasz. 1904. S. E. Altai. 7
Syn: Leucosticte annae Sushkin. 1906. Tarbagatai).
Grey forehead and ear-coverts.
M. b. audreyana Stresemann. 1939. North Sikkim.
Darker than haematopygia, and much darker than pallidior.
M. b. incerta (Stegmann). 1932. Humboldt Range.
Crown and mantle darker than pamirensis; no grey wash on
rump, and underparts yellower. Inhabits the Humboldt Range, |
southern Koko Nor and Tetung Mountains. I have not examined
specimens.
M. b. intermedia (Stegmann). 1932. Burchan Buddha Mountains.
Still darker than incerta but paler than haematopygia. North-
east Tibet. I have not seen specimens; they may prove to be identical
with pallidior.
47, KENSINGTON PARK GARDENS,
Lonpon, W. 11, R. MEINERTZHAGEN,
july 23, 1952. Colonel
ir. THE INDIAN CUCKOO — CUCULUS MICROPTERUS
MICROPTERUS—IN CEYLON
In my paper, ‘Cuckoo Problems of Ceylon’, published in Spolia
Zeylanica, Vol. 25, Part II (December 1948), I attempted to bring
up to date our meagre knowledge of the status of the Indian Cuckoo
in Ceylon, but I was forced, from lack of reliable evidence, to leave
unanswered the queries, ‘Have we a resident breeding form of this
Cuckoo in Ceylon?’ ‘If so, which are the fosterers?’
Since that paper was written, additional information has been
slowly accumulated; so much so that we are now in a position to
answer these questions, at any’rate to a limited extent. The object
of this note is to put on record the answers.
It has now been proved, beyond any doubt, that the Indian
Cuckoo is definitely resident, throughout the year, in the forests of
the Eastern Province. The author has himself seen and heard the
bird calling as late as June 4th when normally all winter migrants
have left the island for their breeding ranges further north. More-
over, on June 7th, 1949, he received from Mr. S. V. O. Somanader
of Batticoloa, a freshly killed specimen collected in the Onnichai forests.
of the Eastern Province. This specimen is stated to have been a.
female and to have contained three small embryonic ova, but as if
had been eviscerated before it reached him, he was unable to confirm:
these statements though he has no doubts as to their correctness. From
these and other observations, it is now established that some, if not
all, of the Indian Cuckoos that are so noisy in the Eastern Province
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 275
jungles and neighbouring districts from November to May, remain
in these areas throughout the year but, as they are much less noisy
during the period from June to October, they are less in evidence and
their presence is liable to be overlooked while they are mostly silent.
‘Whether or not some of them migrate to the Indian mainland,
during April or May when the majority of the winter visitors take their
departure, still remains a matter of conjecture. I have been able to
gather no further information that throws any additional light on this
question.
With regard to the second half of the query—‘which are the
fosterers’ of this cuckoo in Ceylon, very valuable evidence has recently
been provided by Mr. Edward C..Fernando,:Junr., son of the retired
taxidermist of the Colombo Museum.
On May 2nd, 1952 he shot a young specimen of a cuckoo of. this
species that was being fed by a pats of Blackheaded Orioles O. x.
BEE
After the above it seems more than probable that the young quckao
observed by Mr. E. C. Fernando, Sr., being fed by Blackheaded
_ Orioles at Kumbalgamuwa in April 1927 was also C. micropterus.
I now feel convinced that one of the 3 eggs in the nest of a
Blackheaded Oriole at Nikawewa in the Kantalai district of the North
Central Province on December 20th, 1940 which was slightly smaller
and more heavily marked than the other 2 eggs, with a much tougher
texture to the shell, belonged to a cuckoo which was most probably
also this species. This egg measured 25.7x 19.0 mm. and was said
to weigh 617 mg. (sic) as against the average given by Stuart Baker
for 16 eggs of the Indian Cuckoo collected in India—24.4 x 19 mm.,
weight 281 mg.
It is to be hoped that, in time, by a ritieal ‘examination of all
nests of Oriolus xanthornus ceylonensis met with within the breeding
range of the Indian Cuckoo in Ceylon or by the obtaining of oviduct
eggs from the female cuckoo, the question, of the type or types of
- eggs laid by this Cuckoo in Ceylon, will be elucidated.
TONACOMBE ESTATE,
NAMUNURULA, , W. W. A. PHILLIPS,
CEYLON, — F.L.S., M.B.O.U..
September, 1952.
REFERENCES
Baker E. C. Stuart, (1942): Cuckoo Problems. |
Phillips, W. W. A. (1945): Nests and Eggs of Ceylon Birds (Sylviidae,
Irenidae. Oriolidae. Graculidae, Sturnidas). Ceylon Jour. of Science, Sec. B:
200: Vol. XXIII, Pt. I |
— — — (1948): Cuckoo Problems of Ceylon. Sholia Zeylanica, Vol. 25, Pt. 2.
12. A GRANIVOROUS GREEN PIGEON |
I shot a Southern Green Pigeon here in Coimbatore the crop of
which contained seeds of a plant which grows extensively in the
summer season in the dried up tanks and paddy fields and in black
cotton soil areas. The seeds are light black in colour resembling.
276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 51
No. 4 shot or black-gram. Blue Rock Pigeons are very fond ‘of it
and both morning and afternoon, batch after batch come to feed on
the shed seeds. A botanist here has identified the plant as Chrozophora
vottleri (Klotzsch).
Some doves, especially the Ring and Spotted Doves, also regularly
visit these areas and feed on the seeds lying scattered on the ground.
On one of my trips after Blue Pigeons, one early morning, |
found a single green pigeon flying low over the region along with
Blue Rocks. I was wondering how a green pigeon happened to be
in the locality and why it was associating with the Blue Rocks. Sudden-
ly the green pigeon separated from the rest and offered me an easy
overhead shot. When I picked it up, I saw seeds of this plant coming
out of its crop and beak; on further examination the crop was found
to be full of them.
This is the only occasion on which I have seen a_ green
pigeon either keeping company with Blue Rocks or eating seeds,
though I remember reading in the Journal of green pigeons coming
to the ground, perhaps to eat saline earth. I have also heard and
read of green pigeons coming to the ground to drink. It would be
interesting to know what caused this extraordinary deviation from
the green pigeon’s normal habits and food.
Incidentally it may be mentioned that our domestic pigeons do not
eat the seeds of this plant. Many a time I have collected and tried
to feed them to domestic pigeons but none would eat. When they
turn wild, however, and are in the company of Blue Rocks, they devour
them avidly.
15, PERUMAL KoIL STREET,
FORT, COIMBATORE, B. SUBBIAH PILLAY
March 7). 952°
13. THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
In 1923 1 was travelling by train to Jalna from Poona via Dhond
and Manmad. Somewhere between Nagar and Manmad, probably
at Wambori or thereabouts, I saw a party of 8 or 1o large ground
birds not far from each other, i.e. 2 to 10 ft. apart. I then noticed
that a considerable number of individual birds of the same kind were
visible flying over a large area. The train was travelling fast and
the time of observation could not have been more than a minute,
but | got the impression that there must be at least 200 to 300 of
these birds .in view. At that time I was unfamiliar with the Great
Indian Bustard, but subsequently came to know it well and I now
_ feel that the birds I saw could have been no other.
The second time I saw them in such large numbers was !n 1926
near Kotagaon station, about 25 miles from Manmad, along the
Nizam’s State Railway. I was out shooting black buck and at about
8 o’clock in the morning my companion pointed out a bustard to me.
I was about to commence stalking it when I noticed that there were
several of them, not in a flock but scattered 50 to 100 paces from
each other. “After considerable indecision which one.to take, 1 finally
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
NS
we
stalked and shot one with a .375 Mannlicher. At the report of the
rifle the number of these birds that got up fairly took my breath
away. As far as I could see bustards were visible in flight, not in
a flock but scattered all over the countryside. I cannot say definitely
if they all flew in any one particular direction to suggest some form
of migration, but as far as I can recollect they did not. I do not
think that there could have been less than 4oo birds. The cock I
shot weighed 28 Ibs. after it had been gutted.
BELAPUR,
AHMEDNAGAR DjIsT. FARID H. B. TYAB]I
july, 1952.
[In Vol. XXVI of the Journal (p. 1048) is given an extract from
the defunct—Oriental Sporting Magazine which records 961 bustard
shot near Ahmednagar between the years 1809 and 1829 by a single
‘Lover of all Sports’ as he calls himself. He gives the weight of
cock birds as between 18 and 32 lbs. and that of hens 8-15 Ibs.
From the above, and other available records, it would appear that
the Deccan country in the neighbourhood of Ahmednagar has always.
formed the optimum habitat of the Great Indian Bustard. ;
Spread of cultivation and increasing population pressure with its
attendant evils. have doubtless been mainly responsible in reducing
this magnificent species to its present parlous state. Its preservation
from extinction is a matter that deserves the highest priority from
the Indian National Section of the International Committee for Bird
Preservation and calls for the most urgent and effective action. The
present status of the bird must be thoroughly and authentically investi-
gated, and in the meantime its shooting, snaring or killing in any other
way and the taking of its eggs totally banned forthwith in every part
of the Indian Union. ,
It is perhaps too much to hope that there may still be tracts of
country sufficiently remote and unexploited to offer a sight such as
described by our correspondent. But should there be anything even
distantly approaching it, no time must be lost in turning them into
adequately controlled sanctuaries for the bird.—Eps. |
14. OVERWINTERING OF THE CHUKAR PARTRIDGE
(ALECTORIS GRAECA) IN NEVADA, U.S.A.
(With a photo)
Since its introduction into the state of Nevada in 1933 the Chukar
Partridge (Alectoris graeca chukar) has risen from the ranks of an
experimental exotic to an upland game bird of primary importance.
In the short time of 19 years this species has, mainly through natural
propagation, thoroughly established itself throughout a major portion
of the state’s vast amount of rocky, rugged, mountainous habitat at
elevations ranging from 4,000 to 8,000 ft. Although factual evidence
is at present insufficient it is probable that the chukar now has a
278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
distribution in Nevada which is nearly as widespread as that of -our
native Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus).
_A chukar which has been marked with plastic neck tags for study purposes.
Note the rocky outcrops. Dominant vegetation is sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata.)
Elevation is 5,000 feet. This bird had been released one week previcusly at
the above site which is near Winnemucca Lake, Washoe County, west-central
Nevada. The type of habitat shown is fairly typical of that found in favorable
chukar range in the State. (Photo by author).
The 1951 hunting season varied in length from 2 to 62 days
(depending on the county) with a bag limit of 5 birds daily and in
possession. From this it can readily be seen that the chukar is now
taking the lead in providing excellent upland bird hunting to resi-
dents of Nevada. With this in mind the Nevada Fish and Game
Commission (Wildlife Restoration Division) has established a project
under which intensive natural history studies of the chukar are to be
made upon which it will be possible to base future management pyo-
cedures. }
Although this program has been in effect for only a short time
it is currently possible to evaluate to some extent the effects of
winter conditions upon the bird. The winter of 1951-52 was excep-
tionally. severe over most of the State and certainly represented the
“MISCELLANEOUS NOTES eee 279
most severe winter (in the amount of total snowfall) that has occurred
since the introduction of the: chukar. . Observations by the author
(Christensen, 1952 a) showed that during the first heavy snowfall in
west-central Nevada the birds rapidly descended from the higher
mountains (8,000-6,000 ft. elev.) to congregate in large numbers
(coveys of from r1-150 birds) on the lower slopes and -valleys (5,000-
4,000 ft. elev.) which were relatively snow free and where feed was
available. Later as the snow receded and the higher slopes were
cleared through wind action the birds again ascended to the higher hills.
Such actions were consistent throughout the course of the winter and
no distress was noted among the birds as long as they were able to
descend to areas which lay below the snow line (in general this was
about 4,000 to 4,500 ft. elev.).
Food studies which were made during the years 1951 and 1952
(Christensen, 1952 a) showed that during the winter months. the primary
foods of the chukars were the leaves of green grasses and winter
annuals. Because of this it was therefore indicated that the distri-
bution of this species into the more northern portions of the state
where heavy, long laying snows are prevalent may retard its success.
Evidence for this supposition was clearly brought out during the month
of March when chukars were found in a starving condition at Birch
Creek, near Austin, Nevada (Christensen, 1952 b). Twelve dead birds
were found, and one live bird. (an adult female) was collected. This
bird weighed only 11.85 ozs. as compared to 17.50 ozs. for a healthy
female bird. Deep snow, which made grasses and annuals unavail-
able, had persisted in this area for a number of weeks. Due to the
high elevation of this and surrounding country (6,000 ft. and above)
it had not been possible for the birds to move down to snow-free eleva-
tions without moving for long distances and entirely out of the
habitat. Several large coveys of chukars, which were in poor condition,
were noticed to have congregated on feeding areas which had been
provided for cattle, where they gleaned a meagre living off barley hay
or cottonseed cake.
Although browse plants (such as Artemisia tridentata and Purshia.
iridentata) were protruding. above the snow there was no evidence of
their utilization by the chukars despite their availability. This again
indicated the dependence of the chukar upon green grasses and anvil
as winter foods.
NEvADA FisH & GAME COMMISSION, |
(WiLpLire REsToRATION Drvssron), - GLEN C. CHRISTENSEN,
Reno, NEvapA,
May 15, 1952.
Jamey CITED
Christensen, Glen C. (1952 Oe "An: Ecalonical site of the chukar partridge in
western Nevada. ‘Univ. of Nevada Library, M. S. Thesis, | unpubl. 83 pp.
an oo 902. b) Upland game. survey, chukar ‘and -sage grouse. Quarterly
Report of the Nev. Fish & Game: Commnr., Wildlife Restoration Div. March 1952,
pp. 38-41 (mimeographed),
280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY-NATURAE -HIST..-SOCIETY, Vol. 51
ARRIVAL DATES: OF FANTAIL AND PINTAIL SNIPE
IN. BURMA
I
on
Colonel. Phythian-Adams’s_ series of articles entitled ‘Jungle
Memories’ has been an unmixed delight to one whose knowledge of
natural history is mainly derived from days spent in shikar. But
a statement in the last article [| Vol. 50 (3), p. 457] seems open to
question. Referring to snipe, he says that ‘at Bhambo . . . the Fantails.
used to arrive first, towards the end of August’.
Smythies (‘Birds of Burma’) says of the pintail snipe that it
arrives ‘in Northern Burma in the first week of August’, and of the
Fantail that it ‘arrives nearly a month after the first Pintail’.
Stuart Baker (‘Game Birds of India’, Vol. II) says of the pintail
snipe that it arrives ‘early in August’, while the fantail ‘seldom
arrives in India until August is well advanced, and even then will
only be found in the extreme north’.
In Manipur, where I was stationed for many years, the Club’s
game-book records from 1911 to 1932 show only 12 fantail snipe killed:
in August, as against 4254 pintails. The earliest fantail was shot on.
August 16th.
My records of snipe-shooting in the Assam Valley do not cover
so long a period, but my game-book only shows one fantail killed in:
August, as against 386 pintails. It was shot on August 19th. Five
years in the Khasi Hills, just south of the Assam Valley, show 32
August pintails, against no fantails.
There is no doubt that in N.-E. India the southern migration of
the pintail snipe precedes that of the fantail by some days, if not
weeks, and, according to Smythies, the same applies to Burma. Is
Colonel Phythian-Adams’s statement that the fantail used to arrive
first at Bhamo a slip of the pen?
ALFORD,
LINCOLNSHIRE, je CG EG GINS
aly 245 a@52:
1.c.S. (Retd.)
b)
| Col. Phythian-Adams whose attention was drawn to Mr. Higgins’s.
letter, writes that his statement of fantails arriving in Bhamo before
pintails was based entirely on memory and that it is manifestly in-
correct.—Eps. | ,
16. EXTERMINATION OF SNAKES UPSETS BALANCE
OF NATURE
With regard to rats in the forests, I have come across the follow--
ing observation in a report made in 1936 by the late A. J. W. Milroy,
a distinguished Conservator of Forests of Assam and a very keen
and knowledgeable naturalist. He observed that ‘a three-year lease
for catching snakes and monitor-lizards for their skins ended on
March 31st. .. . it has been found to upset the balance of nature,
resulting in serious damage by rats in our plantations, and no- such:
mahals (leases) will be constituted again.’
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 281
So it would appear that the preservation of certain species of
snakes and of monitor lizards is indispensable, especially if rodents
are to be kept under control.
Doyane TEA Estate,
OaTING P.O., Be eeGis
ASSAM, “«
September 11, 1952.
[In Volume 49 of the Journal (p. 816) attention was drawn to a
curious flaw in the Constitution Act, doutbless inadvertent, which
prevents the .provinces from legislating in connection with living
creatures other than ‘men, animals [which ‘ostensibly means only
mammals|, birds and fish’. Therefore it would seem that the States
cannot enact protective legislation for crocodiles, snakes and lizards,
as well as for other forms of animal life. Though their skins bring
in foreign exchange, these reptiles are being killed off without any
attempt being made to understand or appreciate the repurcussions
which their removal may produce. There is no doubt that without
this natural check rats and mice will increase and do immense damage
to agriculture. The problem requires immediate attention and careful
study and research; in the meantime some machinery to check exces-.
sive exploitation seems urgently called for.
Until last year no separate figures of the export of reptile skins
were officially maintained, but during the year ending 31st March 1952,
1,321,367 reptile skins valued at Rs. 36,02,338 were exported from
India, which is a significant revelation.—Ebs. | 3
17, EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE FISH
RASBORA LABIOSA (MUKERJI)
Three specimens of kasbora labiosa Mukerji, were obtained on.
September 4th, 1951, while collecting carp fry at Budali in the Orsang
river, a tributary of Narbada.’ These specimens were found in asso-
ciation with Danio (Brachydanio) rerio, Lepidocephalichthys guntea,
Barilius bendelisis and some Barbus species. The characteristic hyper-
trophied condition of the lip, forming a broad loose membrane round
the lower lip, and rounded caudal lobes made the identification of the
species easy. This species: was first described by Mukerji (1935) from
collections made by Dr. A. G. Fraser at Deolali, Nasik District, where
he obtained specimens from a nullah flowing into the river Darna.
The area drained by the Godavari basin was considered its geogra-
phical limit of distribution. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji, has been
recovered in Baroda for the first time. Its occurrence at Baroda thus
extends the geographical limit of distribution of the species in a north-
west direction. ; :
Dr. A. G. Fraser (1935), describing the locality states, ‘the pools
in which the fish are found are grown thickly with water weeds and
the floor is covered with silt deposit brought down from time to
time’. The place of capture of specimens collected by me differs,
however, considerably from that given in Dr. Frraser’s description.
The specimens were obtained from pools formed in the bed of the
282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
river where the water was clear and practically free from vegetation,
the bottom being sandy. ,
Dr. Hora (1935) records in a footnote ‘Darna is a tributary of
the Godavari river. Annandale [ Rec. Ind. Mus. (1919) pp. 1og-161, | in
his account of the fauna of certain small streams in the Bombay
Presidency, made observations on the collections made at Medha in
Satara District and Khandala in Poona District.. Both these places
are far away from the Godavari drainage basin. The new species
would thus appear to have a somewhat localised distribution.’ The
occurrence of Rasbora labiosa Mukerji, at Baroda shows, however,
that the species does not have a localised distribution as stated by
Hora.
The specimens were caught with an ordinary rectangular drag
net. The biggest specimen measured 75 mm. It is quite likely that
the place of capture may be a normal habitat of the fish, as smaller
specimens of 30 mm. were also obtained in the same area. The
collected specimens resemble closely the illustration given by Hora
and Mukerji (1935) except for a slight variation in coloration. The
broad black band along the middle of the body, from the angle of
the opercles to the root of the tail, described by them was, in our
specimens, found to arise from the tip of the snout and extend to the
middle of the caudal fin. The other characters resemble the type
specimen.
Hora and Mukerji (1935) referred to the hypertrophied condition
of the lip as follows. ‘Among the functions assigned to the hyper-
trophied lip in the tadpoles, there is that of buoyancy, for the tadpoles
are supposed to use it to hang from the surface film. It is quite
possible that the new species, which are essentially surface fishes,
also use their expanded lip for the mechanical process of suspending
themselves, from the surface of the film, when the water in their
habitat becomes foul for ordinary process of respiration’. Our speci-
mens were secured, however, from pools with clear water and with-
out much vegetation, where the specialisation of a hypertrophied lip
was of little practical use for suspension.
TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION,
BOMBAY, M. R. RANADE, M.sc.
February, 1952.
REFERENCES
1. Day, F, (1889): Fauna of British India.
2. Hora, S. L. & Mukerji, D. D. (1935): Rec. Ind. Mus., xxxvii; 375.
18. GROWTH OF CATLA IN TANKS
(With a photo)
Catla is one of our most important fishes for development of
pisciculture and is noted for the large size it attains. There is, however,
a serious lack of data on its extreme variability in the rate of growth
under different ecological conditions and the age of large specimens,
viz. above 20 Ib. in weight, which are not ordinarily fattened in fish
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 283
farms. An opportunity to record such data was, however, available
recently and the findings are given below :—
-Pashan tank, a sheet of water of about 160 acres in area at
B.S.L. and about six miles away from Poona, was stocked by the
Department of Fisheries, Bombay. Fry imported from Calcutta in
July 1947, was fattened in nursery ponds, and fingerlings about 5 in.
long were released in this tank on October 15th, 1947. Observations
at intervals of about six months indicated that the fish were thriving
satisfactorily. On September roth, 1951, a number of Rohu, Catla
and Mrigal were captured when they attempted to escape through
the overflow gates. Catla was the largest of all and measured 3 ft.
in standard length and weighed 55 lb. This weight is, thus, an
‘unmistakable record of growth of a four year old Catla as seen from
the accompanying photograph and represents maximum recorded size
of known age.
otundleua Raj (1922) states that in large reservoirs Catla attains
3 to 3% ft. length and 30 to Ae lb. weight in 24 to 3 years. Chacko
(1948) records ‘a growth of 3} to 4 ft. and 30 to 50 lb. within 3 years,
‘from the Willingdon Reservoir at South Arcot, Madras. The ecological
conditions in these different sheets of water may be different, never-
theless, if the records are put together they indicate another feature,
viz., retardation of rate of growth in later years,
This retardation of growth is also represented in fish from the
Powai Jake where a specimen of 55 Ib. was caught on rod and line
284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
by one Mr. J. Muir of the Bombay Provincial Angling Association,
The Powai lake was stocked in July 1937, and the 55 pounder was
caught in October 1949. This shows that the aforesaid Catla was
about 12 years old, no smaller specimens having been captured during
the past four years to indicate breeding of the fish in the lake. Another
eight Catla which died in the lake for unknown reasons (probably
fatty degeneration) in 1949, were also of about the same weight.
A 62-lb. Catla was also reported from the same lake but reliable
details were not available.
It is well-known that growth of carps varies considerably according
to the amount of food and other ecological conditions obtainable in
ponds. Nevertheless, the data available on the rate of growth of
Catla indicate that it grows fastest in the first three years and
thereafter growth slows down. This observation is supported by reports
on the growth of the fish in early years. Sundara Raj (op. cit.}
records a growth of a foot in six months, 18” to 2 ft. in the first year
and 3 to 33 ft. in 23 to 3 years. In a pond near Bombay (at Kurla)
Catla grew to 8 Ib. in one year. Similarly, in a well-manured nursery
pond at Bandra the same fish had grown to 12” in total length and
1 |b. 2 oz. in weight in just 2$ months during the monsoon
in 1949. The same species, however, in an adjoining stocking tank
at Bandra recorded a growth of 24” in 18 months and 30” (17 Ib.)
in 3 years and 10 months. In other ponds it attained only about
4 lb. in a year. It has also been observed that in one of the ponds
in Bombay where ecological conditions were unsuitable for fattening,
Catla remained stunted, hardly attaining 5 lb. in three years. Basu
(1950) states that in sewage irrigated ponds near Calcutta, 1 cm.
fry of Catla attains a length of go cm. and weighs 1% Ib. in the course
of one year, while Chacko (1948) records a growth of 9g lb. in one
year in Madras ponds and + to 24 Ib. in eight months in Vizagapatam
ponds. Mitra (1942) also reports considerable variation in the growth
of Catla in the ponds in Orissa, but his figures are not published.
It will thus be evident that though Catla is one of our most
promising fishes for development of pisciculture, unfortunately, the rate
of its growth manifests an extremely wide range of diversity, depend-
ing largely on the ecological conditions of individual tanks. This
opinion is strengthened by careful records taken of Catla in tanks.
in widely separated areas. In fact, study of the fish under controlled
conditions can yield a wealth of data, specially if the amount and
variety of food available in different tanks are properly recorded.
DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES,
Govt. OF Bomsay, C. V. KULKARNE#
August 15, 10952.
REFERENCES
1. Basu, S. P. (1950): A Study of the Ecology and Bionomics of Indian Carps
Caila catla (Ham.), Labeo rohita (Ham.), Cirrhina mrigala cultuicd in the sewage
irrigated fish farms near Calcutta. Proc. 37th Ind. Sci. Cong., Part III, p. 252.
2. Chacko, P. I, (1948): On the Bionomics of Catla catla (C. & V.) in South
Indian Waters. Curr. Sci., Bangalore, 17 (6); 191.
3. Chacko, P. 1, (1948): Growth rate of twenty-one species of fishes of
Madras. Proc, 35th Ind, Sci. Cong., Part III, p. 210.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 285
- 4. Chacko, P. I. (1948): On the productivity of a fish pond in Vizagapatam. Proc:
35th Ind, Sci. Cong., Part II], p. 210.
5. Mitra, G. N. (1942): Rate of growth in the first year of life of Labeo
rohita and Catla catla in different districts of Orissa. Proc. 29th Indian Sci.
Cong., Part III, p. 159.
6.. Sundara Raj, B. (1922): Service’ Bulletin No. 5 of the Department of
Fisheries, Madras.
ra. A REMARKABLE CASE OF ALBINISM IN THE
FRESHWATER EEL, ANGUILLA
BENGALENSIS GRAY
During the course of our investigations on the Indian Freshwater
Kel, Anguilla bengalensis Gray, a live albino specimen was obtained
on February 13th, 1952 from a drain conveying wastewater from the
Pulta Water Works to the Hooghly River at Barrackpore. The specimen
is being reared in an aquarium along with some elvers and juveniles
ol the same species and on account of its remarkable elegance and
grace it 1s nicknamed ‘the Fairy Eel’. Since cases of complete albinism
are very rare, particularly among the apodal fishes, and as_ this
happens to be the first record of an albino eel from the Indian region,
notes on the specimen are given below:
The entire body of the specimen (measuring about 20 inches
in length) is white, excepting the eyes which are deep bluish grey
in colour, On a closer examination the body is found to have a light
pinkish tint probably imparted by the blood. Blood vessels branch-
ing into capillaries can be clearly seen in the vertical fins, especially
in the marginal zone which is nearly transparent. Scales on the
body are visible through the translucent skin showing the characteristic
pattern. But for the absence of pigmentation, the albino has all the
normal body proportions and other characters typical of the species.
For nearly a week the specimen remained exposed to direct light
in the aquarium, during which period it developed a few very faint
cloudy streaks of coloration. An earthenware pipe has since been
prov ided in the aquarium, in which the albino takes shelter through-
out the day time. A few days after the provision of this shelter, we
observed that the secondary coloration started gradually diminishing
till finally it disappeared. It is, therefore, presumed that the secondary
coloration, which is different from the normal pigmentation in Anguilla,
has developed due to continuous exposure to direct light.
In captivity the albino eel as well as the normal elvers and juveniles
appear to relish earthworms more than any other food. No canni-
balistic tendency has been observed, and the albino seems to tolerate
the presence of the elvers without any sign of. discomfort or aggres-
siveness. .
Whenever water in the aquarium is changed the eel shows signs
of considerable excitement by attempting to jump out or burrow into
the sand at the bottom. On one of such occasions it actually succeeded
in. Jumping. out, because the. aquarium was inadvertently kept open,
but the fall of about five feet to the floor did not seem to have any
harmful effects on the fish.
__At times ‘the albino ‘rests with its ventral’ side paras (topsy-
turvy position) and occasionally on its lateral sides. “This interesting
286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
habit was observed more often in the early hours of the morning
than at other times. At the slightest disturbance, the eel resumes
its normal position, and these resting postures are assumed only.
when there 1s nobody in the room in which the aquarium is kept,
and when the surroundings are quiet. Normal juveniles have also
been found to assume similar resting postures.
Though incomplete albinism is of frequent occurrence in fishes,
complete albinism is comparatively rare especially in eels. Among
the Indian fishes albinism is fairly common in catfishes like the Magur,
Clarias batrachus (Linn.) and Hora (1926) has described a partial
_ albino of the same species. In the Bose Institute at Calcutta there are
two albino specimens of the Magur in a garden cistern. They are
there for the last four years and are reported to be the survivors
of a batch of four specimens procured from market. Mr. A. David
of this Research Station reports seeing a large albino specimen of _
the Rohu, Labeo rohita (Hamilton), in the fish market at Sambalpur
(Orissa) in 1950. Mr. P. C. Dass of Messrs. Raishaib & Sons, one
of the premier fish auctioneers of Howrah, has informed us that a
few months ago a white (albino) Rohu was sent to him by an. up-
country (U.P.) supplier and that it fetched the same price as the normal |
specimens in the consignment.
It is beyond the scope of this note to discuss in detail the pheno-
menon of albinism in fish. Many of the earlier references on the
subject are given by Dean (1923) and some of the subsequent records
are by Norman (1934), Schreitmuller (1934), Aitkin (1937) and Gudger
(1937). Complete albinism is of less frequent occurrence than ambi-
coloration (Jones & Menon, 1950), xanthochroism (Norman, 1947) and
melanism (Hora, 1941). Albino specimens are only nature’s freaks
and they being more conspicuous than the normal ones, are at a
definite disadvantage in the struggle for existence and hence those
that escape their natural enemies and survive to attain sexual maturity
are few and far between.
CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION,
BARRACKPORE, S. JONES
March 21, 1952. V. R. PANTULU
REFERENCES
Aitkin, W. W. (1937) :Copea, 64.
Dean, B. (1923): Bibliography of Fishes, 3.
Gudger, E. W. (1937): Amer. Mus. Novit., 944: 1-4.
Hora, S. L. (1926): J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal (N.S.), 22; 131-132.
— — — (1941): J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 42 (4); 803-813.
Jones, S. & Menon, P. M. G. (1950): Rec. Ind. Mus., 48 (1); 67-70.
Norman, J. R. (1934): A Systematic monograph of the flatfishes (Heterosto-
mata), 1.
— — — (1947): A History of Fishes, 227.
Schreitmuller, W. (1934): Zool. Anz., 106; 333-334.
[Since communicating the above note, the following. further
observations on the albino eel have just been received from the
authors :— : .
‘With the advent of warm weather the eel became more active
and started feeding voraciously on fish fry and small prawns provided in
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 287
the aquarium. Some of the elvers kept along with the albino disappeared,
presumably having been consumed by it. Elvers kept in a separate
aquarium without food were found to devour the smaller ones amongst
them. The albino is still alive in one of the station aquaria.’—Eps. |
20. MURREL vs. COBRA
Murrel is the most common fresh water fish of South India and
many a tank and well hold them: “Here they freely breed and
grow to a large size.
There are a few murrel in one of my wells, where I have installed
a pump-set. On the evening of the May 2oth, 1950, I was running
the pump-set when a splash and disturbance inside the well drew my
attention. A small cobra about 14 ft. in length had fallen into the
well from the adjoining crevices. Three or four murre] at once chased
the snake and one of them, about a cubit in length (may be about
3 Ib. in weight), caught hold of the snake and was fast devouring it.
I thought the snake was doomed, when suddenly the fish vomitted
and let go the snake. The snake once free disappeared like lightning
into one of the crevices in the sides of the well.
Now, the behaviour of the fish that had seized the cobra was
very funny and strange. ‘It was gasping for breath, opening its.
mouth repeatedly, coming to the surface frequently, splashing and
disappearing, and repeating this restless and giddy performance again
and again. It had obviously been bitten by the cobra in the lower
jaw. As darkness set in, I came home. Next morning I found the
murrel dead.
15, PERUMAL KoiL STREET,
Fort, COIMBATORE, B. SUBBIAH PILLAY
March 7, 1952. :
[The Murrel (Ophicephalus striatus) is known to be a carnivorous
and voracious fish biting at any bait from a live frog to an artificial
fly (Jordan, Fishes 1935).—Ebs. |
21. TASTE OR SMELL IN SALMON
Here is something highly interesting to the fisherman, also the
angler.
. Under the above caption there was published in The Field of
July roth, 1952 an article by the Director of the Zoological Society
of London embodying comments-upon certain experiments regarding
salmon migrating up the rivers of British Columbia.
The article shows that salmon in the rivers are immediately —
affected in their movements by insertion of the human hand in the
water. A number of testing experiments were made with water in
which the hands had been immersed for one minuie; with sea
water; with urine diluted about one in seven; and with a solution
of tomato juice, the latter to find if the mere presence of a foreign
organic substance was repellent. None of these solutions except
a hand-rinse made any difference to the migration rate when they,
were added to the water of the fish ladder. Similar tests with similar
288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
results were made in another British Columbia river. The hand-rinse
solution however, never failed to make an immediate and drastic
reduction in the migration rate.
‘Only one conclusion is possible; the human skin must produce
something that is readily dissolved in water, and in great solution is
extremely repellent to the Cohoe salmon, and probably other fish as
well. Further tests may produce results of great interest’, says
the Director. ‘Meanwhile the conclusions to be drawn by fishermen
from the work now reported are obvious.’
There is mention in a back number of our journal that native
fishermen are well aware of the keen sense of smell of fish, so when
baiting hooks use a leaf to prevent the smell of the fingers being:
transmitted to the bait.
BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,:
September 10, 1952. Lt.-Col., 1.4. (Retd.}
)
AA SPE CINE
22\ THE MANI-JAE OF THE CHIVKAY EAKE
NET FOR BELONIFORM FISHES?
(With a_ plate)
During our visits to the Chilka Lake in connection with fisheries
investigation we came across a novel type of net used only by the
Keots and WNiobartas, two Oriya fishermen castes of Chandrapat
village near Balugan on the western border of the lake. Existing
records on fishing methods in India and elsewhere in the world do
not contain any reference to this type of net or any gear similar to
it in form or mode of operation.
This net, known as Mani-jal, is a light surface drag net and is
made up of a chain. of small bags (Fig. 1 a). Each bag measures
about 10 inches in length, 8 inches in breadth and 15 inches in depth.
It.is made from cotton yarn (14 counts) and its mesh measures about
> inch from knot to knot. The mouth of the bag is kept stretched
by a wooden rod about 8.5 inches long and nearly an inch in diameter,
tied to one of the sides measuring 8 inches each (Fig. 1 b), there
being however two rods, one along each side fastened to either the
first or the last bag in the chain. The individual bag being. too small
for operation, generally 20 such bags are tied together and make one
unit. Lashing is done by arranging the bags side by side in such
a way that the side-without-rod of the one becomes adjacent to the
side-with-rod of the next and then a twine is passed through the alter-
nate meshes of the adjoining sides to hold them together. The unit
net thus appears as a necklace made up of bags and probably on this
account it has acquired the name Mani- jal (Ortya—Mani = necklace,
jal=net). The present cost of each bag is about two rupees.
The net is used for catching the gar-fish, Tylosurus strongylurus
(van Has.), locally known as Gania and half- beak, Hemirhamphus
gaimardi Cuv. & Val., known as Sarbara or Ek-danti-gania i.e. Gania
with one jaw or tooth. Like other Beloniformes, both are surface
ee —
; Published with the permission of. the Chief Research Officer, Central Inland
Fisheries Research Station.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 289
fishes and jump over the net in the opposite direction when cornered,
and this habit seems to be responsible for devising such a net.
For operating the net, four units are joined together and thus
the operational net consists of 80 pieces extending over a length of
about 70 ft. Being very handy and light, the net is operated by two
fishermen, one at each extremity who drag it along the surface
(Fig. 1 a). On account of its wide mouth, each bag bulges out under
the pressure of water and the fish are thus trapped. They are mostly
gilled. The fishes frequent shallow areas, for spawning where algal
growth is abundant. This activity becomes more marked during
January and February in the case of half-beaks and July and August in
the case of the gar-fishes. The net is operated throughout the year
as the fishes are always available, but the main fishing season starts
with the onset of the monsoon and continues till December and
January. The largest quantity of fish exported was in 1948 and 1949
from Balugan. Next comes the southern bay of the lake, from regions
in the neighbourhood of Chandrapat village where algal growth is
plentiful.
The use of this net is restricted to within a few miles distance of
the Chandrapat village and though it has been in existence for gene-
rations it has not been copied elsewhere on the vast lake which
spreads over an area of about 4oo sq. miles. There is reason to
believe that this method has not been introduced from elsewhere but has
had its origin in this section of the Chilka region itself and is indeed
ingenious.
CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION,
BARRACKPORE, Sx JONES
May 30, 1952. K. H. SUJANSINGANI
23. ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND PARENTAL CARE IN THE
POTAMONID CRAB, PARATELPHUSA (BARYTELPHUSA)
JACQUEMONTII (RATHBUN)!
(With four text figures)
Alcock (1910), while describing the breeding habits of the Pota-
monid Crabs, stated that ‘the eggs of Potamonid are comparatively
large and are not numerous. They are carried by the mother in the
usual manner, and so far as is known, are hatched out as zoaea, but
in a much more advanced stage, and the young stay in the mother’s
brood-pouch. until they have attained the adult form and a consider-
able size’. Smith (1923) has indicated the direct mode of development
without metamorphosis in the case of Telphusa fluviatilis, the common
freshwater crab of North Africa; and McCann (1937) has outlined
the same direct development in the common land crab Paratelphusa
(Barytelphusa) guerini of Salsette Island in Bombay.
‘This note describes certain observations on the development and
parental care in Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) jacquemontu (Rathbun), the
rs
1 Read before the Zoology section of the 38th Indian Science Congress,
1951, and communicated with the permission of the Director of Fisheries, Madras.
19
290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
common freshwater crab of peninsular India. It has been observed
to breed along the rocky borders of the Cauvery river and its supply
channels in the Mettur Dam area, Salem district, in February, March
and April, when the water level is low (g-12 inches) and flow of water
Stages in the development of Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) jacquemontii :
I—Fertilised egg at the end of first day. II—Embryo on the fifth day.
I1I—Crabling breaking open the egg shell. IW—Crabling two days old.
calm (30 cusecs). From the beginning of February several female
crabs are observed to develop the ‘sponge’ about 2 inches wide, 1 inch
long and 1 inch deep. The eggs number 360 to 420 and are spherical,
measuring 1.8 to 2.2 mm. in diameter. They are heavily loaded-with
granulated yolk and are orange-coloured. They are attached in
pairs, in a longitudinal manner to the filaments of the four pairs of
swimmerets by means of tendrils, each about 1.6 to 2.0 mm. in length.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 291
Development is rapid, and different stages of cleavages are observ-
ed on the very first day. The morula is obsérved on the second day,
and the blastula on the third day. On the fifth day the eyes and five
pairs of appendages of the embryo can be seen. As great deal of
yolk is present more details could not be observed. As the embryo
develops, the colour of the eggs changes to light brown. The carapace
and appendages are fully formed by the twelfth day. On the sixteenth
and seventeenth days the young crabs with a form completely resembl-
ing the adult, break open the egg shells but remain in the brood-pouch
of the mother. The newly hatched crabs are colourless and measure
2 mm. in length and 24 mm. in width. The baby crabs do not show
any signs of movement for another week, but thereafter they creep
out and crawl around the mother. They make a quick retreat into
the pouch at the least sign of danger, when the mother also assumes
a hostile attitude by spreading her chelate legs. The young ones
which accidentally fall into the water are easily devoured by such
fishes as Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). The mother crab has fre-
quently been observed to expose her brood to sunlight. The
young ones become brown in colour and by the end of the third week
they measure 4 mm. in length and 5 mm. in width. At this stage they
leave the mother’s .brood-pouch to lead an independent life. The
number of young ones that survive and leave the parent vary from
320 to 380. The period of incubation and of parental care lasts about
77 and 22 days respectively. Thus in this species also there is: the
maximum abbreviation in development, stages which are’ free larval
forms in other types being absent. ae
F RESHWATER FISHERIES BIOLOGICAL STATION,
KiLtpauk, MaprAs-1o, P. I. CHACKO
February 12, 1952. S. THYAGARAJAN
REFERENCES
Alcock, A. (1910): ‘Catalogue of the Indian Decapod Crustacea in the collec-
tion of the Indian Museum’, Part I, Fas. II, 1-27. se
McCann, C. (1937): Notes on the common land crab Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa)
guerini of Salsette Island. Jour.. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 39; 531-542.
Smith, G. (1923): The Cambridge Natural History, Vol. IV., Crustacea.
Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London.
24. A NOTE ON THE PARASITIC ISOPOD CYMOTHOA
EREMITA BRUENNICH!
(With two text figures)
Since the. genus Cymothoa was first constituted by Fabricius in
1798 (Syst. Ent. Suppl.) several species have been recorded and are
known mainly as ectoparasites on fishes. The three genera Cymothou
aa em
* Taken as read before the Zoology Section of the 89th Indian Science Congress,
Calcutta 1952 and published with the kind permission .of the Director of
Fisheries, Madras. Contribution from the Marine. Biological Station, Krusadai
Island, Gulf of Mannar.
292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Fabricius, Anilocra Leach and Nerocila Leach have been cited as
examples for protandrous hermaphroditism. Cymothoa eremita and
C. indica are the common species recorded from Indian seas and
brackishwaters.
The common species of Cymothoa Fabr. on fishes caught around
Krusadai Island (Gulf of Mannar) agrees in essential details with the
description of Cymothoa eremita Bruennich, the type of which is
deposited in Copenhagen Museum. In Krusadai sea they are not un-
common in the mouth of the Black Pomfret Stromateus niger.
Specimens have also been recovered from Chirocentrus dorab, Mugil
seheli and juvenile fish of the genus Caranx. The length of 8 specimens
collected, their place of attachment and other significant details are
tabulated below.
Length of | |
No. | Date of collection | parasite | Host fish | Place of attachment
inmm. | |.
] 10-2-1949 ose 10.0 Chirocentrus dorab | Dorsal side of head
2 do. aes 12.0 do. do.
3 12—4~1949 mop 13.0 Mugil seheli Base of left pectoral
4 do. se 15.0 Chirocentrus dorab | Dorsal side of body
near the dorsal fin
Sh | do. ye 21.0 | Stromateus niger Mouth (palate)
6. | 4-3-1949 ae 31.0 " do. do.
7 wi do. ae 33.0 do. co.
8. | 15-3-1949 oo 35.0 do. do.
Fig. 1.—Dorsal
view of parasite
length 35 mm.
(ovigerous female)
(about natural Fig. 2.—Ventral view of parasite
size). length 35 mm. (x 2).
Description of parasite :—
Head.—Head is deeply immersed in the first thoracic segment. <A
pair of clearly visible eyes is present in specimens less than 15 mm.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 293
in length, although there were no traces of these in bigger specimens.
The eyes perhaps degenerate as a result of the parasitic habit. The
number of articles in the two feelers were found to vary in the dif-
ferent specimens examined, as under:
No. of articles in
Length of parasite |
|
in mm.
| 1st feeler | 2nd feeler
sss SS ee
10 mm. to 21 mm, awe | 8 | 9
31 mm. eee | 6 8
33 mm. oe 8 7
35 mm. | 7 | 8
|
ance
Thorax.—The first segment is long in the median line and has
its anteriolateral angles produced. The remaining six segments are
shorter than the first segment.
Abdomen.—The five segments of the abdomen are short and deeply
inserted. Telson is wider than long and the distal margin is markedly
bilobed. The two rami of the uropod are flattened and equal in
length.
Legs.—There are seven pairs of prehensile and curved legs with the
first three pairs directed forwards and the remainder directed backwards.
The dactyli of all legs are strong, pointed and hook like. The legs
directed backwards increase in size successively with basal articles
greatly enlarged. |
Eggs.—The specimen of 35 mm. examined was an ovigerous female.
There were about 150 eggs. Eggs had an oval shape with 1.265 mm.
length and 1.035 mm. breadth. The eggs were found to develop
in the controlled conditions in the laboratory. The life history of this
Isopod and the effect of parasitism on the hosts. would be presented
separately.
OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR OF FISHERIES,
(MaRINE BIOLoGy), G. K. KURIYAN
WEsT HI,
February, 1952.
25. AN UNUSUAL ROYAL CHAMBER WITH TWO KINGS
AND TWO QUEENS IN THE INDIAN MOUND-
BUILDING TERMITE, ODONTOTERMES
OBESUS (RAMBUR) [ISOPTERA:
FAMILY TERMITIDAE]
(With a plate)
The mounds of Odontotermes obesus (Rambur), which is the
common mound-building termite all over northern India, may be as
high as 2 to 2.5 meters (ca. 7 to 8 ft.) above the ground surface.
There is an almost equal depth of nest material below the ground.
4
294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
The royal chamber, which consists of a flat chamber, spindle-shaped
in cross-section and made of hard, clayey material, is found below
the ground surface. There are a number of tiny holes through which
the workers come and go. These holes are, however, too small for
the king and queen to pass through; the latter therefore, remain
permanently imprisoned in the chamber. Usually, a royal pair in a
mound consists of just one king and one queen.
In the course of examination of over 100 mounds in the New
Forest area near Dehra Dun, we found one in which the royal chamber,
to our surprise, contained two kings and two queens (Plate). The
mound which was dug on 2oth May 1950, was about 1.2 meters (ca.
4 ft.) high above the ground level. The royal chamber was found
about 0.9 meters (ca. 3 ft.) below the ground surface. The mound-
population consisted of soldiers, workers and winged adults, all in a
healthy condition.
The dimensions of the royal chamber are as follows: length 10 cm.,
width 7.5 cm., height 2.6 cm. A normal royal chamber (with one king and
one queen) is usually much smaller.
Each of the two kings was about 13 mm. long, and was deep
brown in colour. The two queens were large, with greatly distended
abdomens, suggesting that the mound was at least a few years old.
The queens varied in size, the following being the dimensions:
Smaller queen.—Total length 53 mm.; length of abdomen 45 mm. ;
greatest width of abdomen 15 mm, ,
Larger queen.—Total length 71 mm.; length of abdomen 63 mm. ;
greatest width of abdomen 16 mm. When dug out, the larger queen
was sluggish and evidently about to die; the smaller one was quite
healthy.
The significance of this duplication of the royal pair is not under-
stood. Mukerji and Raychaudhuri (1942, p. 175) have recorded the
occasional occurrence ‘of two or more queens of the same size’ in
a royal chamber in Odontotermes rvedemannt Wasm.
FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, M. L. ROONWAL,
DEHRA Dun, M.Sc., Ph.p. (Cantab.), F.N.I., F.Z.S.1.
September, 1952. SDs GUIPPAte Msc:
REFERENCES
Grassé, P. P. (1949): Traité de Zoologie, Anatomie, Systématique, Biologie.
Tome IX. Insects (Part). Ordre des Isoptéres ou Termites. Pp. 408-544.—Paris
(Masson et Cie). 5
Hegh, E. (1922): Les Termites, 756 pp.-—Brussels.
Mukerji, D. and Raychaudhuri, S. (1942): Structure, function and origin of
the exudate organs in the abdomen of the physogastric queen of the termite
‘Termes redemanni Wasmann.—Indian J. Ent., New Delhi, 4 (2) ; 173-199.
Snyder, T. E. (1948): Our Enemy the Termite. (Revised ed.) xiii+257 pp.—
Ithaca, U.S.A. (Comstock Publ. Co.).
v)., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
4
oie
| The royal chamber (top cover of chamber removed) of Odontotermes obesus (Rambur), dug
‘bm a mound in New Forest, Dehra Dun, on 20th May 1950, showing the duplication of the
iyal pair in the chamber. ‘There are 2 kings and 2 queens instead of the usual 1 king and
‘queen. (Natural size). —
| Letiering.—c., cavity of royal chamber; h., hole leading into royal chamber; k., king ;
( queen; s., surface of royal chamber.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 295
26. ON AN INTERESTING ASSOCIATION OF OPHIUROIDS,
FISH AND CRAB WITH THE JELLYFISH
RHOPILEMA HISPIDUM
(With a plate)
During June-July 1950 several specimens of the Scyphomedusa—
Rhopilema ae Maas were observed very near the shore in the
Palk Bay, ca. 9°17’ 24” N: 79° 08’ 00” E. A specimen measuring
280 mm. in ee which was washed ashore on June 19th, was
literally covered with ophiuroids (as many as 829) and it was then
thought that these might have settled on the medusa after it was
washed ashore. Subsequently ten live specimens of the same jelly-
fish were obtained from the same area and all of them had innumerable
ophiuroids in association, (Photo 1). The ophiuroids (Photo 2)
have been determined as Oe marmorata (Lamarck), which
is a very common species distributed widely in the tropical seas. So
far as we know there is no record of its association with jellyfish.
The ophiuroids collected from different medusae were in different stages
of development including. very young forms as well as adults. It
is difficult to adduce any satisfactory explanation for this association
but there 1s reason to believe that the medusae are used not only
as a substratum for the growing individuals but it is also likely that
they may find the new environment suitable for securing remnants
of animals caught by the jellyfish, as ophiuroids are known to -be
detritus feeders. This association may also help the ophiuroid to
get distributed over a wider area.
‘The medusae were always found to be followed by a group al
young fish, which when disturbed take shelter underneath the bell.
On July 1st, 1950, 56 fish ranging from 8.5 mm. to 18.0 mm. in length
were observed. These fish have been identified as Caranx kalla Cuv.
& Val. Since Malm (1852) first noticed the association between young
fish, Caranx trachurus and the medusa, Cyanea capillata, several such
associations have been recorded especially by Scheuring (1915) and
Mortensen (1917)..- It is believed by some that the young fish collect
underneath the jellyfish to feed on the smal! animals which they capture
with. their tentacles and the fish in turn do them the service of eating
the Hyperias which attack the jellyfish. However, Scheuring op. cit.,
as a result of experiments conducted arrived at the conclusion that
the young of Gadus merlangus seek the Cyanea exclusively with the
object of feeding on its ovaries.and tentacles. The same was found
to hold good for the young Caranx. But Mortensen (1917) is of opinion
that these young fish collect around the medusae in order to find
shelter, perhaps from strong light, because the fish are often seen
collecting under such floating objects as drift-logs and floating leaves.
He further remarks that when the weather is dark hardly any are
found in this way. He does not, however, deny the possibility of these
fish feeding on the animals caught by the tentacles of the jellyfish.
It is a well-known fact that several carangids have the habit of
gathering below or near floating objects and the fishermen take
advantage of this for catching them, So far we have not been able
296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
to find any evidence of these fish feeding on the gonads or the
tentacles of the jellyfish.
The following associations have been recorded so far and a fairly
complete review of the literature concerning the subject has been given
by Scheuring (1915):
Caranx trachurus Cyanea capillata
Gadus callarias
G., merlangus
G. aeglefinus
Merlangus vulgaris aa
Gadus sp. Aurelia aurita
Mortensen (1917) has also recorded that he has observed young’ fish
following some small Rhizostoma.
In two of the specimens of Rhopilema hispidum the Portunid crab
Charybdis annulata (Fabricius) was also found under the bell of the
medusa. This association too has not been recorded before and here
again it is not certain whether the crabs feed on the tentacles or the
gonads of the jellyfish or on some of the animals caught by the
medusa. However, it may be mentioned that both the ophiuroids
and crabs are detritus feeders and it is highly probable that they
find this association profitable.
We wish to acknowledge our grateful thanks to Dr. A. Clark of
the British Museum for naming the ophiuroid and our appreciation of
the excellent condition in which the specimens were brought to the
laboratory by Sri P. Balaraman Nair.
CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES
RESEARCH STATION, N. K. PANIKKAR
MANDAPAM CAMP, R. R, PRASAD
Oclober 195t. .
LITERATURE CITED
Malm, A. W., (18&2): Ichthyologiska anmarkningar. Ofvers. Vetensk. Akad.
Férhandl. Stockholm, 9; 223-234.
Mortensen, Th., (1917): Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition
1914-16. I. Observations on protective adaptation and habits, mainly in marine
animals. Vidensk. Medd. fra Dansk naturhist. Foren., 69; 57-96.
Scheuring, L., (1915): Beobachtung tiber den Parasitismus pelagischer
jungfische. Biol. Centralblatt, 85; 181-190.
27. AN UNUSUAL INFLORESCENCE OF
MORINGA OLEIFERA LAMK.
(With a photo)
I wish to place on record the description of an unusual inflorescence,
noticed in a seven-year old Drumstick tree {Moringa oleifera Lamk.)
at Saidapet, Madras.
_ The normal inflorescence of the drumstick tree is a panicle, the
flowers forming a short and loose cluster. But in the abnormal in-
florescence the flowers were in a fairly dense cluster of the size of
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 297
a pumpkin. The floral sphere, if it may be called so, appeared to
be a result of dichotomously dichasial growth of the axes of the
inflerescence, which branched at regular and short intervals and in
several different planes. This mode of development continued for over
The unusual inflorescence as scen from above.
five months, the older flowers falling away and the younger ones
replacing them in larger numbers. Examination of a few individual
flowers, gathered at random, revealed a perfect development of al!
the organs. No fruit, however, developed from this inflorescence,
probably because of the keen competition for space in the cluster,
resulting in the early destruction of the flowers.
I have not been able to find a published record of a similar instance
(nor of any other abnormality) in the drumstick tree.
Botany SECTION,
Govt. Museum, M. S. CHANDRASEKHAR
Mapras-8,
August 21, 1952.
28. GEOLOGICAL LANDMARKS IN BOMBAY AND SALSETTE
(With a photo)
The islands of Bombay and Salsette and surrounding areas are
mainly composed of rocks of volcanic origin. It was somewhere in
the beginning of the Tertiary period (i.e. 80 to 90 million years back)
that a large part of India (then a connected portion of the main
298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Gondwana land) was inundated by lava flows and other products of
volcanic discharge. As a result, the greater part of the Deccan plateau
and Gujarat are today seen covered with black lava ‘rock well known
as the Deccan Traps. The pouring out of the lavas from the bowels
of the earth was an intermittent process. When the eruption of lava
ceased small deposits of sedimentary rocks were formed in lakes; and
hollows developed due to weathering and denudation of the cooled
lava surfaces. These sedimentary rocks, in certain places, became
the repositories of the plant and animal life that flourished during
that period. The well-known frog-beds of the Worli hill in the Bombay
island are sedimentary rocks Of similar origin. These beds have been
known for the preservation of frog, tortoise and other animals and
plant fossils. ,
The greater part of the islands of Bombay and Salsette is covered
with thick sheets of black lava examples of which one finds on the
: Malabar, Cumbala, Worli Hills,
“~~ etc. +~These lavas* which extend in
~ Salsette island from Bandra on-
wards to Jogeshwari, probably
erupted’ through a narrow
crack. The beautiful columnar
pattern developed in these lavas
and now strikingly revealed in the
Gilbert Hil of Andheri, tells its
own tale. -~It is a-story of erup-
tion and consolidation of th’s lava
in a crack or fissure in the earth’s
crust. The straight and curved
pillars of these lavas make an
imposing natural sight for the
observer. The phenomenon is tech-
nically known as columnar jointing
in basalts. Those who have seen
the formation of polygonal cracks
in the dried-up mud deposits will
. be able to visualise clearly the
phenomena of columnar joints in basalts. In both cases the cause of
origin is very nearly the same. The cracks or open narrow fissures
so. developed during the process of cooling (of lava) are called joints.
They are the result of a decrease in volume which occurs at tbe
time of cooling and consolidation of a horizontal sheet of lava. The
erupted hot lava solidifies at about 1,000° C. and during subsequent
cooling it contracts. The resulting tensional forces coupled with rupture
give rise to vertical fractures which radiate out from numerous centres.
If the centres are evenly spaced vertical hexagonal columns develop:
The vertically cut section in the Gilbert Hill of Andheri is a very
striking example of this phenomenon.
The two spots in the Bombay-Salsette islands,—Worli-. Hill
and the Gilbert Hill—stand out, therefore, as prominent land-marks
in the geological history of these islands; the former as a- hunting
ground for fossil collectors and. the latter as an’imposing natural
te
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 299
phenomenon for all lovers of nature. In western countries many
such localities have been preserved as National Parks.
Bompay, R, N. SUKHESHWALA
September 15, 1952
| At the instance of the Society’s representative on the Government
of Bombay’s Parks and Gardens Advisory Committee, Government
nave declared the rocks at Gilbert Hill at Andheri as a National Park
and passed orders for the erection of boundary stones to ensure their
preservation.
The fossil deposits at Worli Hill are under the administration of
the Bombay Municipality, and the Parks and Gardens Department is
making an attempt to save them from destruction.—Eps. |
29. GLEANINGS
Why the Helmeted Hornbill ‘toks’
In an interesting article mostly on the artistic and commercial
use of the bill of the Helmeted Hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil), S. V. R.
Carnmann in the University Museum Bulletin, Philadelphia, Vol. 15,
No. 4, pp. 19-47, writes :— |
‘In Malaya it is called ‘‘Kill your mother-in-law bird’’ because of
its strange call consisting of loud ‘toks’ repeated increasingly faster
and ending in wild laughter. The Helmeted Hornbill was once a
Malayan who cordially disliked his mother-in-law and finally chopped
down the stilts that supported her hut when she was inside it, to
get rid of her. The gods then changed him into this bird and
condemned him to re-live his crime by making the sound of the axe
striking the foundation posts, followed by his outburst of unholy glee
when the house came crashing down.’
Giant Flowers
‘Colchicine treatment has enabled gardeners to raise.a race of giant
flowers—hollyhocks with bloom the size of dessert plates, marigolds
like yellow saucers, and antirrhinums as big as apples. New tetra-
ploid varieties of flowers are conspicuous in this year’s seed catalogues.
For instance, Burpee of Clinton, Iowa, lists several tetraploid forms.
These were created from diploid forms by Colchicine treatment and
possess twice the normal number of chromosomes, The tetraploid
snap-dragons are exceptionally large, many. of the flowers are at-
tractively ruffled and the central flower spikes grow 2 ft. and more
in height.’
_ (Reproduced from Science Newsletter, No. 56, dated 14-12-1951,
item No. 1044).
Fish with ‘Radar’ Equipment
- ‘In the last of his series of children’s lectures on ‘How animals
move’, given at the Royal Institution yesterday, Dr. James Gray,
F.R.S., Professor of Zoology at Cambridge University, spoke about a
300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
discovery made last year which opens up a new field of biological
inquiry.
The discovery relates to a fish which to use an imperfect analogy,
has a kind of ‘radar’ which enables it to find its way about without
using its eyes. The bat, about which Dr. Gray also spoke, has a
similar ability through the emission of an ultrasonic note which enabies
it to fix the location of obstructions by the return echoes reaching its
ears. But the fish, known as Gymarchus, or ‘tao’ in Africar
vernacular, makes use of an electric field generated by organs in the
tail. The animal is able to detect variations in the field caused by
objects within range and is thus able to avoid collision. Dr. Gray
said that this discovery was made by Dr. H. Lissmann, Assistant
Director of Research in the Zoological Department at Cambridge, who
had noticed that the fish, in propelling itself backwards, cleared
obstacles which it could not have seen with its eyes. Investigation
confirmed that the fish emitted a train of impulses, and when Dr,
Lissmann went to Africa to watch the fish in its natural habitat he
found that it lived either in muddy or turbulent waters in which its
eyes were not of great use. Dr. Gray invited Dr. Lissmann to
demonstrate how it was possible with amplifying equipment to pick
up the emission of two specimens of electric fish by placing probes
in tanks. Impulses were heard in the loud-speakers and it was noticed
that intensity varied with orientation. Dr. Lissmann also played
a recording which he made in Africa on which the frequency of
impulses was between 300 and 350 a second. He said that there were
too kinds of fish in Africa which gave off electrical impulses, which
were derived from a tail structure of plate-like elements in series to
give high voltage. The tail was negative and the head positive.
The fish was able to distinguish between the conductivity of various
objects, using this information as a guide, and perhaps was also able
to communicate with its mate. (The Times, 9-1-1952).
(Reproduced from Science Newsletter, No. 60, dated 11-1-1952, item
No. 1095).
Ant-eaters and Ants
From an account of a meeting of the Zoological Society of London
held on November 13th, 1951, reproduced from the P.Z.S. Vol. 121,
Part IV, February 1952.
‘Mr. C. S. Webb exhibited a cinematograph film showing the
African pangolin feeding on ants. This species, Manis longicaudata
is arboreal and feeds on tree-nesting ants whose nests built among
the branches, it tears open with its powerful foreclaws. The ants
rush forth and are eaten by the pangolin whose head becomes covered
with an almost solid mass of ants biting the skin. The animal appears
to pay no attention to them and makes no attempt to brush them
off. Mr. Webb recounted that when he had replaced a pangolin
in its cage after feeding in this manner, he found that within half
an hour all the ants were lying dead on the floor below the head of
the sleeping pangolin. He suggested that the pangolin has developed
immunity to the bites of the ants so great that the animal is toxic
to the ant and thus causes its death after it has bitten. He also
suggested the possibility that frequent and numerous bites of ants
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES <—e 301
were necessary to the health of the pangolin and that one of the
reasons for the difficulty of keeping these animals in captivity may
be the absence of sufficient ant bites.’
{Could the Rufous Woodpecker (Micropternus) which lays its eggs
in the ‘live’ nests of the vicious tree-ants (Cremastogaster) be similarly
immune ?—Epbs. |
What the eye misses
Extract from an article entitled as above from J, K. Stanford’s
‘The Changing Year’, reproduced from The Field of March rst, 1952—
‘The fact is that where fast movement is concerned we only see
jumbled bits of things. This was most vividly exemplified years ago
by Captain C. W. R. Knight when he was photographing an osprey’s
nest on a beach in America. He put his tame golden eagle down
on the beach close to the nest, and some may recall the scenes which
followed. The eagle seemed to duck and take little short jumps into
the air at each attack and one saw the blur of his wings opening as
the osprey swooped down on him. In slow motion one saw, also,
not only the incredibly involved unfolding of those mighty wings,
but the fact that the eagle managed to be upside down in the air,
with talons ready to engage, as the osprey passed over him !’
Possible Sea Serpents?
Achievements of a Danish expedition that has been investigating
ocean abysses (down to a depth of 34,000 ft.) were described in
London by its scientific leader, Dr. Anton D. Brunn, of Copenhagen
University.
The expedition was undertaken in the frigate ‘Galathea’, now at
Plymouth her last foreign port of call before returning to Danish
waters after an absence of nearly two years.
Dr. Brunn had one disappointment. He found no evidence of the
existence of sea serpents, but firmly believes that they live in the
ocean depths as a form of eel. His assumptions are based particularly
on the capture in 1930, between the Cape Town and St. Helena, of an
eel fish larva that was 6 ft. long and possessed more vertebrae than
any other known animal. The larval lengths of the freshwater and
conger eels, he said, were 4 inches and 6 inches. He would not expect
to find the creatures in very deep water, but on continental shelves
where food supplies were good. One likely place was in the region
of the Canadian Isles,Cape Verde, and Cape Town.—(The Times)
(Reproduced from Science Newsletter, No. 83, dated 20-6-1952,
item No. 1383.) -
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1951.
President
H. E. Raya MaAnaraj SINGH
Vice-Presidents
Major-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s.
Mr. W. S. Millard, F.z.s.
Executive Committee
~
Migaalee Tea aliiney,
MiroiGaVe sbedekars ol. Css sua.
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, kT., C.1.E.
Mr. M. J. Hackney
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, S.J. : nee eee
Dr. S. B. Setna, pPh.p. ) A: _., Bombay
WME 1see Le Salil ee a |
Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokheys I.M.S,
Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Mr. Salim Ali ;
Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer)
|
|
(Jt. Hon. Secretaries)...
Advisory Committee
LteGoliaRy Wie Burton aa. [(Retd at. ... Bangalore
Dr. B. N. Chopra, D.sc. £6 suis so, New Delhi
Miz 1€:is Donald; F:Z-s: se sta ... London
Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L.1.,.Ph.D., D:D... Coorg:
DrivS. (Es HlorayeD. Sc: ; +9 ... Calcutta
Mr. C. M. Inglis, C.M.B.O.U., F.ZAS. ayo .». Coonoor
Cols Re 2@ es Moris non REGS. 6h.Z.S.- sie ... Attikan
Dr eke Mukerjee, DESChn ats. ... Calcutta
Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.E. FAZS., 1A.
(Retd.) o5e we ... Nilgiris
Dr. Baini Prasad, D.Sc. Bar ae ... New Delhi
List of members of the Executive and ‘Advisory Committees elected
for the year 1952.
Vice-President
Maj.-Gen, Sir Sahib. Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1951 303
Executive Committee
> do He Allingssy \
“ie G. V. Bedekar, 1.C.s. |
Mr. M. J. Hackney |
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Mr. S. Moolgavkar fers Ants ae gal
Mr. D. J. Panday Ae sa ... )Bombay
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.jJ. ... is Baur
Dr. S. B. Setna, pPh.p. |
a avai EN } (Jt. Hon. Secretaries)...
Mr. M. J.-Dickins (Hon. Treasurer) ...
: é Advisory Committee
Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.) ... ... Bangalore
a Chintaman Deshmukh, kT., C.I.E., 1.c.s. .... New Delhi
= ©, Jel, IDEN 1672.95 > G6 ae ... Scotland
ae Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L.T., Ph.D., D.D. Mysore
Dr (S. > Hora, psse- 55 ae ... Calcutta
Mr. C. M. Inglis, CIWMEIBO Woy MoMoS. aon 500 © COOMOO?
Col. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. a 550 | Alinileeoup
PDS ae Mukerjee, D. sc. I wy, leCaleutta
Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.E. PZ.S., 1A,
(Retd.) 2 ot ... Nilgiris
Dr, Baini Prasad, DSC! DUE oe Rie ... New Delhi
HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1951
THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL
~ Volume 49, No. 4 and Volume 50, Nos. 1 and 2 and the Index
Part I of Volume 49 were published during the year.
MAMMALS
Parts viii-x of ‘Jungle Memories’ by Lt.-Col, Phythian-Adams are
of interest to sportsmen as well as mammalogists. Like the previous
parts of this series they are a record of his experiences with a variety
of game animals which should provide useful lessons to young
sportsmen.
K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji and M. A. Wynter-Blyth published the
concluding part of their ‘The Gir Forest and its Lions’ which is pre-
faced by an account of ‘The Lion in Bhavnagar’ (by K.S.D.). The
article is mainly devoted to the natural history of lions in general with
particular reference to those inhabiting the Gir. An appendix gives
records and measurements of lions shot in the Mytiala Lion Reserve
Forest, Bhavnagar State.
BIRDS
Six papers were published in this section.
‘The Birds of Coorg’ by F. N. Betts in two parts, is an exhaus-
tive regional paper which, in addition to the systematic list, includes
304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
classified lists of montane species, dry and wet zone species and
local migrants with notes on physiography and climate, thus adding
considerably to its usefulness.
M. D. Lister’s ‘Some Bird Associations of Bengal’ and ‘Birds and
Ecology’ are both valuable contributions on bird ecology, the latter
containing useful hints and suggestions for field work in India.
Of taxonomic significance is the paper ‘A New Race of the
Ground-Thrush Turdus citrinus (Aves: Turdidae)’ by Biswamoy
Biswas in which he describes a new race, amadoni, from the Central
Provinces (Madhya Pradesh) and Orissa.
Other papers include ‘Some notes on Birds in Lahul’ by H. G.
Alexander supplementing Whistler’s observations published in his
‘Birds of Lahul’ (Ibis, 1925), and Mrs. Desiree Proud’s ‘Some Birds
seen on the Gandak-Kosi Watershed’ which largely supplements
Smythies’s account, Volume 47, pp. 432-443.
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
No contribution was received in this section.
FISH AND FISHERIES
In contrast with last year when this section remained completely
blank, as many as ten papers were published during the year under
review, which is a pointer to the increasing importance this subject
is gaining both from the scientific and economic. points of view.
E. G. Silas published the following papers :—
1. ‘On a Collection of Fish from the Anamalai and Nelliampathi .
Hill Ranges (Western Ghats) with Notes on its Zoogeographical
significances’.
2. ‘Fishes from the High Range of Travancore’.
3. ‘Notes on Fishes of the Genus Glyptothorax Blyth from
Peninsular India with description of a new species’.
All the three papers are based on fish collections made in the hill
range of south-western India. _
In the first paper the author, on the strength of the material collec-
ted, adduces some significant evidence in support of Hora’s Satpura
Hypothesis for the spread of Malayan and east Himalayan torrential
stream fishes to peninsular India over the Satpura mountain trend.
The second paper records the Loach—Nemachilus denisoni Day—
from Travancore for the first time; the third provides a key to the species
of the genus Glyptothorax Blyth, and includes description of a new
species, G. anamaliensis, collected in the Anamalais.
On the fishery side, among others may be mentioned the following
two useful contributions on the Hilsa.
1. ‘Hilsa Fisheries in the Narbada River’ by C. V. Kulkarni.
2. ‘The Hilsa Fishery of the Chilka Lake’ by S. Jones and
Kk. H. Sujansingani.
Kulkarni describes the fishery methods practised in the Narbada
river and traces the recent depletion of this fishery to overfishing.
He suggests that the Narbada offers a suitable venue for detailed
investigation of the causes of the decline in Hilsa fisheries and
measures: to check it.
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1951 305
The second paper deals with the bionomics of this important
food fish and the steps necessary for conservation of this fishery in
the Chilka. |
In their paper ‘On the hydro-biological data collected on the
Wadge Bank early in 1949’ K. Chidambaram and JA. D. Isaac
Rajendran, recommend organized fishing in this area (near Cape
Comorin) with hand lines from modern power-driven craft which
would enable the catches to be brought ashore quickly for prompt
disposal and marketing.
Papers on pure Ichthyology include (1) “Observations on the Egg-
cases of some Ovo-viviparous Elasmobranchs and Viviparous Elas-
mobranchs with a note on the formation of the Elasmobranch Ege-
case’ by R. Raghu Prasad (2) ‘On an interesting case of Carp spawn-
ing in the River Cauvery at Bhavani during June 1947’ by S. V.
Ganapati, K. H. \Alikunhi and Francesca Thivy and (3) ‘Bionomics
of the Mrigal, Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.) in South Indian waters’ by
P. I. Chacko and S. V. Ganapati.
On the angling side, W. E. D. Cooper published his ‘Forty Years
of Sport on little known Assam rivers’ in two parts. This consists
largely of extracts from his diaries and will no doubt tempt anglers
to repeat his experiences with mahseer in the Barak river and its
tributaries which, according to the author are the home of this
sporting “fish.
INVERTEBRATES
‘Study of the Marine Fauna of the Karwar Coast and Neighbour-
ing Islands’ Part I, by A. M. Patil is welcome as it provides an in-
vertebrate faunal list of this little explored sea coast, of particular use-
fulness to students.
Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey, a former British Resident in Nepal, con-
tributes his ‘Notes on Butterflies from Nepal’ in two parts. This
paper forms a useful supplement to Evans’s ‘Identification of Indian
Butterflies’ in regard to this hitherto little known region, and also
to Talbot’s Fauna volume.
‘The Butterflies of Bombay and Salsette’ by A. E. G. Best, is
based on a collection made during two years round Tulsi and Vihar
Lakes, Trombay Hill, Kanheri Cares, etc., and in the suburbs of
Bombay.
E. P. Wiltshire’s “A Year on a Tigris Island’ is a record of
observations, largely entomological, made over all the seasons on
an island subject to periodical inundation at flood time. The paper
gives a list of the butterflies of the island divided into (1) permanent
residents, (2) temporary colonists and (3) casual visitors, and describes
their life conditions. It is a model of the type of ecological work
sorely needed in this country.
The little known habits of the common membracid (‘Tree-hopper’)
—Otinotus oneratus Walk.—are studied and described by Basanta
Kumar Behura in his ‘Habits of the common memracid (‘‘Tree- -hopper’’)
Otinotus oneratus Walk.’ (Homoptera: Rhynchota).
H. C. Ray, in a semi-popular account on ‘Cowries’ deals with
the systematics, habits and habitats, transformation, uses, dissolving
of the shell, etc., of these interesting gastropod molluscs.
20 7
306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
BOTANY
Of the seven papers published five were on systematics, one on
ecology and one on economics.
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, who in recent years has been engaged in
revising Cooke’s ‘Flora of the Bombay Presidency’, published the
following papers :—
1. _, Dhe genus Dioscorea in Bombay State’,
2. ‘Critical Notes on the Identity and Nomenclature of some
Bombay Plants’.
Both these papers are based upon his researches among the mate-
rial in the Kew Herbarium where he has recently been working. |
In the former, the author records five additional species of
Dioscorea to those mentioned in Cooke’s Flora of Bombay, and gives
a useful key to the species of this genus.
M. B. Raizada and S. K. Jain describe a new genus—Il*ilipedium
—created by them to accommodate the grass Capillipedium planipedice-
llatum Bor which they consider very different from all other species
of Capillipedium, in which it was placed.
M. L. Banerji in his paper on Pimpinella records two new species.
N. L. Bor’s ‘The Genus Vulpia Gmel. in India’ is a critical study
with a key to the species. 5
‘Succession of the Mangrove Vegetation of Bombay and Salsette
Islands’ by B. S. Navalkar, is a commendable contribution to local
plant ecology.
L. D. Kapoor, R. N. Chopra and I. G. Chopra in their “Survey
of Economic Vegetable Products of Jammu and Kashmir’ have drawn
up a systematic list of relevant plant species occurring in the Sindh
Forest Division with their respective popular names.
GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY
‘A Naturalist in the North-west Himalayas’ Part I, by M. A.
Wrynter-Blyth is a very readable account of the author’s interesting
trek through the upper Kulu Valley and the line of Dhaoladhar Range
from Darunghati to Larji. Some of the faunal and floral inhabitants
of the region—are mentioned and good photographs and a text map
add to the usefulness of the article for those planning a similar trip.
WILD LIFE AND WILD LIFE RESERVES
Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, the veteran sportsman-naturalist, published
aree important papers under this head :
1. ‘Game Sanctuaries (Pre-1942) in Burma with present status
of Rhinoceros & Thamin’,
2. ‘Wild Life Reserves in India: Uttar Pradesh’,
3. ‘The Protection of World Resources: Wild Life and the
Solu
In the first paper, Burton points to the present alarming position
of the Rhinoceros and Thamin both in India and Burma, and warns
that if immediate protective measures are not afforded fhese animals
are bound to face early extinction.
The account of the Pidoung Game Sanctuary as it was then,
should prove useful in making a comparison with conditions obtain-
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1951 — si. 80%
ing today. A complete index of all references to Rhinoceros in
the Society’s Journal forms an appendix to the paper.
The second article gives a brief history of the two Wild Life
Reserves in Uttar Pradesh, namely the Hailey Nationa] Park in the
Kalagarh Forest Division and Rajaji Wild Life Sanctuary in the
Siwalik Hills, together with an account of their fauna and flora.
In his third paper Burton emphasises how the protection of world
resources is of vital moment to all nations, and that the waning of
wild life, deforestation and consequent soil erosion and advance of
deserts are all evidences of man’s imprudence. Unless measures are
effectively concerted to check these, the author warns, mankind will
very soon perish. :
MISCELLANEOUS
This section was increasingly popular and notes published during
the year present the usual diversity of interest and content.
PUBLIC ADILONS
‘The Study of Indian Molluscs’ by the late James Hornell is now
on sale. Efforts are being made to make ‘Butterflies of the Indian
Region’ by M. A. Wynter-Blyth available as early as possible. ‘Some
Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs’ by N. L. Bor and M. B.
Raizada is still in the Press. The 2nd edition of ‘Some Beautiful
Indian Trees’ by Blatter and Millard, is under preparation with
Messrs. Oliver & Boyd, Scotland. Its publication has been inordi-
nately delayed for a number of reasons.
EXPEDITIONS
None were undertaken during the year under report.
NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME
This scheme, which has now been in operation for four years, has
done commendable work with an increased number of activities.
During the year its programme included talks on ‘Insect Life’ aided
by illustrations and exhibits—both live and preserved, followed by
film shows, which were taken advantage of by some 1300 school
children. cote
Four series of lectures on plant life with demonstrations, were
delivered to teachers, which were supplemented by field trips. Five
bulletins containing useful nature notes month by month were issued
to schools. Three additional plant study sheets were published.
Guided tours in the Natural History Section were provided for
schools and. other visitors.
The Nature Education Organiser participated in the All-India
Museum Education Conference held in June at Poona, and the All-
India Educational Conference held in October in Bombay. He ex-
plairied the methods employed in the Bombay scheme for creating and
sustaining interest in natural history among school children, with a
view to inducing other States. to follow suit. ,
An additional bird-exhibit case was brought out.
308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Witp LIFE PRESERVATION
It is unfortunate that the Government have not yet been able to
set the Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951
in motion. It is hoped however that after the elections are over,
Government will be able to take suitable action.
[Rei 7 ID} IN (i) TD AV GG © Ey
The total receipts during the year amounted to Rs. 53,390-2-3
as compared+with Rs. 46,231-3-6 during the year 1950. The increase
of Rs. 7,158-14-9 is mainly due to (1) extra grant of Rs. 4,000 due
from the Government of Bombay for the previous year having been
received and included in the grant for 1951 and (2) increase in the
profits on publications. But the increase in the profits on publications
is not due to any increase in the volume of sales but has resulted on
account of the depreciations on stock effected during the previous years,
reducing the cost price of each publication.
The total number of members on our books as on 31st December
I951 was 1,077, of which 230 were life members. This figure has
been arrived at after removing from the rolls defaulters who have not
paid their subscriptions for more than three years. Subscriptions for
1951 have so far been received from 680 members.’ During the year
75 new members joined and 3 life members and 8 ordinary members
died and 39 ordinary members resigned. .
The sales of the Society’ S publications have continued to be the
same as was reported in the last year’s annual report.
COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING THE DIFFERENT SOURCES OF
REVENUE RECEIVED IN 1950 AND IQ51
Revenue Revenue Increase | Decrease
in in in in
1950 1951 1951 1951
Rs. a. p. | Rs a. p: | Rs. a, #| RS nasa ps
Subscriptions ... | 21,841 0 0 | 21,342 0 ul faa 499 0 0
Entrance fees soo he BS OO Ns ah See © @ —. | 203 0 O
Publications: | | |
Books... _ .- | 4,158 0 0 | 6,236 0 0 | 2}078) 0) —=—
Journals ss 32 4a Z1V/ OMG | 8S2 0 0 ==
Interest on Investments 93529910) 07) 35295 080 — 4 0 0
Sundries, Taxidermy, |
Advertisements, etc. 1,883 0 Oye, iss O © = | iio Oo. @
Grants: | |
Govt. of India eels; 000 220) 08) 3:000 200 — ——
Govt. of Bombay «. | 2,000 0! 0'| 8000 0 0||6,00080 0) ==
festa paths eaten
Total ... | 46,231 0 0 | 53,390 0 0/8,970 0 0/| 1,811 0 0
STAFF
‘The post of the Curator continues to remain vacant.
The Commitee’s thanks are due to the staff for their willing co-
operation and assistance during the year under review.
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1951 309° .
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The Committee wish to record their grateful appreciation of the
help rendered in numerous ways by the late Mr. W. S. Millard, the
Society’s honorary representative in the United Kingdom.
APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT
COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO JULY 10952
(Reap By Humayun AsBpuLaL!, Jr. Hon. Skcy.)
During the year to date 30 new members have joined against
which 25 resigned and 3 died, bringing the number of ordinary
members on our rolls to 849.
In the main report you will find that the number of members who paid.
their subscription for 1951 1s 680, and for the current year we have
so far received subscriptions from 658 members. Five life members
died during this year leaving the total strength at 225.
Members will be interested to learn that we have acquired one
more Vice Patron—Mr. Loke Wan Tho, the well-known bird photo-
erapher of Singapore. Mr. Loke has generously offered to finance
an ornithological expedition to Sikkim in the coming winter.
* x * %*
The Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act IQ51 :.
Rules under this Act have been drafted and gazetted, but not yet
formally promulgated. It is hoped that the Government of Bombay
will soon be able to set this Act in operation. It is also hoped that
other States will follow Bombay’s example in introducing similar
effective and well-thought-out legislation for the preservation of wild
life. .
Poaching in many forms is rampant, .and unless some drastic
action is taken at a very early date, it will literally be a case of
locking the stable door after the horse has disappeared.
The urgency of the matter has at last impressed itself upon the
Central Government who have now set up a Central Board for Wild Life
which will advise the different States in matters of Wild. Life Preser-
vation and promote unified policy in this regard. The Executive
Committee have nominated the joint honorary secretary, Mr. Humayun
Abdulali, to represent the Society on this Board.
* x * *
The journal for August will complete the 50th volume and an
attempt has been made to make this a particularly attractive number
by including a variety -ef articles of general interest, some written
especially for the occasion by veteran scientist- and sportsman-members.
who have contributed so largely in the past to the reputation which
the journal enjoys today, together with several colour plates.
Among our several proposed publications we have only been able
to issue the book of Indian Molluscs, but you will notice from the
budget that a considerable amount of money has been set aside for
the publication of our attractive and well-illustrated Book of Indian
3190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 51
Butterflies. This is being financed partly by the Government of India,
and we hope to bring it out within a reasonable time.
j * % * et
Efforts are also being made to expedite the printing of the 2nd
edition of Blatter and Millard’s ‘Some Beautiful Indian Trees’ as also
Bor and Raizada’s ‘Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs’. On
matters of printing and publication, however, it seems quite impossible
to set any definite dates.
* * * %*
As announced in Notes and News in the April Journal the Society
has, with the recommendation of the Government of Bombay, been
able to secure exemption under Section No. 15 B of the Income Tax
Act, normally applicable to charitable bequests only. In effect this
makes donations to the Society’s funds free from income tax for the
donors subject to the sums not exceeding 10% of their income, We
hope that members concerned will take advantage of this concession
to express their appreciation of the Society” s good work in a tangible
form.
* x * *
In 1921 the Society entered into an agreement with the Trustees
of the Prince of Wales Museum and the Government of Bombay
whereby the administration of the Natural History Section was entrust-
ed to a Sub-Committee of three persons two of whom were to be
nominated by the Society. The original agreement provided for the
storage of our reference collections only in so far as space in the
museum building permitted. Extension to the building was envis-
aged, however, and-in due course suitable accommodation for these
collections was expected.
‘A large proportion of our share of the collections of the Mammai
Survey conducted by the Society between 1912 and 1920 which was
lying for many years at the British Museum in London has now been
returned to us. When the attention of the National Institute of
Sciences was drawn to the presence of this material and our inability
to make it available for students due to lack of space, they have
practically agreed to recommend to the Central Government that a
grant of two lakhs of rupees be made to the Society for the purpose
of building housing accommodation for this and other collections,
subject to our finding a similar amount. The Society is at the moment
negotiating with the Board of Trustees of the Prince of Wales Museum
regarding the terms upon which an extension to the Natural History
wing may be built by the Society, and where its offices should also be
permanently located. Members will realise that if the Society’s offices
are moved over to Museum the present administrative difficulties will
be overcome to a large extent, and it will be possible to make our
library and study collections more readily and conveniently accessible
to members and others. The Museum would also greatly benefit by
such an arrangement and it is hoped that some suitable understanding
will soon be possible. . As soon as some definite arrangement is arrived
at, we will look to our members and well-wishers to provide the funds
needed for supplementing the Government’s building grant and we
trust that they will rise to the occasion.
* * % -
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1951 311
The following 60 members have joined since the last Annual
General Meeting.
~
From 13th September to 31st December 1951
The Principal, Ethiraj College for Women, Madras; Dr. Boonsong
Lekagul, Siam; Mr. Ramanlal Chhabildas Master, Bombay; Mr. P. V.
Beatty, Jubbulpore; Mr. H. E. Peries, Ceylon; Mrs. B. H. Pease,
Bombay; Mr. Jean Paul Harroy, Brussels; The Principal, Government
Arts College, Coimbatore; Mr. Masayuki Ono, Japan; Commodore
R. M. T. Taylor, Bombay; Mr. B. S. Bucknall, Coorg; Mr. John R. S.
Holmes, Bombay; The Principal, St. Edmund’s College, Shillong; Mr.
Roopindr Lall, Saharanpur (U.P.); Mr. K. J. Nanavathi, Poona; Mr.
P. V. Bole, Bombay; The Principal, Intermediate College, Saifabad
(Hyderabad); Mr. A. M. Marr, Calcutta; Mrs. J. Van Duin, Setabgan},
Pakistan; Mr. J. T. Ewing, Calcutta; The Registrar, Andhra Univer-
sity, Waltair; Mr. George Valentine Marear, Manmad; Mr. B. Subbiah
Pillay, Coimbatore; Mr. N. R. Bhattacharya, Bombay; The Principal,
Gudivada College, Gudivada; The Keeper, Natural Science Section,
Museum & Picture Gallery, Baroda; Mr. G. D. Clark, Dum Dum,
West Bengal (Rejoined); Mr. J. R. Scott, Bombay; Mr. Alastair M.
Macconnacher, New Hope (Nilgiris).
From ast January 1952 to 29th July 1952
Mr. Shantaram Mahadeo Dahanukar, Bombay; Mr. S. Muinuddin,
Murree Hills, Pakistan; Maharajkumar Shri Himatsinghji of Kutch,
Kutch; Mr. ne S. Lavkumar, Jasdan; Mr. Edward Fairfax Studd,
Calcutta; Mr. Douglas Hoile Jarvis, Pahang, Malaya; Mr. C. W.
Parkinson, Bombay; Mr. P. C. Gogoi, Golaghat (Assam); Mr. A. P.
Herbert, Ernakulam ; Mrs. H. Horne, Calcutta; Mr. Arjan Singh,
Paliakalan (UREA) Mr. R. J. Thorne, Keonnileodee Mr. P. N. Richards,
Pahang, Malaya; Mr. S. N. Talukdar, Bombay; Mr. Harold
Christopher Mathias, Bombay; Mr. James A. Dick, California, U.S.A. ;
Mr. K. G. Milne, Bombay; Mr. Ransukh C. Painter, Bombay; The
Conservator of Forests, Land Management Circle, Naini Tal; Lt.-
Comdr. K. K. Sanjana, Bombay; Mr. J. W. Tanswell, Wiltshire,
England (Rejoined); Mr. David A. Scaife, Calcutta; Dr. A. Austin
Kerr, Poona; Mr. Yeshwant Sakharam Pandit, Bombay; The Sub-
Divisional Forest Officer, Chhota-Udepur; Mr. Earl Brokelsby, Rapid
City, South Dakota; The Conservator of Forests, Tehri Circle, Naini
Tal; Dr. F. J. Meggit, Johannesberg, South Africa (Rejoined) ;
Rajkumar Pratapsingh, Banera (Rajasthan) ; The Librarian, University
of Malaya, Singapore; The Conservator of Forests, Kumaon Circle,
Naini Tal (U.P.).
51
Vol,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY,
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,
316
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AWHHIS NOILVINdWTH AAMNLVN
ALHIOOS AYOLSIH TWUALVYN AVENOD
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD AT THE
JEHANGIR ART GALLERY, PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM
COMPOUND, MAHATMA GANDHI ROAD, BOMBAY, ON
TUESDAY, THE 209TH JULY 1952 AT 6 p.m. WITH REV. FR. H.
SANTAPAU, s.j., IN THE CHAIR
1. The Honorary Secretaries’ Report for the year ended 31st
December 1951 having been circulated was taken as read. The Jt.
Honorary Secretary then read the supplementary report on the activities
of the Society during the period January to July 1952. (see p. 300).
2. The balance sheet and statement of accounts presented by the
Honorary Treasurer were approved and adopted.
3. The Committee’s nominations to the Executive and Advisory
Committees, as previously circulated to members, were accepted.
On conclusion of the formal business of the meeting, Dr. S. L.
Hora, Director of the Zoological Survey of India, delivered a most in-
teresting lecture, illustrated with slides, on ‘Recent Advances in Fish
Geography of India’. Unfortunately due to bad accoustics of the
auditorium (Jehangir Art Gallery), and the difficulty of excluding day-
light for projection of the slides, it was difficult for the audience to
follow the lecture satisfactorily. The full text of the lecture appears
on pages 170-188 of this issue.
The talk was followed by the showing of two excellent Kodachrome
cine films of birds by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, one of the collection
of live ducks and geese in the Severn Wildfowl Trusts ‘New Grounds’
at Slimbridge in Gloucestershire, England (whose director is the cele-
_ brated Peter Scott), and the other of minivets nesting in Bhavnagar.
Both the films were much appreciated and greatly enjoyed.
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CATALOGUE OF BOOKS IN THE BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY
Part VII—Narurat History
N H—Natural History.
N H R—Natural History—Reference volume, not lent out.
200
219
180
149
104
196
136
i21I
147
148
{
|
|
124
12 |
12 |
12
IZ
I2
I2
IZ
12
12
12
12
SS a@un
Ss s
Author
| Abercrombie, M..,
Hickman, C. J. &
Johnson, M. L.
Aikman, C. M.
Aitken, E. H. (EHA’)
| Alcock, A.
| Nie, ©
Allen, Grant
Allen 5 Grant
| Aveling, Edward B. *
| Baird, William
| Banks, E.
| Beaty, John Y.
| Beddard, Frank E.
Beebe, William
Beneden,. P. J. Van
Title of Book
_A DICTIONARY OF BIOLOGY,
ne
eg
—Penguin Reference
Books, 1951. .
MiL_x—lIts Nature and Com-
position ; A -Hand-book
on the Chemistry and
Bacteriology of Milk, But-
ter and Cheese, second edi-
tion, 1899.
CONCERNING ANIMALS AND
OTHER MATTERS, 1914.
A NATURALIST IN INDIAN
Seas: Or Four Years with
the Royal Indian Marine
Survey Ship ‘Investigator’
1902.
THe SociaL Lire or ANI-
MALS.
THE EVOLUTIONIST AT LARGE,
1881.
In NaTuRE’s WORKSHOP,,
19Ol.
THE STUDENTS’ DARWIN,
1881. ;
See Richardson, Sir John,
Dallas, William S., Cob-
bold, T. Spencer, Baird,
William & White, Adam..
A NATURALIST IN SARAWAK,.
1949.
NATURE IS STRANGER THAN
FICTION, 1943. :
ANIMAL COLORATION. An
Account of the Principal
Facts and Theories rela-
ting to the Colours and
Markings of Animals, ~
1892.
THe EDGE OF THE JUNGLE,.
1922.
ANIMAL PARASITES AND
MessmMaTEs. The Interna-
tional Scientific Series,
Vol. XIX, fifth edition,
1904.
BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETYS LIBRARY 31%
|
| Title of Book
fe}
Oa a |
© = ¢
A & ‘2 > | Author
a a7 2 & oH
‘= a 3) rQ )
BO [a Oo] w
a= 7
14|N Hq 128 | 12 | D et Douglas
| ‘Dawn
1 {NH} 57) 12 B Berridge, W. 5S.
16} NH} 172 | 12 | E Bhatia, B. L. -
|
le siasills |
17 | N H|_ 150 | 12} D- | Bhatt, J. R.
| \
18 |.N H| 125 : 12} D Blanford, W. T.
! | do.
| :
19|NH| 126/12) D | Blyth, Edward
20| NH) 54! 12 | B | Borradaile, L. A.
| | | |
| | Boulenger, E. G.
| |
a1;NH) 174; %8/| E do.
|
Boulenger, G. A.
| | |
| |
Boumphrey,
| Geoffrey
Bom N ee |) x08) | 12 E | Buchsbaum, Ralph
{
ae |
23 |NH | 100) |) 0a 1 1B | do.
24 | N H; 230 | 12 F 3 Buckland, Francis T’.
aol NPE) 2354) 12 | do.
ZOOMING EH |) 2325512 | do.
}
27 |NH 96) era) |) © Buckland, Frank
SEES ae
|
|
JUNGLE LORE, 1910.
MARVELS OF THE ANIMAL.
WORLD, 1926.
| AN ELEMENTARY ‘TEXTBOOK.
OF ZOOLOGY FOR INDIAN
| STUDENTS, adapted from
An Elementary Course of
Practical Zoology by Par-
ker, Professor T. Jj., and.
Parker, W. N., 1940.
ANIMAL LIFE IN Story &
PICTURE with special re-
ference to Ceylon, 1941..
EASTERN Persta—An Ac-
count of the Journeys of
the Persian Boundary
| Commission 1870-71-72.
The Zoology and | Geo-
| logy, Vol. II, 1876.
See Medlicott, H. B. and
| Blanford, W. 'T.
NatTuraAL History—a bound
serial 1843-1850.
THe ANIMAL & ITs’ EN-
VIRONMENT—A Text-
Book of the Natural His-
| tory of Animals, 1923.
| See Robert, Paul A., Bou-
lenger, E. G. and Port--
mann, Prof. Dr. A.
| A NaturaL History oF
| THE SEAS, 1935.
See Pycraft, W. P. (General
Editor), Lydekker, Ri-
chard, Cunningham, J. T.,
| Boulenger,G.A.& Thom--
son, J. Arthur.
See Salt, Laura E. and:
Boumphrey, Geoffrey.
ANIMALS WITHOUT BaAck-.
~ BONES—Pelican Books.
—Vol. I, 1951.
do. Vol. II, 1951.
CURIOSITIES OF NATURAL
History. Second series,,
the popular edition,.
1890.
do. Third series, the popular:
edition, 1888.
do. Fourth series, the popular:
edition, 1888.
NOTES AND JOTTINGS FROM
ANIMAL LiFe, 1882.
320
| Serial No.
35
36
40
4I
42
LiL, aL AL 4 Classification
Zz,
ZL,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
224
12
Author Title of Book
CURIOSITIES OF NATURAL
' History. First series, the
popular edition, 1890.
d
Buckland, Frank
do. O.
do. do. Second series. New edi-
tion, 1873.
do. Third series. New edi-
troy Wroll, Ih, ite37/23-
Glos, Wok, IL, its37/235
THE TIGER
1936.
ANIMAL LIFE IN DESERTS—
A Study of the Fauna in
} Relation to the Environ-
ment, 1923.
Nature Nores ror OCran
VOYAGERS being personal
observations upon life in
‘the vast deep’ and
fishes, birds and_ beasts
seen from a ship’s deck ;
with popular chapters on
weather, waves and
legendary lore, 1915.
| MAMMALIAN GENETICS
| 1940.
|THE GENETICS OF DoMEsTIC
Raspits—A Manual for
Students of Mammalian
Genetics and an Aid to
Rabbit Breeders and Fur
Farmers, 1930.
RETROSPECT Remini-
scences and Impressions
of a Hunter—Naturalist in
Three Continents, 1851-
1928, 1928.
Clark, W. E. Le Gros | History OF THE PRIMATES—
British Museum (Natural
History)—second edition,
1950.
THE Story or ‘ Primi-
TIVE’ MAN, 1895.
See Richardson, Sir John,
Dallas, William S., Cob-
bold, T. Spencer, Baird,
William & White, Adam.
RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST
ON THE SHORES AND
CHINA
do.
do.
Burton, Brig.-Genl.
R. G.
Buxton, P. A.
HUNTERS,
Carpenter, Capt.
Alfred & Wilson-
Barker, Capt. D.
Castle, William E.
do.
Chapman, Abel
Clodd, Edward
Cobbold, T. Spencer
Collingwood, Cuth-
bert
WATERS OF THE
SEA, 1868.
VARIATIONS AND DISEASES
OF THE TEETH OF ANI-
MALS, 1936.
Colyer, Sir Frank
: Seria] No*
BOOKS-iN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 381
Classification
Accession No.
Cabinet
| Shelf
Author Title of Book
(44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
| NH
NH
NH.
N H |
ee)
Ke)
Zee
88 |
62 |
29
66 |
164, |
I02
184
186
181
I2
12
12
12 |
12
12
12
12
12
12
@
ole
Colyer, Sir Frank
Dakin, William J.
Dallas, William 5.
| Four Lecrures on ‘ As-
NORMAL CONDITIONS OF
THE ‘TEETH OF ANIMALS
IN THEIR RELATIONSHIP
| TO SIMILAR CONDITIONS
IN MAN’, 1931.
'Congreve, C. R. T. |THE ANIMALS, 1949. »
|Conn, H. J.
BIOLOGICAL sTAINS—A Hand-
book on the Nature
and Uses of the Dyes
| Employed in the Biological
Laboratory, second edi-
tion, 1929.
Cooke, W. _Owen’s Lectures oN Com-
PARATIVE ANATOMY—
Invertebrate Animals,
1855.
Cott, Hugh B. | |ADAPTIVE COLORATION IN
ANIMALS, 1940.
Cunningham, Lt.-Col. _PLaGuES AND PLEASURES
D. D
OF LIFE IN BENGAL, 1907.
| Cunningham, I aa | See Pycraft, W. P. (General
| Editor), Lydekker, Richard,
| Cunnigham, J. T., Bou-
lenger, G. A. & Thomson,
J. Arthur.
|THE ELEMENTS OF GENERAL
| Zoorocy, second edition,
1928.
A NaturaL HIstTory OF THE
| ANIMAL KinGpom; being
a systematic and popular
description of the Habits,
Structure and Classifi-
cation of Animals from
the lowest to the highest
forms arranged according
to their organization.
do. |See Richardson, Sir John,
| Dallas, William S., Cob-
bold. T’.. Spencer, Baird,
William & White, Adam.
THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES by
means of natural selec-
tion or the reservation of
favoured racesin the strug-
gle for life, sixth edition
with additions and correc-
tions to 1872, 1878.
do. THE VARIATION OF ANIMALS
| AND PLANTS UNDER Do-
| __ MESTICATION, 1868.
|THE Lire & LETTERS OF
_ Cartes Darwin _ inclu-
| ding an autobiographical
chapter, Vol. I, 1887.
Darwin, Charles
Darwin, Francis
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
322
fo}
. 2
° pe)
Zz 5
~ &
Ss D
5 8
<P ©)
54|NH
55|NH
Xe) |] IN] 8h
57;NH
58| NH
59|NH
60| NH
61|NH
62| NH
63 | NH
64; NH
65 | NH
66 | N H
67:1 NH
68 | NH
69;| NH
NH
ciate
ar epee No
N
Nw
ur ©
COW
254
42
43
44
45
238
elo} es lol@iol: @
Darwin, Frencis
do.
Davison, Charles
‘Dawn’
Deraniyagala, P. E. P.
Dersal, William
R. Van
Dewar, Douglas &
Finn, Frank
Dewar, D.
Ditmars, Raymond L.
| Donald, C. H.
Duncan, F, Martin
Duncan, P. Martin
(Editor)
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Eggar, E. M.
| Dowsett, J. Morewood |
Title of Book
THE Lire & LEeEtTTERS OF
CHARLES DarRwWIN _inclu-
dug an autobiographical
chapter, Vol. II, 1887.
do. Vol. III, 1887,
THE ORIGIN oF ‘EARTH-
QUAKES, 1912.
| See Bennett, Douglas.
SOME VERTEBRATE ANIMALS
oF CEYLON—The National
Museum of Ceylon
Pictorial series—Vol. I,
| _ 1949.
See Edward H. Graham &
Dersal, William R. Van
|THE Makinc oF SPECIES,
1909.
_ ANIMALS OF No IMPORTANCE.
‘THE FicuT To Live, 1938.
IEATHERED, FURRED AND
SCALED, 1917.
ANIMAL LIFE YESTERDAY AND
‘TO-DAY.
| CLOSE-UPS FROM NATURE.
| CassELL’s NATURAL History,
Apes and Monkeys, Le-
murs, Chiroptera, In-
SECtiV.OLa,a VO aan emer
Loose
do. ‘Lhe land Carnivora, the
~ aquatic or marine Carni-
vora, Cetacea, Sirenia,
Proboscidea, Hyracoidea,
Ungulata, Vol. 11, ? 1885.
| do. Ungulata (contd.) Ro-
dentia, Edentata, Marsu-
pialia, Aves, Vol. III, ?
1885.
do. Aves (contd.) Reptilia,
Amphibia, Vol. IV, ? 1885.
do. Pisces, Invertebrata (In-
troduction), Molluscoidea
(Brachiopoda & Bryozoa)
Insecta (Introduction)
Coleoptera, Hymenop-
tera, Vol. V, ? 1885.
do. Hymenoptera (conclu-
ded), Neuroptera, Rhyn-
cota, Orthoptera, ‘Thysa-
nura, Myriopoda, Arach-
nida, Crustacea, Vermes,
Echinodermata, Zoophyta,
Spongiae, Rhizopoda,
Infusoria, Vol. VI, ?
1885.
AN INDIAN GARDEN, 1904.
BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 323
94. |.
°
| g | 2
3 S g
AY Ge ogo
_ A
R | O <
eat | N H]| 109
72' NH] 103
|
3 NH 82
741|N H] 171
75 | N Hj 197
76; NH 31
77|NH} 32
78; NH! 33
79|NHj| 34
80; NH 35
. 81 | NH 36
. 82) NH] 143
83.| NH
|
84 | NH] 159
85 NH] 178
86 NHI 179
87 | N H}. 110
|
88 INGHS 253
89: | NH} 254
go|NH 119
or | NH] 141
92|/ NH, 223
93|NH| 146
12
12
am mY
le-I--]-cl--]---- col oR!
Elliot, Robert H.
Elton, Charles
do.
do.
Farmer, J. Bretland
(Editor)
do.
Figuier, Louis
Filby, Frederick A.
Finn, Frank
Fleming, Richard H.
Forbes, Gordon S.
Forbes, Henry O.
do.
Fox, H. Munro
Fraser, F. C.
Freeman, J. B.
Gideon, P. W.
Graham, Edward H.
& Dersal, William
R. Van
Graham, Edward H.
Gray, Peter & Wood-
ward, B. B.
Haldane, J. B. S. &
Huxley, Julian .
| ;
| Title of Book
|
|
A NATURALIST ON THE PROWL
OR IN THE JUNGLE, 1897.
GoLD, SPORT AND COFFEE
PLANTING IN Mysore—be-
ing the 38 years’ experien-
ces of a Mysore Planter,
or rr
1894.
EXPLORING THE ANIMAL
WORLD, 1933.
ANIMAL Eco ocy, 1927.
ANIMAL EcoLocy anp Evo-
LUTION, 1930.
THE Book oF NATURE STUDY,
Vol. I
do. Vol. II
do. Vol. III
do. Vol. IV
do. Vol. V
do. Vol. VI
THE Ocean Wor Lp: being
a descriptive history of the
sea and its living inha-
bitants, 1868.
A History or Foop ADULTE-
RATION AND ANALYSIS, 1934.
See Dewar, Douglas & Finn,
Frank.
See Sverdrup, H. U., John-
son, Martin W. & Fleming,
Richard H.
WiLp LIFE IN CANARA AND
GaNJAM, 1885.
A HANDBOOK TO THE PrI-
MATES, Vol. I, 18096.
do. Vol. II, 1897.
BLUE BLooD IN ANIMALS AND
OTHER Essays IN BrloLoGy
1928.
See Norman, J. R. & Fraser,
12, (CS
?
a re
SCIENCE, CausE, & Gop—
second edition (revised &
enlarged), 1943.
AN INTRODUCTION TO Zoo-
LOGY, 1930.
WILDLIFE FOR AMERICA— the
story of wildlife conserva-
tion, 1949.
NATURAL PRINCIPLES OF LAND
UsE, 1944.
SrEA-WEEDS, SHELLS & Fos-
SILS, fourth edition, 1910.
ANIMAL BIoLoecy, second edi-
tion, 1929.
324,
ee
| 2 4 | |
a es ape | |
A | genilace | Q | Author
ic) D Rn & as
Be | a be | 2
N S) cay || (OC) |) a |
04!|1NH I | 12| A
| Shipley, A. E.
| (Editors)
! |
95|NH 2 | Tne do.
|
|
96|NH Bylloie|| dan do.
| |
97 !|N Z| 4 12 (een do.
| |
98 N H 5 | 12 | A do.
100 | NOP 7a eros A do.
lor | N Hl 8 i) UA | do.
102 | NH 61 12 | B Harvey, E. Newton
103 | N OH 246 12 F Hastings, Anna B.
Haswellwvallianaeas
JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54
72 a ey
Title of Book
|
| tog, Marcus), Porifera(Spo-
| nges) (Sollas, Igerna B. J:),
| Coelenterata & Ctenophora
| (Hickson, S. J.), Echino-
dermata (MacBride, E. W.),
| Vole 1906;
do. Flatworms & Mesozoa
| (Gamble, F. W.), Nemer-
tines (Sheldon, Miss L.),
Threadworms & Sagitta
(Shipley, A. E.), Rotifers
(Hartog, W._ Blaxland),
Earthworms & Leeches
(Beddard, F. E.), Gephyrea
& Phoronis (Shipley, A. E.),
Polyzoa (Harmer, S. F.),
Vole TieerSo6:
do. Molluscs (Cooke, Rev.
A. H.), Brachiopods (Re-
cent) (Shipley, A. E.), Bra-
chiopods (Fossil) (Reed,
Pte Roky \Wolls IDUL, aisha.
do. Crustacea (Smith,
| Geoffrey), Trilobites
| (Woods, Henry), Introduc-
| tion to Arachnida & King-
| crabs (Shipley, A. E.), Eu-
| rypterida (Woods, Henry),
Scorpions, Spiders, Mites,
Ticks, etc. (Warburton,
Cecil), Tardigrada (Water-
Bears) (Shipley, A. E.),
Pentastomida (Shipley,
PAK kes) 5 Pycnogonida
| (Thompson, D’Arcy W.),
| Vol. IV, 1909.
‘do. Peripatus (Sedgwick,
Adam), Myriapods (Sin-
clair, F. G.), Insects, Part I
(Sharp, David), Vol. V,
_ | 1895.
do. Insects, Part II (Sharp,
David), Vol. VI, 1901. .
|do. Amphibia & Reptiles
(Gadow, Hans), Vol. VII,
I9Ol. ee
do. Birds (Evans, A. H.), Vol.
VIII, 1900.
|Livinc LIGHT, 1940.
BIoLoGy OF WATER SUPPLY
—British Museum (Natural
History), second edition,
| 1948, ) ad :
See Parker, T. Jeffery &
Haswell, William A.
BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 325”
{e)
és | 2
eC) S g |.
A de ‘3 = Author Title of Book
im a) & t= oe
of a 3) a co)
3) ow o q ae
i || © ey || ©) n
nevi, |} IN| deli) 2 |} i || 18, Hector, James ees OF NEw ZEALAND,
: . 1886. =.
105 | N H 51 | 12 B ‘Heh, Victor ‘THE WANDERINGS OF PLANTS
&. ANIMALS FROM THEIR
| First Home, 1885.
106 | N HH}. 235 | 12 | F Heilprin, Angelo THE GEOGRAPHICAL Dis-
TRIBUTION OF ANIMALS,
1887.
107 | N H; 250} 12] EF |Henson, Francis Ro-| LARGER IMPERFORATE FORA-
TERN ASIA, Families Lituo-
lidae, Orbitolinidae and
Meandropsinidae — British
Museum (Natural History),
1948.
108 | N H| 260] 12| F Hey, Max H. AN INDEX OF MINERAL SPE-
| crES & VARIETIES ARRANGED
CHEMICALLY with an AlI-
phabetical Index of accep-
ted Mineral Names and
Synonyms, British Museum
(Natural History), 1950.
Hickman, C. J. See Abercrombie, M., Hick-
man, C. & Johnson, M. L.
109 | N H 46 | 11 B Hingston, R. W. G. | A NATURALIST IN HIMALAYA,
1920.
163 | 12! E do. A NATURALIST IN HINDUsS-
THAN, 1923.
ort | NORE) 947 11 B do. NATURE AT THE DESERTS EDGE
—Studies and Observations
in the Bagdad Oasis, 1925.
t12 | N-H | + 52 | 12 B do. PROBLEMS OF INSTINCT &
INTELLIGENCE, 1928.
muss | INGE | eS 2a ioe ID!) | do. THE MEANING OF ANIMAL
: CoLouR & ADORNMENT,
1933.
E Hooker, Sir Joseph | HIMALAYAN JOURNALS: or
Dalton Notes of a Naturalist in
Bengal, the Sikkim and
Nepal Himalayas, the Kha-
sia Mountains, etc., 1891.
: ger Spencer MINIFERA OF SOUTH-WES-
IIo
Zz
an
114 IN |) ror |i12
115 | NH] 247 | 12 F Hornell, James REPORT TO THE GOVERNMENT
| OF BARODA ON THE MARINE
ZOOLOGY OF OKHAMANDAL
- IN -KATHIAWAR, Part -I,
1909.
116 | NH! 248 | 12 F do. > do.
nity || IN| Tell) BAG) |) sey 8 do. do. Part II, 1916.
118 INH R| 251 | 12} -F | Howes, G. B. AN ATLAS OF PRACTICAL ELE-
- MENTARY- BIOLOGY, 1885.
119 | N-H| 154 {12} D. | Hudson, W. H. A Naturalist IN La Pata,
1929.
120 | NH 87 | 12! C_ | Hutchinson, Rev. ExTINCT MONSTERS—a popu-
; ; H. N. lar account of some of the
larger forms of ancient
animal life, 1893.
326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Author Title of Book
Classification
Accession No
| Serial No.
Shelf
|
Huxley, Julian EvoLuT1IOoN—the Modern Syn-
thesis, third impression,
1944.
do. See Haldane, J. B. S. &
Huxley, Julian.
Huxley, Thomas H. | A MANUAL OF THE ANATOMY
OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS,
1871.
12 D Johnstone, James LIFE IN THE SEA—The Cam-
| bridge Manuals of Science
| and Literature, 1911.
Johnson, M. L. See Abercrombie, M., Hick-
man, C. & Johnson, M. L.
| Johnson, Martin W. | See Sverdrup, H. U. Johnson,
Martin W. & Fleming,
| Richard H.
12 | B | Jones, Thomas GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE
Rymer ORGANIZATION OF THE ANI-
MAL Kincpom & MANUAL
| OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,
| 1871.
| Ne tiin234si6r20 eek do. THe ANIMAL CREATION: A
| | | Popular Introduction to
Zoology, 1865.
[Px2 Joslen, Maj. F. (Caan oF BomBay PRESI-
| DENCY, Department of
| Land Records & Agricul-
| ture, Bombay—Bulletin No.
26, 1905.
See Kleinschmidt, O. &
Jourdain, Rev. F. C. R.
| (Translator).
|
Ay
123 | N H|~ 135
-~< ~<
+S) N
N Lan!
Z, Z
a0) P
Lal _
coal +
4 +
Lan in|
XN N
QO so)
Jourdain, Rev.
F.C.R.(Translator)
12 | D Kelaart, E. F.
127 118
Propromus FAUNAE ZEY-=-
| | | LANICAE; being contri-
| butions to the Zoology of
Estes Ceylon, 1852.
j
| |
128 | NH 92 | 12 | Kendrew, W. G. Tue CLIMATES OF THE CON-
TINENTS, third edition, 1937.
129 ||-N JH) x90s\0125)' E Kennedy, Admiral |SporTING SKETCHES IN
SouTH AMERICA, 1892.
130 | NH 21 }12,) A Kingsley, John THE RIiver-SIDE NATURAL
Sterling (Editor) History, Lower Inverte-
| | brates, Vol. I, 1888.
131) N Hy 22 | 12 A do. | do. Crustacea and _ Insects,
| | Vol. II, 1888.
132) ON Ey ae eae eer | A do. do. Lower Vertebrates, Vol.
| | IIT, 1888.
133; NH 24} 12] A do. do. Birds, Vol. IV, 1888.
134 | NGG 25 7) a2eih A do. do. Mammals, Vol. V, 1888.
135{|N Hj 26/]12/] A do. do. Man, Vol. VI, 1888.
136| NH 86 | 12 | C | Kipling, John Lock- | Brast aND Man 1n INDIA—a
| | wood Popular sketch of Indian
Animals in their relation
| | | with the people, 1892.
| |
BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY — 327
Serial No.
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Kleinschmidt, O. & |THE FORMENKREIS
Rev.
F.C.R.(Translator)
Jourdain,
Knipe, Henry R.
Knottnerus-Meyer,
h.
Kofoid, Charles
Atwood
Koul, Samsar
Chand
Krause, Ernst
Lankester, E. Ray
do.
do.
do.
Latter, Oswald H.
Lees, J. A.
Lewes, George
Henry
Lindsay, David
Lloyd, J. T.
Lloyd, R. E.
do.
do.
Lucas, Frederic A
Lydekker, Richard
(Editor)
do.
do.
Title of Book
"THEORY
AND THE PROGRESS OF THE
ORGANIC WORLD, a recast-
ing of the Theory of Des-
cent and Race-study to pre-
pare the way for a Harmo-
nious Conception of the
Universal Reality, 1930.
EVOLUTION IN THE PAST, 1912.
|BrrpDS AND BEASTS OF THE
Roman Zoo, Some obser-
vations of a lover of animals.
THE BIOLOGICAL STATIONS
OF EurRoPpE—United States
Bureau of Education, Bul-
letin, No. 4, 1910.
BEAUTIFUL VALLEYS
KASHMIR, 1942.
ERASMUS DARWIN, 1879.
THE KINGDOM OF MAN, 1907.
ExTINcT ANIMALS, New edi-
tion, 1909.
GREAT AND SMALL ‘THINGS,
1923.
SCIENCE FROM AN Easy CHAIR,
I9IO.
THe NaturaL HIsTORY OF
SoME ComMMoN ANIMALS,
Cambridge Biological Series,
OF
1904.
PEAKS AND PINEs—another
Norway Book, 1899.
STUDIES IN ANIMAL LIFE,
1842.
JOURNAL OF THE ELDER SCIEN-
TIFIC EXPLORING EXPEDI-
TION, 1891, 1892.
See Needham, James G. &
Lloyd, J. T.
An INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
FOR STUDENTS IN INDIA,
IgIO.
Tue GROWTH OF GROUPS IN
ANIMAL KINGDOM, I912.
AN INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY,
IQIO.
ANIMALS OF THE Past—An
account of some of the crea-
tures of the Ancient World,
fifth edition, 1920.
THe Royat NaturAL His-
TORY—Mammals, Vol. I,
1893-94.
do. Mammals, Vol. II, 1894.
do. Mammals, Vol. III, 1894-
95.
328° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol.. 51
| 6 = ae
Bo) 2
2 ) 5 | |
4 ee ‘3 in Author | Title of Book
3 3B Kh op dsl Se
epee oaiitch |
a | © | & |O] w
|
158 | N H| 07) ||. 1072 A Lydekker, Richard THE ROYAL NATURAL
(Editor) History—Vol. IV, 1895.
159 | N Hl 10) |} ae A do. do. depuis & Fishes, Vol. V,
| 1896.
160 | NH 14 | 12 A do. do. asa) Wolk WL,
5 lee | | 189 :
161) NOH 15-20] 12 |. A do. 'do. (a duplicate set of 6
166 / | _ volumes).
| do. See Pycraft, W. P. (General
| Editor), Lydekker, Richard,
Cunningham, J. T., Boulen-
| ger, G. A. & Thomson, J.
| | Arthur (Authors).
MacBride, E. W. | See Shipley, A. E. & Mac-
| | | Bride, E. W.
TOW) Ni Ele e277 2 Martin, D. King |THE Ways OF MAN AND BEast
| IN INDIA, 1935.
168 | NH TO Male Mason, Maj. _ EXPLORATION OF THE SHAKS-
Kenneth GAM VALLEY AND AGHIL
| RANGEs—1926—Records of
| the Survey of India, Vol.
| | XXII, 1928.
TOON NG EG LOW 2 alee Masterman, ELEMENTARY 'TEXT-BOOK OF
Arthur T. | ZOOLOGY, 1901.
1700) IN CELG|) 160ml r2 Mayou, Bessie | NATURAL History OF SHAKE-
| | SPEARE being selections of
| Flowers, Fruits and Ani-
| | mals, 1877.
171 | NH] 255 | 12 F | Medlicott, H. B.& | A Manual oF THE GEOLOGY
| Blanford, W. T. oF INnp1A, chiefly compiled
| from the observations of the
Geological Survey, Penin-
| | sular Area, Part I, 1879.
172g NG Ole 225 On!) ei2 F do. ido. Extra Peninsular Area,
emoer oi Partoilii1870:
7733 | INT Leh axed Ia? E Mitchell, Sir P. THE CHILDHOOD OF ANIMALS
| | Chalmers —Pelican Books, 1940.
m4 |N H| 195 12) E |.Morse, Richard |Lir—E IN POND AND STREAM,
| | 1950.
| | Muir-Wood, Helen See Oakley, Kenneth P. &
1 M. Muir-Wood, Helen M.
175 | GING Ela e377 ee D Mullan, J. P. _ANIMAL ‘TYPES FOR COLLEGE
| ! | | STUDENTS, 1918.
176,j\0N H 58 | 12 B Needham, James THE LIFE OF INLAND WATERS
| | Ga caleloy.clem\ cael —An elementary text-book
| of freshwater biology for
| | American Students, 1916.
177 Ny 84 | 12 C | Needham, James G. |THE NaturaL History OF
| | THE FAarM—a guide to the
| practical study of the sour-
| ces of our living in Wild
| Nature, 1916.
178 | NH 83 | 12 (e Newbigin, Marion I. | CoLourR In NatTure—a study
in Biology, 1898.
BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 329
Serial No.
Classification
Accession No.
Cabinet
Shelf
Author | Title of Book
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. 233
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Nicholson, Henry A MANUAL OF ZooLoGcy—for
Alleyne the use of students, with a
General Introduction on the
Principles of Zoology, Vol.
IJ, Vertebrate Animals, 1870.
do. do. For the use of students,
fifth edition, revised and
enlarged, 1878.
do. ‘TExT-Book OF ZOOLOGY FOR
JUNIOR STUDENTS, fifth edi-
tion, 1894.
do. ADVANCED ‘TEXxT-BOOK OF
ZOOLOGY FOR THE USE OF
SCHOOLS, 1870.
do. A MANUAL oF ZooLoGy—for
the use of students with a
General Introduction on the
« Principles of Zoology, 1875.
‘THREE VOYAGES OF A NATU-
RALIST being an account of
many little-known islands
in three oceans visited by
the) *“Valhallay ReY<S:, 1908.
ZooLocicaL NOTES ON THE
STRUCTURE, AFFINITIES,
HABITS AND MENTAL
FACULTIES OF WILD AND
Domestic ANIMALS: with
anecdotes concerning, and
adventures among them; and
some account of their fossil
representatives, 1883.
do. SNAKES, MARSUPIALS, AND .
Brrps: A Book of Anec-
dotes, Adventures & Zoolo-
gical Notes.
Nodder, Frederick, | See Shaw, George & Nodder,
P Frederick P.
GIANT FISHES, WHALES AND
DOLPHINS, new _ edition,
1948. F
Nuttal, George H. F.| BLloop ImmMuNITY AND BLOoop
RELATIONSHIP—a demon-
stration of certain blood-
relationships amongst ani-
mals by means of the Preci-
pitin Test for Blood, 1904.
Oakley, Kenneth P. |Man tHE ‘Toor-Maker—
British Museum (Natural
History), 1949.
Oakley, Kenneth P. |THE Succession oF LIFE
& Muir-wood, THROUGH GEOLOGICAL TIME
Helen M. —British Museum (Natural
History), 1948.
Ogle, Richard ANIMALS STRANGE AND
i RaRE, 1951.
Nicoll, M. J.
Nicols, Arthur
Norman, J. R. &
Fraser, F. C.
Title of Book
330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
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196
197
198
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201
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114
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170
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Ommanney, F. D.
Osborn, Henry
Fairfield
| ‘THE OCEAN, 1949.
FIFTY-TWO YEARS OF RE-
SEARCH, OBSERVATION AND
PUBLICATION, 1877-1929 —
a life adventure in breadth
and depth, 1930.
| ODONTOGRAPHY ; or a
Treatise on the Compara-
tive Anatomy of the ‘Teeth;
their physiological relations,
mode of development and
microscopic structure in the
Vertebrate Animals. Text,
Vol. I, 1840-1845.
do. do. Atuas, Vol. II, 1840-1845.
Parker, T. Jeffery & | A Trxt-Book oF ZOOLoGy,
Haswell, William A. Vol. I, 1910.
do. do. Vol. II, 1910.
Pascoe, Sir Edwin H. A Manuat or THE GEOLOGY
; oF INDIA & BuURMA—cOm-
piled from the observations
of the Geological Survey of
India from unofficial sour-
ces by Medlicott, H. B.,
Blanford, W.- @.;. Ball, V-
_ & Mallet, F.R., third edition,
revised and largely rewrit-
ten, Vol. I, 1950.
ANIMAL LOCOMOTION | or
Walking, Swimming, and
Flying, with a dissertation
on Aéronautics, 1874.
ZOoLoGy—a book for Indian
students, 1916.
Phillips-Wolley, Clive] Big GaME SHOOTING, 1894.
Owen, Richard
Pettigrew, J. Bell
Pfleiderer, Rev. I.
THe ANIMAL-LORE OF SHAKE-
SPEARE’S ‘TIME including
quadrupeds, birds, reptiles,
fish and insects, 1883.
NaTuRE THROUGH THE YEAR,.
Phipson, Emma
Pitt, Frances
1950.
Portmann, Prof. Dr. | See Robert, Paul.A., Boulen-
A. ger, E. G. & Portmann,
Prof. Dr. A.
Pycraft, W. P. Tue StanparRD NaTurRAL His-
(Editor) TORY FROM AMOEBA TO
MAN, 1931.
Pycraft, W. P. ANIMAL Lire—An Evolution=
(General Editor), | ary Natural History—
Lydekker, Richard,| Reptiles, Amphibia, Fishes
Cunningham, J. T.,, & Lower Chordata, 1912.
Boulenger, G. A. ;
& ‘Thomson, J.
Arthur (Authors)
|
BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL. HISTORY SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 331
hh Spee
51 Bae |
ye | cs ee) x Author Title of Book
Sree) eee eee | aces | |
SS |
#1 Oo pa [Ot a
lo |
206| N " 7s lair | C Rabaud, Etienne | How Animats FIND THEIR
| | | | \ Way Axsout—A Study of
| | | Distant Orientation and
| |’ | Place—Recognition (Tran-
| | | slated by Myers, I. H.),
| | | 1928.
207; NH| “49 | 12 B | Raymond, Percy E. | Prenisroric LiFe, 1947.
208 NHR 205 | 12) F | Richardson, Sir John,| Tue Museum or Natura
| Dallas, William S.,/- Hisrory; being a popular
| | Cobbold, T. account of the Structure,
| | | Spencer, Baird, | Habits and Classification of
| | | William & White, the various departments of
| | |' Adam the Animal Kingdom:
| | Quadrupeds, Birds, Rep-
| | é | tiles, Fishes, Shells, and
| | Insects, including the in-
| sects destructive to Agri-
| | culture—Mammalia, Divi-
| sion I, 1803.
209 NH R206 | 12) F do. do. Birds, Division II, 1803.
210 NH R 207 | 12 | Poe do. do. Reptiles, Ambhibians and
| | Fish, Division III, 1803.
Pe IN H R| 208 | 12 | F do. do. Insects, Mollusca and
| | Radiata, Division IV, 1803.
212 NH R| 252 | 12 | F Robert, Paul A., WONDERS OF THE SEA—Life
| | | Boulenger, 12s (Gro of the Ocean (Fishes, etc.),
| & Portmann, Prof. Iris Books, 1945:
| | Dr. A.
ae INV JEL |) ge} ae | AN |) Toloriny, IP. vaverselll ANIMAL LORE IN ENGLISH
LITERATURE, 1932.
214 NH | OVS I ice yi dekomuyainkenya, “Ths (Co WONDERS OF THE. GREAT Bar-
| | | RIER REEF, 1948.
ar | N H | EA |) er D Russell, E. S. ‘THE INTERPRETATION OF DEvE-
| | | LOPMENT & HEREDITY—A
| | | Study in Biological Method,
| ae togo:
216|NH R aj \\ ite A | Salt, Laura E. & |OxrorpD JUNIOR ENCYCLO-
| | Boumphrey, | PEDIA—Natural History,
| | | Geoffrey (General | Vol. II, 1949.
. | | Editors)
217} NH) 72) 11, C | Sanyal, Ram Brahma iA HAND-BOOK OF THE MAN-
| | | ‘| AGEMENT OF ANIMALS IN
| | CapTIvITIY IN LOWER BEN-
| | | GAL, 1892.
218| N H OD || uz | C, |) Seloevany Ik, 18 |THe History OF THE Evro-
PEAN FAUNA, the Con-
| | | temporary Science Series,
| | | 1899.
219| N H Omni Cumin ochradeneinran7 Mirosis, The Movements of
| | | Chromosomes in Cell Divi-
| | | - sion, 1946.
220| N H| 166 | 12! E | Sedgwick, Adam | A Srupent’s TExt-Book oF
| | | | ZooLocy—Protozoa to
| | j | Chaetognatha—Vol. I, 1898.
332
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Classification
Accession
Cabinet
| Shelf
Title of Book
225 |
226
227M
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
N H
168
216
212
165
211
78
222
12
12
12
I2
12
12
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12
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12
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Siggins, A. J.
Author
|
|
Sedgwick, Adam A STUDENT’S 'TExT- BooK oF
ZOOoLOGyY—Amphioxus and
Vertebrata—Vol. II, 1905.
do. do. The Introduction to
Arthropoda—the Crustacea,
and Xiphosura, the In-
secta and Arachnida—Vol.
III, 1rg09.
THE GUN: AFIELD AND
AFLOAT, 1904.
Shaw, George & |THE NATURALIST’S MISCEL-
Nodder, Fre- LANY: or coloured figures
derick P. of Natural Objects; drawn
and described immediately
from Nature, 1790.
See Harmer, S. F. & Shipley,
Ig De
Sharp, Henry
Shipley, A. E.
Zootocy, An _ Elementary
Text-Book, Cambridge Zoo-
logical Series, third edition,
IQI5.
SHOOTING WITH RIFLE &
CAMERA, 1931.
‘ Silver Hackle ” INDIAN JUNGLE LorE &
THE RirFLE—being Notes on
Shikar and Wild Animal
Je Wife wno20.
_ | A SHort History oF BioLocy
~| —A General Introduction
to the Study of Living
Things, 1931.
Skertchly, Sydney | See Tylor, Alfred & Skertchly,
B Sydney.
MARVELS OF POND LIFE or a
Year’s Microscopic Recrea-
tion among the Polyps,
Infusoria, Rotifers, Water-
bears and Polyzoa, 1841.
THE Evo“LuTION oF Man,
] second edition, 1927.
Smith, Fred |THE WorRLD OF ANIMAL LIFE,
(Editor) | 1923.
Smith, Robert |THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE
Meade | DoMEsTIC ANIMALS—A
Text-Book for Veterinary
and Medical Students and
Practitioners, 1889.
|Far-Orr ‘THincs—Treating
of the History, Aborigines,
Myths and Jungle Mysteries
of Ceylon, 1933.
JUNGLE By-Ways IN INDIA—
Leaves from the Note-book
of a Sportsman and a Natu-
ralist, second edition, 1911.
Shipley, A. E. &
MacBride, E. W.
Singer, Charles
|
|
|
Bd fe
Slack, Henry J.
Smith, G. Elliot
Spittel, R. L.
Stebbing, E. P.
BOOKS IN BOMBAY NATURAL. HISTORY SOCIETY'S LIBRARY 333
(e) |
. | eae
9 3 S
Sy coh te 38 Author Title of Book
eS 2 3 & —
oO = o eS G
op) ‘S) <q O N
2351 N H} 209] 12! F_ | Sverdrup, H. U., Tue Oceans, THEIR PHYSICS,
Johnson, Martin CHEMISTRY AND GENERAL
W. & Fleming, BIOLOGY, 1942.
Richard H.
PBOloN He 142 | t2° | D Tennent, Sir J. SKETCHES OF THE NATURAL
Emerson HisToRY OF CEYLON with
‘Narratives and Anecdotes
illustrative of the Habits and
Instincts of the Mammalia,
Birds, Reptiles, etc., includ-
ing a monograph of the
Elephant and description of
the modes of capturing and
training it, 1861.
237| N H| 188] 12/] E Thomson, J. Arthur | HEREDITY, second edition,
1912.
do. See Pycraft, W. P. (General
Editor), Lydekker, Richard,
Cunningham, J. T., Boulen-
ger, G. A. & Thomson, J.
Arthur.
238! N H| 161 {| 12/| E Tombazi, N. A. ACCOUNT OF A PHOTOGRAPHIC
EXPEDITION TO THE SOUTH-
ERN GLACIERS OF KANG-
CHENJUNGA IN THE SIKKIM
HIMALAYA, 1925.
239; NH HG) |} 1 | ‘Tomes, Charles S. A Manuat or DENTAL ANA-
| ToMy—Human and Com-
| parative, 1898.
240! N H 59 | 12 B Tressler, Donald K. | Marine Propucts or Com-
MERCE—Their Acquisition,
Handling, Biological Aspects
and the Science and ‘T'ech-
nology of Their Preparation
and Preservation, 1923.
241| N H| 204 | 12 F Tristram, H. B. THE SURVEY OF WESTERN
| PALESTINE—The Fauna and
| Flora of Palestine, 1888.
242; N H| 152 | 12 D Tylor, Alfred & COLOURATION IN ANIMALS AND
Skertchly, Sydney PLANTS, 1886.
B
243| N H TAD a at) D Various Authors GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
oF ANIMALS AND OTHER
| ALLIED Papers—a _ bound
| volume of several reprints,
1903-1910.
2441 N H|. 213 | 12 F do. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF
| QUADRUPEDS AND CETA-
cEouS ANIMALS, Vol. I, 1811.
245 N H!/ 214 | 12 F do. do. Vol. II, 1811. |
246| NH} 259 | 12 F |Vredenburg, Ernest A SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY
. W. IN INDIA, 1907.
247/ NH] 185] 12] E Wallace, Alfred DarWINisMm—An ___— Exposition
Russel of the Theory of Natural
Selection with some of its
Applications, 1890.
334
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252| NH 67 | 12 Cc
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258| N Hj 189 | 12 E
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|
260 37 elon anes
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
—$—__—______
L de Ge
Woodward, B. B.
Author Title of Book
|
|
|
|
|
Ward, Henry FRESH-WATER BIoLocy, 1918.
Baldwin &
Whipple, the |
late George
Chandler
Ward, John J. PEEPS INTO NATURE’s Ways—
being chapters on _ Insect,
Plant and Minute life, 1907.
WANDERINGS IN SOUTH
AMERICA, the Northwest of
the United States and the
Antilles, in the years 1812,
1816, 1820 & 1824, 1879.
THE ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS
AND OCEANS, 1924. (Trans-
lated from the third German
edition by Skerl, J. G. A.)
PROTOZOOLOGY—A Manual
for Medical Men, Vete-
rinarians and Zoologists,
Vol. I, 1926.
do. do. Vol. II, 1926.
Whipple, the late See Ward, Henry Baldwin &
George Chandler Whipple, the late George
Waterton, Charles
Wegener, Alfred
Wenyon, C. M.
Chandler.
Wilson-Barker, See Carpenter, Capt. Alfred
Capt. D. & Wilson-Barker, Capt. D.
White, Adam See Richardson, Sir John,
Dallas, William S., Cob-
bold, T. Spencer, Baird,
William & White, Adam.
SKETCHES OF ANIMAL LIFE &
Hasits, 1880.
LEISURE- TIME STUDIES,
| CHIEFLY BIoLoGicAL—A
Series of Essays and Lec-
tures, second edition, 1878.
Wood, Lt.-Col. H. S. | Grineeees OF THE Witp—An
Observer’s Notes and Anec-
dotes on the Wild Life of
| Assam, 1936.
THE ILLUSTRATED NATURAL
History—Reptiles, Fishes,
Molluscs, etc., 1863.
Homes WITHOUT HANDs, 1865.
Wilson, Andrew
Wilson, Andrew
Wood, J. G.
Wood, The Rev.
See Gray, Peter and Wood-
ward, B. B.
Yonge, C. M. QUEER FisH—Essays on Marine
Science and other Aspects
| of Biology, 1928.
Young, J. Z. THe LIFE OF VERTEBRATES,
: 1950.
A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIG GAME HUNTING AND SHOOTING
IN INDIA AND THE EAST
[Published in Vol. 49, No. 2 (August 1950) and Vol. 50, No. 1
(August 1951)] 2
ADDENDA
The following titles to be added :—
2a.
73b.
105a.
116a.
155a.
169a.
174a.
AUTHOR
Abdul Shakur Khan,
Sahibzada of Tonk.
Burgess, F.F. B....
Burrard, Major
Gerald
Cunningham, Sir A.
G. R. A-M.
Gouldsbury, C.E....
Langley, Edward
Arthur, Late
Madras Cavalry...
Martin, Lt-Gen:
H.G. ‘Al Knhan-
zir’ eee
Moorcroft, William
and Trebeck, G....
‘TITLE
SHIKAR EVENTS AND SOME USE-
FUL NOTES THEREON. —
SPORTING FIREARMS FOR BUSH
AND JUNGLE.
NOTES ON SPORTING RIFLES
FOR USE IN INDIA AND ELSE-
WHERE. 2nd edition.
LADAK, PHYSICAL, STATISTICAL
AND HISTORICAL WITH
NOTICES OF THE SURROUNDING
COUNTRIES.
MANUAL OF INDIAN Sport. 2nd
edition. Privately printed at
Indore.
LIFE IN THE INDIAN POLICR.
NARRATIVE OF A RESIDENCE AT
THE CouRT OF MEER ALI
MOORAD, WITH WILD’ SPORTS
IN THE VALLEY OF THE INDUS.
2 vols.
SUNSET FROM THE MAIN.
TRAVELS IN THE HIMALAYAN
PROVINCES OF HINDUSTAN AND
THE PANJAB ; IN LADAKH AND
KASHMIR; IN PESHAWAR
KABUL, KUNDUZ AND BOKHARA
FROM 1819 To 1825. Prepared
for the Press by H. H. Wilson.
2 vols. illustrated.
PUBLISHED
1935
1884
1925
1854
1875
1916
1860
1951
1841
336
192a.
234a.
241a.
244a.
254a,
25 4b.
254¢,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Rees, J. Laas Colaknee
Tennent, Sir James
Emerson
Wier, (Go AN, om
Walshe, B. a
Wilsoa
Wilson, Andrew ...
Wilson, E. H. oe
H. R. H. Taz DvuxKe or Czra-
RENCE AND AVONDALE IN
SOUTHERN INDIA, WITH A
NARRATIVE OF ELEPHANT
CATCHING IN MySORE, BY
G. T. SANDERSON. Also Hun-
ting in Travancore. Illustrated.
SKETCHES OF THE NATURAL
HISTORY OF CEYLON, INCLU-
DING A MONOGRAPH OF THE
ELEPHANT. Illustrated.
TRAVELS IN KaAsuHmiR, LADAK,
ISKARDO, THE COUNTRIES. AD-
JOINING THE MOUNTAIN-COURSE
OF THE INDUS, AND THE HIMa~- °
LAYA, NORTH OF THE PUNJAB.
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TURES IN NEPAUL AND THE
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PERSONAL ENCOUNTERS AND
NARROW ESCAPES.
A SUMMER RAMBLE IN THE
HIMALAYAS, WITH SPORTING
ADVENTURES IN THE VALE OF
CASHMERE. Edited by Moun-
taineer. [Mr. Wilson of Mus-
soorie].
(The Wild Animals of Garhwal
and other parts of the Hima-
layas were fully described in a
series of articles in the ‘India
Sporting Review’ (¢zrca 1860)
entitled ‘Game of the Hima-
layas by Mountaineer ’.)
THE ABODE OF SNOW : OBSER-
VATIONS ON A JOURNEY FROM
CHINESE TIBET TO THE INDIAN
Caucasus THROUGH THE
UprerR VALLEYS OF THE HI¥A~A- -
LAYA. Coloured plate, map.
A NATURALIST IN WESTERN |
CHINA WITH VASCULUM, -
CAMERA AND GUN: — BEING
SOME ACCOUNT OF ELEVEN
YEARS’ TRAVEL, EXPLORATION
AND OBSERVATIONS IN THE
MORE REMOTE PARTS OF THE
FLOWERY KINGDOM. 2 vols,
illustrated, 1st edition.
2nd edition,
1861
186]
1842
1844
1875
1860
1875
ONES
1925
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA 337
CORRIGENDA
In the Bibliography, at p. 229, vol. 49. (August 1950) opposite
item 142, for 1927 read 1827.. .
In the Corrigenda at p. 168, vol. 50, opposite item 23a for initials
of Col. Fenton read L.L. instead of A.A.
WANTED. Year of publication of items : 586, 89, 90, 139, and 209
and of ‘Pigsticking ’ by ‘“‘ Raoul’.
Members able to supply the above wants, or make any suggestions
for further, additions or amendments are asked to send these to the
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BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,
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- ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
Vol, 47.
At p. 622 insert as item :—
48a. Hubback, Theodore, (1941) ;—Salt-licks. Their Vital Impor-
tance to the Wild Life of Malaya. J.B.N.A.S., 42;
518-525. |
Vol, 50. -
On page 845 in the line SwALL GAMES SHOOTING delete s after
GAME.
On page 865 i in the Appendix, opposite first nae under Sheep,
opposite fulz enter (/7).
Under Goats, after The Asiatic Ibex insert :—
The Persian Ibex-—-Capra sibirica skyn.
Under Goats, delete the last entry and take to page 866 where insert,
after Tibetan Game Animals :—
Kutch
The Indian Wild Ass—Aguus onager indicus.
After the paragraph ‘ Hunting with Foxhounds’ on page 867, insert
the following :—
The photograph of the Madras Hunt is presented by Mr. Hadow,
and Captain Buckley’s ‘Notes’ were made available by Brigadier
Re CoR, Hill:
On page 869 insert item :—
(13a) Hubback, Theodore, (1941) : Salt-licks—Their Vital
Importance to the Conservation of Wild Life in Malaya.
J.B.N.H.S., 42; 518-525.
On page 938, in the Second line, for of read off.
On page 939, in sixth line from the end of Miscellaneous Note 10, for
dindseoo read dindaeoo. bs
On page 939, in third line from the end of the same note, woud to
read would.
ERRATA
THE GENUS POA LINN. INDIA
[Published in Vol. 50 (4)—August 1952]
~ The following is a correction of the first 19 lines on p. 812 of the
above issue, which were wrongly spaced from the left :—
Lower sheaths smooth :—
Lemmas very broad, rounded
on back and hyaline at the
tips:— ;
Lemmas strongly compressed,
up to 3°75 mm. long; palea
scabrid with many teeth; a
dwarf plant not more than
4cm. tall; panicle glabose
compact; spikelets dark
purple er .. 39. P. phariana
Lemmas rounded on the back ;
palea with distant teeth on
the keels; up to10 cm. tall,
with long reflexed panicle-
branches; spikelets suffused ;
gold and purple or green... 41. P. calliopsts
Lemmas not broad; acute or
narrowly obtuse at the tip:— -
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JOURNAL OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Vol. 51, No. 2
Editors
SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SANTAPAU
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ae itd CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51, No. 2
Tae Lier HistoRY OF THE GREAT INDIAN: ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS
(RAinoceros unicornis Linn.). By KE. P. Gee, M.A., c.M.z.S. (With a
plate) cs nb ais 350 ay
NOTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY. By H. Santapau, s.z.
SoME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF INDIAN BUILT-UP AREAS. By M. D. Lister.
Mugil ‘poecilus Day, SAME AS Mugil troscheli BLEEKER, Bayelsa ani ies
HEN acs a plate) aoe wet apf se
THe BIONOMICS OF ‘TABANID LARVAE (D:PTERA). By Nawab’ H. Khan,
M.Sc. (Alig.), Ph.D. (Masnnehusctis), F.R.E.S. (With two plates)
A NAnuRAT Isa IN THE Noxta- WEST HIMALAYA. Part III. By M. A.
Wynter-Blyth. (With a plate) oes A oe 9
PLANTS FROM EAST NepaL. Parti. By M. L. Banerji. (With a map)...
NotES ON SOME RODENTS FROM SAUDI ARABIA AND Kuwalt. BY
Desmord es etl acts hitte M.B.E., B.Sc. aed
STUDY OF THE Marine FAUNA OF THE KARWAR COAST AND THE NEIGH-
BOURING ISLANDS. PART IV. ByA. M. Patil, M.sc. : lee
Cerciaphis emblica sp. Nov. (FAM. APHIDIDAE)—A Nkrw ApHID Puxst
on Amblica officenaltis. By G. A. Patel, ph.p. (Cornell) and
H. L. Kulkarni, M.se. (Agri.). (With a plate) bh Lt
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’. By Sunil Kumar Mukherjee, p.sc.
SOME INTERESTING MatHons OF FISHING IN THE BACKWATERS OF T’RA-
VANCORE, By K, Gopinath. (With two text figures) sets a
A CHECKLIST OF FISHES OCCURRING IN THE FRESHWATERS OF BaRoDA~;
By M. R. Ranade, M.sc.. aie ore ar. :
REVIEWS :—
1. A Pocket Book of British Moths. By George E, Hyde. (J. J. Alfrey),
2. A Coloured Atlas of some Vertebrates from Ceylon, Vol. I, Fishes.
By P.E. P. Deraniyagala, (C. V.K.) ... il a
3, Name this Insect. By Eric Fitch Daglish. (J. I. Alfrey)
4, The Palaecbotanist. Vol. I. (K. A. Chowdhury). ... mit
5. Big Game of Malaya.’ By E. C. Foenander. (R. W. B.) 4
6. West Bengal Commetcial Timbers, their Identification, Properties
and Uses. By K. Ahmad Chowdhury. (S.S.G.) ...
7. Wild Flower Studies in Colour and Pencil. By Bessie D. gli
(H. Santapau)
8. Plant Hunter in Maatpurt By F. Kin ddon-Wara! (H. Gantanatn!
9. Malayan Wild Flowers. Part I. By M. R. Henderson. (H.
Santapau). nee a ves oak oY
PAGE
1 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51, No. 2
PAGB
10. Adventures of a Botanist’s Wife. By Eleanor Bor, (H. Santapan). 487
11. Useful Plants of India & Pakistan, By J. F. Dastur.(H.Santapan) 488
12, Medicinal Plants of India & Pakistan. By J. F. Dastur.
(H. Santapau) ere 0) ee: mot w. 488
ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY-~ «. ais “as 490
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
1. Notes and Observations on the Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus
voxellanae). By Editors (p. 492). 2. How do the larger Felines secure
nimble prey ? By Randolpb C. Morris (p. 493). 3. Unrecorded sounds made
by Tiger and Wild Dog. By Randolph C. Morris (p. 494). 4. Wild Dogs.
By. Capt. K. Boswell (p. 495). 5. Remarkable behaviour of a Cow. By
F.R. Goldschmidt (p. 497). 6. Red Porcupines. By Randolph C. Morris.
(p. 497). 7. How long do the small Bats (Microchiroptera) live? By Salim
Ali (p. 498). 8. On the stranding of a Whale at Jambudwip on the Bengal
Coast about 19 yearsago. By S. Jones (p. 499). 9. A Note on the Dholpur
Wild Life Sanctuary, Rajasthan. (With a sketch map and two plates). By S.
Szafranski (p.500). 10. The ‘Mighty Jeep’ is a ‘Shocking Predator’. By Lt.-Col.
R..W. Burton (p, 503). 11. ‘A History of Shikar in India ’—A Correction,
By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 504). 12. The Jackdaw (Corvus monedula) in
Uttar Pradesh. By Mrs. Syamala Murthy (p. 505). 13, Koel mimicking
Golden Oriole. By Mrs. Jamal Ara (p. 505). 14. The Great Indian Bus- .
tard. By Lt -Col. R. W. Burton (p. 506). 15. Feeding habit of the Indian
Pond Heron (Ardevla grayii). By K. M. Kirkpatrick (p. 507). 16. Red-
necked Phalarope near Delhi. By H.G. Alexander (p. 507). 17. Occur-
rence of the Smew (Mergellus albellus Linn.) in West Bengal. By S. C. Law
(p. 508). 18, Stray bird notes from Mysore.. By C. Brooke.Worth (p. 509).
19: Additional Mysore State bird records. By C. Brooke. Worth (p. 510),
20. A Python containing a full-grown, undigested Lungoor. By Capt.
K. Boswell (p.510). 21. Some more notes on Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters) ©
with special reference to specimens from Mahableshwar (Western Ghats,
Bombay). By V.K. Chari (p. 512). 22. The Tadpole of Aana Jletthit Boul- ~
enger. (With a plate). By V. K. Chari and J. C. Daniel (p. 512), 23.
Notes on the Lepidoptera of Assam—ll. By T. Norman (p, 515). 24. A
novel method of.eradicating Hornets. By R. M. Aldworth (p. 517). 25.
Observations on an association between Horse-flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)
and Cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae), with a note on the mating of Cicadas,
By C. Brooke Worth. (p.518). 26. On the habits of Indian Eresid Spiders
Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch. (Witha plate). By T. V. Subrahman-
yam (p. 521). 27. A note on the effect of light and the colour of the sub-
stratum on the settlement of Barnacles. (With a text figure and a plate).
By G. K. Kuriyan and S. Mahadevan (p. 522), 28. A new species of poly-
gala from Burma and a new variety of P. Ayalina Wall. ex Hassk. (Witha
plate). By S.K. Mukerjee (p. 524). 29. Gleanings (p. 526).
NoTEs AND NEWS ie he EH & a5 Ae) MES'29
ERRATA
JOURNAL
- OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
1953 VoL. 51 No; 2
THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED
RHINOCEROS (Rk. UNICORNIS LINN.)
BY |
EK. P, GEE, M.A., C.M.Z.S.
(With a plate)
_ INTRODUCTION
Very little is known of the life history of the three species of
Asiatic rhinoceroses. Owing to the extreme rarity of R. swmatrensis
and R. sondaicus, it will now be difficult to obtain many data about
these two species; but in the case of R. unicornis, which is preserved
in fairly safe numbers in Nepal and in the States of Assam and Bengal
of the Indian Republic, it should not be impossible to collect adequate
information provided that intelligent and accurate observation is
conducted by all concerned.
In addition to the 350 rhino (all rhino referred to in this paper
are R. unicornis, unless specified to the contrary) still believed to exist
in their wild state in Nepal (50), Bihar (2), Bengal (58) and.Assam
(240), several zoological gardens now contain pairs of these valuable
animals. Calcutta has had a pair since 1933, Chicago a pair since
1948, Cairo a pair since 1949 and in 1952 females have been sent to
Whipsnade (Britain) and Basle (Switzerland) to complete pairs in
these two places. It is now therefore possible to make observations
of five pairs of this species of rhino in captivity, though it is admitted
that the considerable changes in climate, food and environment may
in some cases prove to be a deterrent against breeding.
MATING
The present pair in the Alipore Zoological Gardens, Calcutta, have
not successfully mated. It is the opinion of the Superintendent, who
has been’ observing them for the last seven years, that they ‘were
never observed to come in heat simultaneously, i.e. the female comes
‘to heat when the male is not in rut and vice versa’. This view seems
to be shared by Dr. Dillon Ripley of the U.S.A., who believes that
the male rhino. undergoes a period of sexual excitement as well as the
342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. $1
female, and that the periods must be coincidental before mating can be
altempted or accomplished... No such period, however, has been
observed in the male at the Chicago Zoological Park; and the Assistant
Director there informs me that a ‘heat’ period has only once been
detected in the female—on September 9, 1949—which lasted mildly
for three days. The male and female at this zoo have to be kept sepa-
rate, for on the three occasions on which they have been put together
there has been a fight.
If the Chicago Zoo authorities had hardened their hearts and
persevered with the matter, their two rhino might have become reconciled
to each other, as in the recent case of the pair at the Basle Zoo.
P. Ryhiner has informed me that at Basle the newly arrived female
was introduced to the male in an adjacent enclosure during the summer
of 1952, the male showing some interest. The next stage was to
let them come together in the same enclosure, whereupon the female
rushed at the male, attacked it and drew blood. The introduction
of the female to the male in the same enclosure was then repeated
daily, with a daily lessening of the female’s aggressive spirit until even-
tually this perseverance on the part of the Basle Zoo authorities was
rewarded by the female becoming quite indifferent to the male’s presence.
It is, however, pertinent to observe that the female’s antipathy and
subsequent indifference to the male may have been partly due in this:
particular case to a possible pregnancy.
Sir William Gowers has informed me that there is a story recorded
in London in 1871 of a male rhino acquired by the London Zoo in 1864
‘of enormous size, about 53” at shoulder, and 10’6” from tip of nose
to root of tail. In August 1870 this male and a female (acquired
rather earlier) were in adjoining enclosures separated by iron bar
fencing. On August 10 the male made frequent attempts to raise the
lower transverse bar by placing his horn under it. Eventually the horn
became detached by violent pressure, and rolled off into the yard.
The animal appeared much hurt, and roared loudly. There was con-
siderable loss of blood, but the wound healed in a few days. A new
horn started to grow, and had reached 14” next year’. This story
may indicate sexual excitement in the male, which may have been
also in the female simultaneously. It is a pity there was no attempt
by the keepers to let these two rhino meet in the same enclosure.
The previous pair of rhino at Calcutta provides us (Salim Ali, 1926)
with the only known information of the mating and also breeding of
this animal. As far as could be ascertained from the keeper, mating
commenced on March 17, 1924, and continued to the end of the month.
The calf was born on October 9, 1925.
Of the four cases known to me of rhino mating in their wild
state, all have occurred between the end of February and the end of
April, a period of two months. {The reference by Bengt Berg in his
book, ‘On the Trail of the Rhino’, when he reports seeing a pair to-
gether in close company at the end of March in the Jaldapara Sanctuary
of Bengal, seems to indicate the ‘courting’ stage only.) |
Three cases have been observed in the Kaziranga Wild Life
Sanctuary of Assam, as reported by visitors in the Visitors’ Book.
On April 17, 1938, is the entry ‘A couple of rhino seen in the act of
mating’, and E. I. Matthews has later amplified to me how he “suddenly
came on them, actually mating. It took them about 20 seconds to
(S1UL0IIUN SOLIIOUIYY) SOLBIOUTYY PIUIOY-sUQ UPIPUT jel
Ri RO psy
Wiis
THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS 843
break off in surprise. 1 took a photo at about 4o yards, but it came out
blurred... The female seemed to be on her knees, but it may have been.
the swampy ground—I can’t remember’. The next entry in the Visitors’
Book referring to mating is a bare mention of it having been seen on
February 24, 1940; and the third was observed by the Divisional Forest
Officer on April 25, 1944, “Iwo were in the act of mating.’
On March 7, 1952, occurred what is probably the only case of
the complete mating having been seen of these rhino in their wild
state. Vhe manager’s bungalow of Hathikuli Tea Estate is situated
near the southern boundary of the Kaziranga Sanctuary, and in front
of the verandah is a clearing of some 4o yards wide and 1000 yards
long extending up to the sanctuary itself, cleared each year to provide
a good view of wild life. On February 11, 1952, six rhino had been
observed in the clearing, of which two staged a fight while the other
four continued to graze unconcernedly.
At about 2.45 in the afternoon on March 7, a pair of rhino entered
the clearing about 500 yds. from the bungalow verandah; and 3 persons,
A. B. Cunningham, T. Brown and Mrs. Brown, were able to watch the
whole mating scene. The following is a precis of their account: ‘At first
they faced each other, and there was some caressing. Then, standing
nose to nose, they commenced pushing each other backwards and
forwards in turn. This continued for about 15 minutes. Then the
actual mating started, and the male remained mounted for 1 hour and
20 minutes, while the female moved slowly about, a few steps at a time.
The male was not seen to dismount during this period, and one of
us was watching all the time, except for a possible break of not more
than three minutes or so. The ground on which this happened was
fairly hard’ and dry., After this, the male dismounted and disappeared
into the thick reeds... The female stayed around for another 20 minutes
before moving off likewise.’
These four cases of rhino mating in their wild state indicate a
mating period of two months lasting from the end of February to
the end of April; and this is further borne out by. the fact that cow
rhino are usually seen with newly born calves in the months of
October and November. But this two-month period, although it does
happily, coincide with the case of mating in the Calcutta Zoo in 1924,
cannot yet be regarded as, conclusive. For only recently a case was
reported in Kaziranga of a dead newly born female baby rhino being found
on April 22, 1952.. The Range Officer says he suspects that the mother
accidentally trampled on the head’ of the calf when it had just been
born. The length of the body (excluding tail) was given as 4 feet,
and the height as 2 feet.
It is not known whether the mating seasons of R. sumatrensis are
similar to those of R. unicornis, but it might be worth while mention-
ing that W. F. H. Ansell reported a case at Kahilu in Burma: ‘In
July (1933) a forester reported he had seen two rhinoceros mating.’
Theodore Hubback also saw a pair of R. sumatrensis mating in Malaya,
but does not mention the day or month.
BREEDING
In the only known case since 1826 of a rhino calf being born in
captivity to captive parents, in Calcutta on October 9, 1925, the period
344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
of gestation was about 184 months. Unfortunately the birth was
“somewhat premature and the calf survived a few hours only’. Possibly,
therefore, the full period of gestation may be presumed to be 19
months. In October 1951 in Kaziranga two very small rhino calves
were observed by officers of the Forest Department. L. Rynjah, the
Divisional. Forest Officer, reported one of these cases as follows:
‘On the 12th October, 1951, I saw at the edge of Vasalimara Bheel
inside the Sanctuary one cow rhino with two calves. One calf is about
the size of ‘‘Gadadhar’’ Rhino, . . about 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in., but I marked
the horn more minutely and it won’t be more than 4 inches or less
than 3 inches, The other calf is very small about the size of an
average domesticated pig (say the height is about 2 ft. or so).’ On
November 4, 1951, I myself saw a cow with a baby calf of not more
than about 2 ft. in height, and the following week saw another cow
in another place with a calf of about 2 ft. 3 in. Again, as recently as
November 10, 1952, I saw a cow rhino in Kaziranga Sanctuary with
the smallest calf yet seen. It could not have been more than 1 foot
Io or 11 inches in height, or more than a week or so old. If from
these cases we can deduce that rhino calves are born in Kaziranga
in the month of October, this would make the period of gestation
about 184 to 19 months.
Many years ago a report (Hodg‘son, 1834) had stated that “The
Rhinoceros goes with young from seventeen to eighteen months’, and
referred to a rhino calf being born at ‘Katmandoo’ eight years pre-
viously in 1826. '\ But it is not known if this calf was born to a pair
in captivity, or to a female captured in a state of pregnancy, or what
month it was born in. Hodgson also states that only one is produced
at a birth, that the young continues to suck for nearly two years
and that the young calf has ‘when born and for a month afterwards a
pink suffusion over the dark colour proper to the mature hide.’
Sir William Gowers has examined Hodgson’s MS. volumes in
the library of the Zoological Society of London, and has informed me
that there is a drawing of a ‘Rhinoceros, 9 years old, male, March’ 1,
1833. Habitat Saul Forest.’ And that there is a further note “This
animal showed first symptoms of puberty in his roth year, when he went
to Calcutta. He was born in the Durbar’s menagerie, as elsewhere
recorded by me’. It is not quite clear if this animal is the same
as that recorded by Hodgson in 1834, as there is some discrepancy
about the dates of birth.
The dimensions and weights of the known rhino calves are as
follows :—
The Katamandu calf—
Height sk be pene o)
Length (excluding tail?) Ks re ain rae
Weight ne ye eo
The Calcutta calf—
Height a ie Seats) | nepeEaT
Length (excluding tail) ioe joa efao”
Weight aD ce +. oviasdbs
THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED RHINOCERQS 345
The Kaziranga calf—
Height fe voetiay adh bed celiat
Length (excluding tail) de yee aya
Weight re “al eset. aa
B. C. Ellison records that a fully developed foetus was taken from a
cow rhino shot during the Prince of Wales’s shoot in Nepal of which
the dimensions were:
Height ed ee veep ght
Length. (excluding tail) vhs ino Baar?
Weight ong £3. 120 lb
RATE OF GROWTH
As far as I know, there are only two recorded instances of the exact
size of a rhino at a given age. The rhino which was brought to Europe
in 1741 had been captured after its mother had been killed, when. it
was only a month old, and it had been brought up by hand. A ‘coin’
or medal struck at Nuremburg in 1748 states on the reverse side that
‘in the year 1747 when it was eight and a half years old it was 12
shoes long, 12 shoes girth, and 5.7 shoes high.’ Presumably shoes
were equivalent to feet.
The other instance of the size of a rhino at a given age is that
mentioned by Hodgson: ‘An individual born at Katmandu eight years
since measures now g ft, 3 in. in length; 4 ft. 10 in. in height at
the shoulders; the utmost girth of his body is ro ft. 5 in.; the
length of the head, 2 ft. 4 in.; of the horn 5 in.: he is,evidently far
from being adult.’ The dimensions given on the back of the drawing
in Hodgson’s MS. volumes of a Rhinoceros, g-year old’ are: length
7 4$" (nape to rump); height 5’ 2”; length of head 2’ 5”, of horn
6”. These latter records seem much more reliable than the Nuremburg
one of 1747.
LIFE SPAN
Hodgson states, with regard to the supposed tongevity of the rhino,
that ‘It is believed that the animal lives for one hundred years; one,
taken mature, was kept at Katmandu for thirty-five years without
exhibiting any symptoms of approaching decline.’ Blanford cites fifty
or sixty years, and Sterndale mentions a pair living forty-five years in
the Barrackpore Park.
Cedric Dover states that ‘Fifteen records of the Great Indian
Rhinoceros . . . show an average life of about twenty-nine years, a
minimum, of fifteen and a quarter years and a’ maximum of forty-seven
years.’ All these animals were, it is presumed, kept in captivity.
Specimens kept at the London Zoological Gardens have lived for
a long period. One which came in 1834 lived tilf 1849, while a second,
purchased in 1850, died in 1874, anda third lived from 1864 till 1906.
The female which was captured at Chittagong in 1868 and lived at
the London Zoo till 1900 was a specimen of R. sumatrensis.
346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
There are several old animals in the Kaziranga Wild Life Sanc-
tuary, all of them bulls, which appear to have been ousted by younger
rivals. They are compelled to remain on the fringe of the sanctuary,
and generally graze outside the boundary. If they enter they are
liable to be attacked by the others, presumably by the bulls, and they
bear scars of frequent combats.
One of these in particular is well known to me. It was an o'd
bull living on the boundary as long ago as 1939, and on April 6 of that
year I was able to approach quite close and photograph it. It had
an old wound on the hindquarters, and was known as the ‘boorra
goonda’—the old big bull. On January 8, 1950, this same old ‘solitary’
bull was seen and photographed in close company with a cow, outside
the sanctuary, and they remained together for several days, though no
mating was observed. This same bull who was still frequenting the same
place in April 1952, appears to have lived a long life. If old age can
be so prolonged, this would seem to be an additional proof of the
thino’s longevity. It would not be unreasonable, I think, to presume
that rhino live at least as long as the Indian elephant, up to 70 years.
INFORMATION WANTED ON THE INDIAN RHINOCEROS
As stated at the outset, our knowledge of the life history of the
Indian rhino is very scanty. Many are the gaps which need to be
filled in. If only our efforts to induce them to breed in captivity can
be crowned with success, a great deal will be learnt. As the African
Black Rhinoceros (R. bicornis) has on two occasions bred successfully
at the Chicago Zoological Park, and both the calves reared to maturity,
there seems to be no valid reason why R. unicornis, which is more
amenable to captivity and which quickly becomes exceptionally tame,
should not do likewise. In the case of the Chicago Black Rhinoceros,
the breeding pair were together since they were youngsters, and this
may provide the solution. If so, then there is a chance that some
fruitful result may be later obtained at Whipsnade.
A more systematic method of making and recording accurate
observations in India’s rhino sanctuaries needs to be formulated. A
complete ecological survey of the rhino and other wild life in the
sanctuaries of north-east India requires to be made. With these ends
in view, I have tabulated the following questionnaire which, if handed
to every member of the Forest Department concerned with the patrol-
ling of the sanctuaries in which rhino are found, ought to be of use in
extending our knowledge of this rare and interesting creature.
1... he, Rhino’ s. Hora,
(2) It is known that the Indian rhino (R. wnicornis) often uses its
tushes (in its lower jaw) for attacking, fighting and biting.
Does it also use its horn? If so, does it use its’ horn at the
first charge only, and then its tushes later? Or when?
(b) Does it use its horn for ‘rooting’, i.e. digging up roots, grasses,
etc.\?
(c) Does it use its horn for steering its calf when the calf runs in
front of the mother, as in the case of the African rhino?
2.
3:
4.
5.
6.
7°
THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS 347
Rhino Mating, and Fighting.
(a) It is known that bull rhino sometimes fight. Does this happen
in the breeding season for possession of a cow? If so, in
what months does it happen?
(b) In what month(s) of the year does the actual mating of rhino
take place?
(c) Where, and what time of day does it take place?
(d) Do females ever fight? Or a male with a female?
(e) Do fights take place in disputes over ‘territory’?
Rhino Breeding.
(a) It is believed that the period of gestation of rhino is 184 or 19
months. Is this correct?
(b) How does birth take place, lying down or how?
(c) What happens to the afterbirth?
(d) What time of the year are rhino calves born?
(e) Does the newly born calf have a pinkish colour? If so, for
iow long?
(f) Are twins ever born?
(g) Does the previous calf remain with the mother after a new
calf is born? If so, how big was the previous calf (height
to shoulder)? And how long does it remain?
(hk) How soon after birth can the baby follow its mother?
(:) Which goes first along the path, the baby or its mother?
(j) If ever a newly born calf is found dead, it should be carefully
measured giving height at shoulder, length of body from tip
of nose to root of tail, length of tail, and weight in, pounds.
Rhino Dung Heaps.
(a) It is known that the rhino deposits its dung in heaps. Does
each particular rhino have its own heap?
(b) Or do rhino deposit at any heap that happens to be there, as
they happen to pass by?
(c) Do dung heaps denote rhino ‘territory’?
Rhino Swimming.
(a) It is known that the Indian rhino can swim, but does it swim
willingly and deliberately?
(b) Or does it only swim when it is compelled to?
Rhino and Birds.
(a2) It is noted in Kaziranga that the Jungle Myna is the myna
seen on the backs of rhino looking for ticks, etc., and that
egrets are also seen accompanying rhino. Is this confirmed
by other observers?
(b) Which kind of egret is found with rhino?
(c) Do any other kinds of bird keep company with rhino?
Rhino and other Animals.
(a) It is believed that tiger possibly avoid rhino, and are afraid of
them. How do tiger react when they meet rhino, and vice
versa?
348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
(b) Are wild elephants scared of rhino, as are domesticated ones?
(c) Wild buffalo have occasionally been seen in close company with
rhino. Is this confirmed?
(d) Do deer of different kinds, swamp deer and hog deer, consort
with rhino?
(e) Are wild pig ever found in close company with rhino?
(f) Do any other wild animals show friendship for or enmity against
rhino?
8h Rih mnvoma neeOlmdieineelacimeblers:
(a) It is recorded that in the olden days rhino were kept by princes and
others and used in battle against their enemies. This implies
domestication and a great deal of training. Are there any
detailed accounts of domestication and training of rhino, and
of their use in war, etc.? If so, how was it done, when, where
and by whom?
(b) In these old accounts, is there any information about the life
history etc. of rhino, such as is sought about their breeding
elcar
9. Noises made by Rhino.
(a) Grunts and whistling noises have been recorded, as well as
roars when a rhinoceros is trapped or wounded. Is the
whistling noise made only in the mating season?
(b) And by which sex is this whistling noise made?
N.B. All observations made in the field should be strictly accurate,
and not based on hearsay without verification, or coloured
by imagination. Every report should contain the date, time
of day, full name and status of the person(s) who made the
observation, and names of any witnesses—especially if the
event reported is noteworthy. It is suggested that, with the
approval of the Senior Conservator of Forests all reports made
by members of the Forest Staff should be sent through the usual
channels to their respective D.F.Os., copies to the Bombay
Natural History Society and to Mr. E. P. Gee, Doyang T.E.,
Oating P.O., Assam, who will be only too pleased to compile
all information thus received.
REFERENCES
Ah, Salim (1926): The Breeding of the Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
in Captivity. Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., 34 (4): 1081.
Dover, Cedric (1932): The Duration cf Life of Some Indian Mammals. The
Indian Forester, vol. LVIII, February 1932.
Hodgson, B. (1833): MS. volumes in the library of the Zoological Society of
London.
: Hodgson, B. (1834): A note on the Indian Rhinoceros. Proc. Zool, Soc., London :
98.
NOTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY
BY
H. SANTAPAU, S.J.,' F.N.1.
St. Xavier's College, Bombay
Recently in the Botanical Memoirs of the University of Bombay, No.
2, the present author published a monograph on this interesting
family covering the plants of the present Bombay State. But on
account of the rather limited distribution of the monograph, there
may be a number of botanists in Bombay who may not have access
to the data therein given. Moreover, due also to the limited distribu-
tion of the same monograph some. difficulty may arise in connection
with Art. 36 of the Intern. Rules of Botan. Nomencl. especially
about the new names proposed in the monograph. For these reasons
and to obviate future difficulties, I have been advised to publish in
a shorter paper the results of my work on the present family.
The Monograph bears the date 1951 on the cover; but in point
of fact the monograph was only published on April ist, 1952.
In the present paper I shall deal with genera or species where
some change in the nomenclature or delimitation of the genus has
taken place. At the same time these notes will serve as an appendix
to the monograph, where data which have recently come to my know-
ledge will be embodied. .
THUNBERGIA Retz.
There is no change in this genus except for the following additions:
Thunbergia erecta (Benth.) T.. Anders.; Santapau, Acanth. Bomb. 8.
Lately I have seen this plant flowering profusely in Purandhar,
where it was cultivated in gardens. The plant is a shrub, erect,
about 1-2 m. high, very showy with deep violet flowers.
Santapau, Purandhar Hill, 7th Nov., 1951, 13873-13875 !
Thunbergia coccinea Wall., Tent. Fl: Nep. 49 & 58, t. 37, 1826;
Bor & Raizada in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 42: 696, f. 9.
This plant is not mentioned by Cooke and is not included in the
monograph. It is a very elegant climbing shrub with) very showy
pendulous spikes of orange-coloured flowers. It is abundantly culti-
vated in gardens in Purandhar. og hs
Santapau, Purandhar Hill, 7th Nov., 1951, 13870-13872!
330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
ELYTRARIA L. C. Rich.
Cooke in his Flora gives the name of this plant under Tubiflora;
the name Elytraria is a ‘nomen conservandum’ in the latest edition
of the Intern. Rules Bot. Nomencl. under no. 7908.
Elytraria acaulis (Linn. f.) Lindau in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzen-
fam. Nachtr. 1: 304, 1897; Santapau 11.
Tubiflora acaulis O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 500, 1891.
Recently I have seen specimens of this plant collected in the
neighbourhood of Baroda city by Prof. G. L. Shah of St. Xavier’s
College, Bombay.
CARDANTHERA Voigt.
The only species mentioned by Cooke is C. pinnatifida; Blatter in
Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 26: 350, 1930, described another species,
C. anomala, a very strange plant from Bombay Island and Khandala
in the Western Ghats. Blatter’s plant seems to have been placed in
the wrong genus; but as the type specimens have been lost, it is
impossible to settle the matter satisfactorily.
BLEPHARIS Juss.
Blepharis maderaspatensis (Linn.) Roth., Nov. Pl. Sp. 320, 1821;
Santapau 15.
Acanthus maderaspatensis Linn., Sp. Pl. 892, 1753.
Bl. boerhaviaefolia Pers., Syn. Pl. 2: 180, 1806.
Except for the change in the name of this plant, there is no remark
to make about it save that the plant is rare in the moister parts of
Bombay State; it is rather common in the northern drier parts. The
other species remain unchanged.
HyGROPHILA R, Br.
Key to the Bombay species (Santapau 18)
Procumbent herbs, flowers in terminal spikes, leaves small:
Stamens 2 fertile, seeds 20 or more... polysperma.
Stamens 4 fertile, seeds 8-10, rarely more Serpyllum.
Erect herbs with rather large leaves :
Flowers in terminal spikes TaMstocksiis
Flowers axillary, whorled:
Bracteoles obtuse, oblong; leaves obov-
ate or linear-lanceolate ... Salicifolia.
Bracteoles obtuse, oblong; leaves obov-
vate or elliptic w. qQuadrivalvis.
NOTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY dol
Hygrophila polysperma T. Anders.; Santapau, 19.
Very similar to the following species, from which only the number
of seeds and of stamens clearly distinguish it.
Hygrophila serpyllum (Nees) T. Anders.; Santapau loc. cit.
A very elegant herb, prostrate and forming dense mats during
the monsoon more’ or less everywhere, in moist spots during the dry
season; occasionally plants with pure white flowers have been seen
but such plants may belong to a new species or variety.
Hygrophila salicifolia (Vahl) Nees in Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 3: 81,
1832; Santapau 20.
Rueilia salicifolia Vahl, Symb. 3: 84, 1794.
H. angustifolia Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2: 354, 1904.
The change of name is to be noted. This plant looks remarkably
like Asteracantha longifolia except for the absence of spines.
Hygrophila quadrivalvis (Buch.-Ham.) Nees, loc. cit. 80; Santapau
BI ¢
The oldest name for this plant is Ruellia unduiata Vahl; Nees
made the combination Hygrophila undulata in 1832, but this name
is illegitimate, first because Nees gave the name only in the synonymy
(see Art. 4o, Rules Bot. Nomencl.), and secondly because the name
1S preoccupied by an older homonym for a different plant.
Hygrophila stocksii T. Anders.; Santapau 2r.
Cooke rejects this plant as nothing more than a luxuriant form of
H. serpyllum, but with this opinion I cannot agree. The specimen
in. Kew Herb. shows that the habit of H. stocksii is erect and much
stouter than is usual in H. serpyllum. In my experience I have seen
fairly stout specimens of the latter plant, but they never reach the size
and. form of H. stocksiu. :
RUELLIA Linn,
In our Indian floras there are a number of plants placed under
this genus. The typical species first described by Linne was an
American plant, Ruellia tuberosa L.; taking this species as the original
representative of the genus, we must consider the various Bombay
plants as incorrectly placed in the same genus.. We do not have any
native plant belonging to the genus Ruellia sensu stricto. For the
separation of the various allied genera, the following Eons is taken from
the general key in the Monograph, p. 5:
Inflorescence in lax, axillary cymes; cymes
at times forming a large termina] panicle Ruellia.
Inflorescence of single axillary flowers, or -
in axillary triads, or 2-3 .flowers super-
posed . vee Dipteracanthus.
302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Inflorescence a capituliform compound spike :
surrounded by four large ovate bracts ... Gantelbua.
Inflorescence a more or less elongated simple
spike provided with but one kind of bracts Hemigraphis.
Ruellia tuberosa Linn.; Santapau 23.
An American plant that is spreading very fast in Bombay; recently
I have seen the plant growing gregariously in Bombay city _ itself
and in the suburbs, and also in Rajkot outside Bombay proper. The
plant has fairly large and showy blue flowers, on account of which
it is often cultivated in gardens.
DIPTERACANTHUS Nees, emend. Bremek.
Key to the Bombay species
Leaves ovate or elliptic:
Prostrate or climbing; leaves sparsely hairy,
acute; ovary and capsule pubescent... prostratus,
Suberect or erect; leaves closely pubescent
on both sides, obtuse; ovary and capsule
glabrous ‘ patulus.
Leaves linear, hoary; ovary and capsule pubes-
cent ... longifolius.
Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees in Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 3:
81, 1832; Santapau 24.
Ruellia prostrata var. dejecta Clarke in FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 412, 1884.
Neither in Kew Herb. nor in Blatt. Herb. have I seen any speci-
men of the typical D. prostratus as different from D. dejectus; on
the other hand I have followed Bremekamp in Verh. Ned. Akad. Wet.
(II) 45 (1): 16, in fusing the var. dejectus with the typical variety.
After the publication of my monograph, I have found this plant
in the field on several occasions, at Bassein Fort, at Pawai Lake
and elsewhere. In the field this plant may be taken for one of the
Asystasias. The plant is also common in the southern parts of
Saurashtra.
Dipteracanthus patulus Nees, loc. cit., 82; Santapau 24.
This is a rare plant in Bombay State proper; it is fairly common
in the drier parts towards the north of the State, and in Saurashtra.
Dipteracanthus longifolius Stocks in Kew Journ. Bot. 4: 177,
1852; Santapau 24.
Ruellia longifolia T. Anders.
This 1s also a rare plant in Bombay proper; it is fairly common
in the drier parts of the State towards the north.
NOTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY 3053
HEMIGRAPHIS Nees.
Hemigraphis latebrosa Nees, var. heymeana Bremek., Mat. Mon.
Strob. 139, 1944; Santapau 26. :
Hemigraphis latebrosa Nees, var. ebracteata Cooke.; Santapau 26
Hemigraphis rupestris Heyne ex T. Anders. in Journ, Linn. Sre.
g: 462, 1867; Santapau 27. |
‘I find it very difficult to distinguish between these three plants,
i.e. H. latebrosa vars. heyneana and ebracteata and H. rupestris. In
the herbarium they all seem very similar, and the size of the leaves,
density of pubescence, etc., appear to depend on the season or the
locality of the collection rather than on specific differences . . .’
(Santapau 27).
Hemigraphis crenata Bremek., loc. ult. cit. 137, 1944; Santapau 27.
Ruellia elegans var. crenata Clarke in FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 425, 1884.
Hemigraphis crossandra (Steud.) Bremek., loc. cit. 137, 1944;
Santapau 27.
Ruellia crossandra Steud., Nom. 2: 481, 1841.
R. elegans Hook., Bot. Mag. t. 3389, 1847.
Hemigraphis elegans Nees in DC., Prodr. 11: 722, 1847.
Ruellia diffusa Wall., ex Nees in Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 3: 83, 1832
(non Velloso, 1827).
This plant has not been recorded from Bombay State proper; it
is here given merely to help other Indian botanists who may not
have access to Bremekamp’s papers. The synonymy as given above
shows the reason for the change of name.
GANTELBUA Bremek.
Gantelbua urens (Heyne ex Roth) Bremek. in Mat. Mon. Strob.
148, 1944; Santapau 28.
Ruellia urens Heyne ex Roth, Nov. PI. Sp. 302, 1821.
Ruellia dura Nees in Hook. Comp. Bot. Mag. 2: 311, 1836.
Hemigraphis dura T. ‘Anders. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 9: 461, 1867.
I have seen specimens from Poona, Dharwar and Ahmednagar.
PETALIDIUM Nees.
No change from Cooke; this seems to be a very rare plant;
I have not seen it wild in 12 yéars of intense exploration in various
parts of Bombay State.
304 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL \HIS1, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
PHAULOPSIS, Willd., emend Spr.
The name Phaulopsis Willd. is a ‘nomen conservandum’ against
Micranthus Wendl. (No. 7932 in ‘App. III, Rules Bot. Nomencl.)
Phaulopsis dorsiflora (Retz.) Santapau in Kew Bull. 1948; 276, 1948;
Santapau in Monogr. 30.
For the complete nomenclature and synonymy of this plant, see
Santapau loc. ult. cit. ‘In general appearance’ this plant is’ very
similar to Hemigraphis latebrosa, but is distinguished by the secund
spikes and the broadly ovate or reniform bracts, and the fact that the
bracts in this plant each supports usually three flowers; in Phaulopsis,
moreover, one of the calyx segments becomes enlarged and_bract-
like, whilst in H. latebrosa one of the segments is usually longer
than the rest, but is not bract-like. Finally in Hemigraphis the
number of seeds is 6-20, in Phaulopsis only 4 or occasionally fewer.’
(Santapau 30).
DySCHORISTE Nees.
No change from Cooke. The diagram of the anthers on peuee
of my monograph should be corrected: the spur of the anthers in D.
vagans should be proportionally only 0.5 mm. broad, and 3 mm. long.
ERANTHEMUM Linn.
The confusion in the generic name of these plants comes from
Anderson, 1867, who apparently was in ignorance of the fact that his
Daedalacanthus was synonymous with Evanthemum Linn.; under his
Daedalacanthus Anderson placed all the plants that he considered
allied to his D. montanus, which is the same plant as Evanthemum
montanum Roxb., and this in its turn is the same as E. capense Linn.
Plants differing from Daedalacanthus montanus Anderson placed under
the genus Eranthemum Anders, (non Linn.). Radlkofer in 1883 called
attention to the fact that Daedalacanthus Anders. was strictly syno-
nymous with Evanthemum Linn., and for the genus Eranthemum
Anders. he proposed the name Pseuderanthemum.
Key to the species of Evanthemum of Bombay
Bracts white with green nerves; calyx scarious:
Bracts elliptic-ovate, cuspidate, _ nearly
glabrous ; spikes 2.5-7.5 cms. long, in
close panicles a Wa... § NEPUOSUITD,
Bracts obovate, obtuse, mucronate or shortly
apiculate, gland-strigose; spikes 7.5-15
cms. long, subinterrupted, in elongated
panicles often solitary ws. roseum.
NOTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY 350
Bracts green, rarely whitish when old:
Bracts ovate-lanceolate, long-acuminate,
prominently many-nerved, white-ciliate on
the margins; spikes 1.5-7.5 cms. long,
dense, long-peduncled, forming loose
panicles ; calyx scarious .. purpurascens.
Bracts lanceolate to linear, long- A Gime
few-nerved, viscidly gland-hispid; spikes
5-15 cms. long, slender, often interrupted,
in large, very compound terminal panic-
les; calyx green, glandular Vayacapense:
Eranthemum capense Linn., Sp. Pl. 9, 1753; Santapau 33.
E. montanum Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1: 100, 1824.
Daedalacanthus montanus T. Anders. in Thw., Enum. 229, 1869.
E, capense Linn. var. concanensis (T. Anders.) Santapau in Bot.
Mem. Univ. Bombay 2: 34, 1952.
Daedalacanthus concanensis T. Anders. in Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb.
2: 365, 1904.
D. montanus var. concanensis Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 421, 1884.
Eranthemum roseum (Vahl) R. Br., Prodr. 477, 1810; Santapau 34.
Daedal. roseus T. Anders. in Journ. Lin. Soc. 9: 487, 1867.
Justicia rosea Vahl, Enum. 1: 165, 1804.
This is by far the commonest species of this genus in Bombay
State; I have seen it practically in every part of Bombay where I
have conducted botanical explorations during the last 12 years.
Eranthemum purpurascens Nees in Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 3: 106,
1832; Santapau 35.
Daedal. purpurascens T. Anders. in Journ. Lin. Soc. 9: 488, 1867.
Eranthemum nervosum (Vahl) R. Br., Prodr. 1: 477, 1810; Santapau
35:
Daedal. nervosus TY. Anders. loc. cit. 487.
STROBILANTHES Blume.
In this section I have followed Bremekamp in Mat. Mon. Strob.
1-306, 1944. Strictly speaking the genus Strobilanthes Blume is not
represented in India proper, much less so in Bombay State. For
the last 100 years many attempts have been made to split the in-
congruous group of plants that in our floras goes under the name
of Strobilanthes. The following key, based mainly on. the structure
of the pollen grains, is based on Bremekamp, loc. cit. p. 55 seq.
Pollen grain globose, echinulate, the spinules
thickened at the base: ... Ihelepaepale.
Pollen grain ellipsoid:
Bands on the grain punctate ..- Nilgirianthus.
356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY; Vol, 51
Bands on the grain punctate, often wavy .... Mackenziea.
Bands on the grain septate ; .
Flowers bracteolate ... ‘Pleocaulus,
Flowers ebracteolate . \Carvia:
The following list gives the names as found in Cooke’s Flora with
the corresponding names under the new, distribution of the group:
Cooke Bremekamp
S. reticulatus Stapf ... Nilgirianthus reticulatus.
S. sessilis v. ritchiei Clarke ... Pleocaulus_ ritchiei.
S. lupulinus Nees ... Nilgirianthus lupulinus.
S. heyneanus Nees ... Nilgirianthus heyneanus.
S. callosus Nees ... Carvia callosa.:
S. barbatus Nees ... Nilgirianthus barbatus.
S. ciliatus Nees ... Nuilgirianthus ciliatus.
S. serobiculatus Dalz. -.. - Uncertain.
S: warreensis Dalz. ... | Nilgirianthus warreensis.
S. asper Wight ... (Nuilgirianthus asper Santapau).
S. perfoliatus Anders. ... Mackenzia integrifolia.
S. ixiocephalus Benth. ... Thelepaepale ixiocephala.
In connection with this group of plants Bremekamp has _intro-
duced the term ‘plietesials’, meaning ‘plants that live for several
years, and flower but once, and then, at least the aerial parts, die
down regularly’.
NILGIRIANTHUS Bremek.
For a full description of this genus see Santapau 38-30.
Key to the Bombay Species of Nilgirianthus
Stamens 2 ... reticulatus.
Stamens 4:
Flowers ebracteolate ;
Bracts glabrous or nearly so ... heyneanus.
Bracts hairy ... lupulinus,
Bracts viscous-hairy ... membranaceus.
Flowers bracteolate :
Stems usually winged; bracteoles longer
than the calyx barbatus.
Stems not winged; bracteoles shorter than
the calyx,:"
Bracts glabrous; “peduncles long and
slender JOC CT ats.
Bracts glandular-hairy : |
Seeds glabrous ue warreensis.
Seeds hairy ST “asper:
NOTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY 307
Nilgirianthus barbatus (Nees) Bremek., op. cit. 172, 1944; San-
tapau 39.
Strobil. barbatus Nees in Wall., Pl. Asiat. Rar. 3: 85, 1832.
This plant is only found in the southernmost parts of Bombay in
N. Kanara, etc. Typical of this species is that the bracts end in a
long filiform appendage.
Nilgirianthus ciliatus (Nees) Bremek., op. cit. 172, 1944; Santapau
40.
Strobil. ciliatus Nees, op. cit. 85, 1832.
This species has about the smallest spikes in the genus; the type
sheet in Kew Herb. shows spikes only 6 mm. in diam. and 12-16 mm.
long.
Nilgirianthus heyneanus var. meesii Bremek., op. cit. 173; Santa-
pau 4o.
Strob. heyneanus Nees, op. cit. 85, 1832.
‘Typical features of this plant are the absence of bracteoles, the
glabrous bracts, and the stiff, bulbous-based hairs on the upper sur-
face of the leaves ...’ (Santapau 4o).
Nilgirianthus lupulinus (Wall.) Bremek., op. cit. 173, 1944; San-
tapau 41. .
Strob. lupulinus Nees, op. cit. 85, 1832.
This is a very rare plant in Bombay State; there are only a few
sheets in Kew Herb., there is none in Blatter Herbarium.
Nilgirianthus reticulatus (Stapf) Bremek., op. cit. 173, 1944; San-
tapau 41.
Strob. reticulatus Stapf in Kew Bull. 1894: 347, 1894.
In 1950 I found this plant flowering profusely at Mahableshwar ;
it was growing in gregarious patches or clumps, about 1 m. diam.,
more or less 0.75 cm. high, very abundant not far from Lingmalla
lower fall.
Nilgirianthus warreensis (Dalz.) Bremek., op. cit. 173, 1944; San-
tapau 41.
Strob. warreensis Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 341, 1850.
‘Dalzell’s type sheet shows flowers in subinterrupted spikes, which
are narrow and small; the whole inflorescence is rather inconspicuous
> (Santapau 41).
Nilgirianthus asper Santapau in Bot. Mem. Univ. Bomb. 2: 42,
1952.
Strob. asper Wight, Icon. t. 1518, 1850.
For a discussion on the propriety of the new name, see Santapau
loc. cit. A rare plant in Bombay State.
Nilgirianthus. membranaceus (Talb.) Bremek., op. cit. 280, 1944;
Santapau 43.
Strob. membranaceus Talbot, Trees & Shrubs Bomb., ed. 2: 261,
1902. .
358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
For a full description and a good diagram of the plant see Talbot,
For. Fl. 2: 327, t. 144. The most typical part of the plant is the
leaf and in the leaf the margin, with its closely arranged crenatures
and rough general structure. By an oversight this plant was not
included in the key given in my monograph.
MACKENZIEA Nees.
For the generic description of this plant see Santapau 43.
Mackenziea integrifolia (Dalz.) Bremek., op. cit..182, 1944; Santa-
Pau) 43:
Endopogon integrifolius Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 343, 1850.
Strob. perfoliatus Anders. in Journ. Linn. Soc. g: 471, 1876.
This plant is abundant in Khandala and other parts of the
Western Ghats; the leaves are very long, narrow and with the blade
decurrent into the petiole. Flowers and especially spikes after flower-
ing are very fine-scented.
PLEOCAULUS Bremek.
For a full description of the genus see Santapau 44.
Pleocaulus ritchiei (Clarke) Bremek., op. cit. 185, 1944; Santapau
45:
Strob. sessilis Nees, var. ritchie: Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 452,
1884.
On Nov. 25th, 1951, I found this plant on the slopes below Torna
Fort, Poona Dist. In my field diary I entered the following note:
‘13944-13946 & 13961. Strobilanthes sessilis var. ritchiet Clarke.
‘Acanth. From 3500’ upwards to the walls of fort, very abundant
in separate clumps of up to 1 m. diam., 1 m. high; seems to have
strong rhizome underground. Flowers seen only 2 or 3, blue. Often
plants are flattened radially on the ground. Very abundant and
showy, in almost pure stands.’ The separate arrangement of the
clumps, and the radial spreading of the stems was very striking and
noticeable. Only a few grasses grew in the clear spaces between
the clumps of this plant.
CARVIA Bremek.
For a full description of the genus see Santapau 45. |
This is a monotypic genus containing but one species. The generic
name has been based on the vernacular name Karvi by which the plant
is known in Western India, where the species is endemic.
NOTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY 359
Carvia callosa (Nees) Bremek., op. cit. 187, 1944; Santapau 46.
Strobil. callosus Nees, op. cit. 85, 1832.
Very common on the Western Ghats, from Khandala southwards.
For the last twelve years I have tried to find out if there is any
regular rhythm in the flowering periods of this plant, but so far I
have been unsuccessful.
THELEPAEPALE Bremek.
For a full generic description see Santapau 48.
Thelepaepale ixiocephala (Benth.) Bremek., op. cit. 188, 1944;
Santapau 42.
Strobil. ixiocephalus Benth. in Flora 32: 557, 1840.
From my experience in Khandala, I am inclined to think that
this plant flowers annually. I have seen it in flower for many years
in succession; there is no general flowering such as is noticeable in
Carvia callosa Bremek. It is particularly abundant in the under-
growth of the forest below Reversing Station in Khandaia; the last
time I saw this plant in flower was February-March, 1953.
CALACANTHUS TT. Anders.
Calacanthus grandiflorus (Dalz.) Radlk. in Sitzung. Math.-Phys.
Acad. Muench. 13: 279, 1883; Santapau 50.
Lepidagathis grandiflora Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 138, 1850.
Calacanthus dalzelliana TY. Anders. ex Benth. & Hook. f., Gen.
Pl. 2: 1088, 1876.
This is a monotypic genus endemic in Western India. It occurs
in solitary small clumps or in very large patches in pure stands.
The flowers are very showy and large, blue in colour. When in full
bloom this is a very fine plant.
ANDROGRAPH!IS Wall.
No change from Cooke’s Flora except in the attribution of the
following species :
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.) Wall. ex Nees in Wall., Pl. As.
Rar. 3: 116, 1832; Santapau 50. |
In the literature this specific name is attributed to Nees; but
Nees himself, loc. cit., attributes it to Wallich.
360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
HAPLANTHUS Nees.
Key to the Haplanthus of Bombay State
Cladodes stout, quadrangular, 20 mm. long’ or
more; capsules glabrous, shining, 10 mm.
long ... verticillatus.
Cladodes slender, subquadrangular, up to 18
mm. long or shorter; capsules pubescent,
dull, up to 8 mm. long:
Inflorescence in whorls mostly collected in
terminal spikes . neiugherryensis,
Inflorescence whorls scattered along the stem
and branches, not collected in terminal
spikes:
Calyx densely hispid-hairy, subplumose tentaculatus var.
plumosa.
Calyx hairy, but not densely hispid-
hairy, nor subplumose ... tentaculatus var.
neesiana.
Haplanthus verticillatus (Roxb.) Nees in DC., Prodr. 11: 513, 1847;
Santapau 51.
Justicia verticillata Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1: 135, 1832.
This plant is very noticeable for its ‘formidable look’ during the
dry season when it is leafless. I have found specimens up to 1 m.
high in the undergrowth of forest. Notice that the name is generally
given as verticillaris in the literature, but such a name is wrong, since
Roxburgh named his plant verticillata.
Haplanthus neilgherryensis Wight, Icon. t. 1556, 1850; Santapau 52.
H. tentaculatus var. neilgherryensis Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:
507, 1884.
This plant deserves specific rank. The stem and branches are
generally bare of whorls, which are mostly gathered at the ends of
the branches in fairly dense spikes. Common in Bombay.
Haplanthus tentaculatus Nees var. meesiana Santapau in Bot.
Mem. Univ. Bomb.) 2: 52" 1052.
H. tentaculatus Nees in DC., Prodr. 11: 513, 1847 pro parte.
‘This is the typical variety of H. tentaculatus, clearly differing
from H. neilgherryensis in having the whorls distributed practically
through the whole plant, and not gathered at the ends of the branches;
it is more nearly allied to the var. plumosa, but differs in having
whorls more or less hairy, but not densely plumose as in the latter
variety.’ (Santapau 53.)
Fairly common on the Ghats, especially during the rains and the
first part of winter. In the undergrowth of forest, or in forest clear-
ing or forest paths.
Haplanthus tentaculatus var. plumosa Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:
507, 1884; Santapau 53.
The flowers of this plant are covered with a dense mass of hairs,
NOTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY 361
except for the tips of the corolla. This plant is common during the
drier months of the year on the Ghats.
GYMNOSTACHYUM Nees.
No change from Cooke’s Flora, except for the addition of the
following species :
Gymnostachyum canescens T. Anders. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 9: 505,
1867; Santapau 55.
CROSSANDRA Salisb.
Crossandrajinfundibuliformis (Linn.) Nees in Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 3:
98, 1832; Santapau 55.
Justicia infundibuliformis Linn., Sp. Pl. 21, 1753.
Crossandra undulaefolia Salisb., Parad. Lond. t. 12, 1805.
Cultivated in gardens, rarely wild in Bombay.
BARLERIA Linn.
Key to the species of Barleria of Bombay State
Spinous plants:
Capsule 2-seeded; outer sepals spine-tipped;
leaves elliptic or ovate:
Flowers spicate above; bracteoles linear
subulate prionitis.
Flowers mostly solitary, axillary ; bracteoles
O or consisting of a few minute bristles cuspidata.
Capsule with more than 2 seeds; outer sepals
not spine-tipped; leaves elliptic, obovate or
suborbicular ee OUXIONa-
Spineless plants :
Seeds hairy:
Bracteoles longer than or as long as the
outer sepals . tomentosa.
Bracteoles shorter than the outer sepals :
Outer sepals spinous Cn staLar
Outer sepals not spinous:
Corolla up to 15 cms. long longiflora.
‘Corolla 7.5 cms. long or slightly longer :
Corolla white lawit.
Corolla blue with veddish-purple tube involucrata v. elata.
‘Corolla less tran 7.5 cms. long:
Inflorescence glabrous; corolla blue
or purple; capsule glabrous ... (montana).
Inflorescence strigosely-hairy ; corolla
blue; capsule glabrous Nt strigosa v. termi-
nalis.
362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
Inflorescence glandular-hairy; corolla
with blue limb.» and yellow tube;
capsule pubescent at the tip ... courtallica.
Inflorescence softly villous; capsule
glabrous ... Sepalosa.
Seeds glabrous:
Outer sepals up to 5 cms. long; corolla
mauve .. gibsonoides.
Outer sepals more than 37 mm. long; cap-
sule 37 mm. long, glandular pubescent;
corolla pure white .. grandiflora.
Outer sepals less than 37 mm. long; capsule
up to 22 mm. long, glabrous; corolla pink
or purple:
Flowers in terminal spikes or racemes;
leaves coriaceous; stems stout ... =gtbsont.
Flowers solitary, axillary or in very short
spikes or racemes; leaves thin; stems
slender . ... prattensis.
In the following notes only those species will be mentioned in
which some correction has to be introduced into Cooke’s Flora; when
the species is not mentioned here, the nomenclature etc. as given by
‘Cooke is taken as correct.
Barleria montana Nees int WalltioPl wAstiRarins 2s ge, misaar
Santapau 60.
Definitely this species does not occur in Bombay; it is often
‘confused with B. prattensis and B. gibsoni; the confusion starts from
Wallich, who in his Catalogue or List, No. 2391 mixed several
species together. The seeds of this plant are strongly hairy, the
hairs, when. dry, being very clearly waved on the seed. All the
specimens mentioned by Cooke as belonging to this species do in
fact belong to B. prattensis Sant. This species should be omitted
from Bombay Flora.
Barleria grandiflora Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 339, 1850; Santa-
pau 62.
This plant is often confused with B. lawii; I have seen no speci-
mens in any of the Herbaria consulted from Bombay State. The
differences between this plant and B. lawii are the following :-
Grandiflora Lawit
Corolla up to 15 cms. long, Corolla up to 9 cms. long, 6 cms.
8 cms. diam. diam.
Corolla lobes acute or subacute. _ Corolla lobes rounded.
Dry corolla slightly nerved. Dry corolla conspicuously nerved.
Hai
Barleria ‘ gibsoni Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 339, 1850; Santapau
62. | :
This is.a stout plant, with a large and compact terminal spike;
the seeds are glabrous, rather thick, shining black.
NOTES: ON THE’ ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY 363
Barleria prattensis Santapau in Kew Bull. 1948: 487, 1940.
The following is the translation of the original description. ‘Very
similar to B. montana, from which it differs by its much shorter brac-
teoles and its smaller and glabrous seeds; similar also to B. gibsoni,
from which it differs by its smaller seeds, its inflorescence which
is axillary and only very shortly spicate or racemose, and by the
structure of the leaves.
‘Stems and branches terete or more or less quadrangular, glabrous
or subglabrous, with long internodes. Leaves 6-12.x 2-5 cm., mem-
branous, ovate or elliptic, entire, glabrous or subglabrous, minutely
punctate, with numerous raphides irregularly scattered on the upper
side, attenuated at the apex and base, decurrent into the petiole;
secondary nerves 5-6 pairs, each making with the midrib an angle of
60 degrees; petiole 0.5-2 cms. long, often however obscure on account
of the decurrent blade.
‘Flowers, solitary, axillary, opposite or collected into a very
short terminal spike or raceme; pedicels o-4 mm. long, with two
bracteoles about the middle. Bracteoles linear or subulate, the lower
at times subspathulate, all acute, more or less arcuate, 6-13 mm. long
rarely longer, pubescent or subglabrous, with a conspicuous mid-nerve,
margins ciliate, scarious.
‘Exterior sepals foliaceous, up to 37x20 mm., subequal or clearly
unequal, ovate; the larger sepal acute or subacute, the smaller one
obtuse or subobtuse and generally entire, rarely shortly 2-fid; both
sepals glabrous or subglabrous, somewhat hairy near the, apex. | In-
terior sepals 10-15 mm. long, linear-lanceolate, very acute, pubescent
‘or subglabrous. Corolla up to 8.5 cms. long, glabrous; tube 3-4.5
ems. long; lobes obovate, obtuse, subequal, or one of them suborbi-
cular, the rest obovate, all up to 20 mm. long. The corolla in
Khandala is always rosy purple. Stamens 2, staminodes 2 without
anthers. Capsule brown, glabrous, up to 20 mm. long, attenuated
at the apex, 4-seeded in the lower part. Seeds black or blackish,
orbicular, much compressed, about 4 mm. diam., 0.5 mm. thick, very
rarely thicker.’
To the original description it may be added that the plant is often
procumbent or proStrate in the lower nodes, erect higher up. For
comparison with neighbouring species the following key is given:
montana gibsont pbrattensts
Firs. bright blue Firs. pink-purple. Firs. purple or pink-
purple.
Firs. solitary, axillary. Firs. in spikes or Flrs. axillary, solitary.
racemes, terminal.
Bracteoles 2 cms. long, Bracteoles 1-1°5 cm. Bracteoles 1 cm. long,
spathulate, broad. long, linear. linear. |
Seeds large, greyish Seeds large, black, Seeds small, black,
hairy, wavy. shining, thick, glab- shining, thin, glab-
rous. rous.
364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
Barleria longiflora Linn. f., Suppl. 239, 1781; Santapau 64.
The plant is given on the authority of Talbot, in For. Fl. 2+ 336.
For a full description see Santapau 64.
Barleria gibsonioides Blatter in Journ. Bomb. Nat Hist. Soc., 32:
733, 1928; Santapau 64.
For a description of the plant, see Blatter or Santapau, Il. cc.
NEURACANTHUS Nees.
No change from Cooke’s Flora except in the spelling of the specific
name of the following species :
Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus {Nees) Dalz.
Lepidagathis sphaerostachya Nees.
Dalzell in the original description of his plant always called it
N. sphaerostachyus; how the common misspelling N. sphaerostachys
arose I am unable to say. For a full description of the plant, see
Bole & Santapau in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 428 seq.
ASYSTASIA Blume.
The nomenclature of this genus is rather complicated. The
following changes are necessary:
Asystasia gangetica (Linn.) T. Anders. in Thw., Enum. 235, 1859;
Santapau 68.
Justicia gangetica Linn., Amoen. Acad. 4: 299, 1759.
A. coromandeliana Wight ex Nees in Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 3: 809,
1832.
nie violacea Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 139, 1850 (non Dalz. ex
Clarke, 1884).
This species belongs to the coastal tract of western India.
Asystasia dalzelliana Santapau in Kew. Bull. 1948:. 276, 1948;
Santapau 68.
A. violacea Dalz. ex Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 494, 1884 {non
Dalz. 1850).
The name A. violacea Dalz. 1884 is an illegitimate one, since
it is a later homonym and was first published for a plant, which
according to Clarke is distinct from the present species. A. dalzell-
iana is a rain-belt species from the hills on the Western Ghats.
Asystasia mysurensis (Roth) T. Anders. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 9:
524, 1867; Santapau 69.
Ruellia mySurensis Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 303, 1821.
A. lawiana Dalz..in Kew Journ. Bot. 4: 344, 1852.
This species is found from Poona southwards in Bombay State.
It is a difficult species to identify, very much unlike any of the com-
moner Asystasia plants of Bombay. _
NOTES ON. THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY 365:
PSEUDERANTHEMUM Radlk.
The difficult question of the generic name of this plant has already
been dealt with above. The following species occur in Bombay:
Pseuderanthemum malabaricum (Clarke) Gamble, Fl. Madr. 1064,,
1924.
Evranthemum malabaricum Clarke in FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 497, 1884.
Pseuderanthemum bicolor (Schrank.) Radlk. ex Lindau, in Pfamil.
4 (3B): 330, f. 133 a-D, 1895. —
Eranthemum bicolor Schrank., Pl. Rar. Hort. Monac. t. 8, 1819.
LEPIDAGATHIS Willd.
The only ‘change from Cooke’s Flora is the addition of the follow-
ing species:
Lepidagathis bandraensis Blatter in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. (N.S.)
26: 347, 1930; Santapau 75.
For a full description of the plant, see Blatter or Santapau ll. cc.
The type specimen was collected in Bandra, near Bombay.
RuNGIA Nees.
The only change from Cooke’s Flora is the following :
Rungia pectinata (Linn.) Nees in DC., Prodr. 11: 469, pro parte,.
1847; Santapau 77.
R. parviflora var. pectinata Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 550, 1885.
Justicia pectinata Linn., Amoen. Acad. 4: 299, 1759.
R. parviflora var. muralis Clarke, loc. cit.
This plant has been restored to specific rank; the other variety
mentioned by Clarke is but a seasonal variation of the same plant.
DICLIPTERA Juss.
Key to the Bombay species
Tubercles on the seeds gilochidiate :
Corolla 5 mm. long; capsules pubescent at
the apex; bracts 1.5 mm. broad ... micranthes..
Corolla 18 mm. long; capsules pubescent all
over; bracts nearly 13 mm. broad ... gseylanica..
Tubercles on the seeds not glochidiate: |
Flowers in clusters; bracts lanceolate ... leonotis
366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Flowers in axillary or terminal lax panicles:
Stem and branches glabrous or nearly so cuneata.
Stem and branches densely. woolly-
tomentose aroughatica.
There is no change from Cooke’s Flora except for the addition
of the following species:
Dicliptera ghatica Santapau, in Bot. Mem. Univ. Bomb. 2: 80,
1952.
‘An erect branched herb; stems and branches subtetragonal,
densely woolly-tomentose, greyish in colour. Upper leaves ovate,
acute or subacuminate, more or less pubescent on both sides, ciliate
on the margins; petioles 1-3 mm. long, densely pubescent. Lower
leaves are not found on the type specimen. Inflorescence axillary
and terminal, umbellate or cymose; common peduncle 1-3.5 cms. long,
woolly-tomentose, mostly 2 peduncles, rarely one, often three from
the same axil; pedicels 1-2.5 cms. long, 3-5 in number for each
umbel, slender, woolly-tometose; bracts 2 at the apex of each pedun-
cle, linear, 5+7 mm. long, spreading, hairy with spreading hairs.
Floral bracts in pairs, unequal, one of them suborbicular apiculate,
the other ovate to subobovate, acute or acuminate, both bracts
sparsely hairy and ciliate, strongly nerved, at first green, at length
straw-coloured; each pair of bracts enclose one or more flowers.
Calyx divided nearly to the base; segments subulate, fairly densely
hairy with short, simple (i.e. non-glandular) hairs. Corolla pinkish,
up to 17 mm. long; buds hairy all over outside; tube pubescent,
slender, terete, bent just below the lobes; corolla limb 2-lipped, the
upper lip slightly longer than the lower one; the whole corolla is
pinkish in colour outside. Stamens about as long as the lower lip
of the corolla. Ovary densely pubescent, but not glandular. Cap-
sules obovoid, obtuse to rounded and minutely apiculate at the apex,
‘densely hairy with non-glandular hairs all over; seeds very minutely
tuberculate, but not glochidiate.
‘A gregarious herb growing in large patches in forest clearings
‘at a spot called ‘‘Meroli’’ Khandala. . . . The specific name is meant
to commemorate the fact that this new species seems to be confined
to the Ghats of Bombay State.’
Jw sticra Linn,
There is no change from Cooke’s Flora except in the following:
Justicia betonica Linn., Sp. Pl. 15, 1753; Santapau 85.
J. betonica var. ramosissima Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 525, 1885.
In the large number of specimens in Kew Herb. identified by
Clarke as belonging to his var. ramosissima I have failed to see any
‘constant character by which the variety may be separated from the
typical species. In consequence I have followed Gamble in fusing
‘the two varieties under the original Linnean name.
NOTES ON THE ACANTHACEAE OF BOMBAY 367
Within the genus Justicia there is a group of species which is
very difficult to separate from one another. For their separation |
have made use of the following key: :
Bracts and bracteoles longer than the calyx seg-
ments, or at least equally long:
Bracts and bracteoles linear or nearly so ... procumbens.
Bracts 2.5 mm. broad or even broader ... | simplex.
Bracts and bracteoles shorter than the calyx
lobes :
Bracts and bracteoles about 2.5 mm. long,
fairly densely hairy prostrata.
Bracts and bracteoles scarcely 1.2 mm. long,
more or less glabrous, except for a
bunch of hairs at the apex coo | GUI OSO,
MoNnECHMA Hochst.
There is no change from Cooke’s Flora except in the name:
Monechma debilis (Forsk.) Nees in DC., Prodr. 11: 411, 1847;
Santapau of. !
Dianthera debilis Forsk., Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 9, 1775.
Monechma bracteatuin Hochst. in Flora 24: 375, 1841.
There are no records of this plant from Bombay State except for
the specimens cultivated in Poona and mentioned by Cooke. The
plant is fairly common in Saurashtra.
RHINACANTHUS Nees.
Rhinacanthus nasuta (Linn.) Kurz in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 39:
79, 1870; Santapau 92.
Justicia nasuta Linn., Sp. Pl. 16, 1753.
Rhinac. communis Nees in Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 3: 109, 1832.
There is no change in the following genera: Adhatoda Nees,
Meyenia Nees, Nelsonia R. Br., Staurogyne Wall., Acanthus Linn.,
Asteracantha Nees, Petalidium Nees, Hypéestes R. Br., Ecbolium
Kurz, Peristrophe Nees and a few others indicated in the text of this
paper. The nomenclature as given in Cooke’s Flora is correct.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere thanks are due to Dr. C. E. B. Bremekamp of Holland,
for his constant help in connection with the revision of this family;
through personal letters and copies of his papers he has made the
work of revision possible.
368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, T.
1857. An Enumeration of the Indian Species of Acanthaceae.
In Journ. Linn. Soc. 9: 425-526.
Bremekamp, C. E. B.
1944. Materials for a Monograph of the Strobilanthinae (Acantha-
ceae). In Verh. Nederl. Akad. Wet. (II) 40 (1): 1-306,
tt. i-Iv.
1948. A Preliminary Survey of the Ruelliinae (Acanthaceae) of
the Malay Archipelago and New Guinea. Ibid. 45 (1):
I-39.
Cooke, Th.
1904. The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. London 1oo1-
1908; Acanthaceae in 2: 339-417.
Dalzell, N. A.
1850. Contributions to the Botany of Western India. In Hooker’s
Journ. Bot, & Kew Gard. Miscell. vols. 2-4, 1850-1852.
Nees von Esenbeck, C. G.
1832. Acanthaceae Indiae Orientalis. In Wallich, Pl. As. Rar.
ai: 7Orli7.
Radlkofer, L.
1883. Ueber den systematischen Werth der Pollenbeschaffenheit
bei den Acanthaceen. In Sitz. k. Bayer. Akad. Wiss.
131(2) 256-3148
Santapau, H.
1952. The Acanthaceae of Bombay. In Univer. Bomb. Bot.
Mem. No. 2; pp. i-ili, 1-104; tt. 6.
‘
SOME BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF INDIAN BUILT-UP AREAS
BY
M. D. LisTER
The foundation of the vast majority of village communities is the
winning of a livelihood from the land itself, or its immediate products.
The village is the communal settlement of the folk who cultivate the
land for some distance round, and as competition for living space in
the country is not great, it usually has an open formation with plenty
of ground between buildings. The village is in fact an addition
superimposed upon the face of the surrounding country and grafted
into it, and it is often of such loose and open texture that it does not
destroy, even within its boundaries, the character of the habitat on
which it is imposed. Its own communal character is not sufficiently
strong or extensive to oust the character of the natural countryside,
and the most it does is to modify it. The extent of this modification
depends on the nature and size of the community.
A hamlet of half a dozen houses wil] merge into the countryside
in which it is set and the only modification of the original habitat,
as far as the avifauna is concerned, may be the attraction of a few
sparrows or an occasional pariah kite. It is only when we come
to the larger village or the smal] country town that any appreciable
modification is apparent. Here the gathering of a large number of
human beings and their works may well tend to squeeze out the wilder
birds from the land covered by the built-up area, while at the same
time attracting other species in its wake. Not only do the buildings
themselves offer suitable nesting sites to some of the robihs and
mynas, and also house swifts, but the village tanks attract king-
fishers and pond herons, while the garbage and dirt draw the pariah
kite and the house crow, and the carcases of dead oxen provide
food for the vultures. The more highly-developed the community,
the more man-made attractions there are for birds which would other-
wise be absent or present only in much smaller numbers ; and of course
a larger number of species is driven out. In the big towns these
attractions may be large and may take such specialised forms as
sewage farms and formal parks, docks and harbours with their varied
flotsam and jetsam, factories with their waste, abattoirs, and large
public buildings.
The larger and the faster a town grows the greater is its impact
upon the avifauna of the land swallowed up by it, and the more
effectively is the character of the surrounding country submerged,
so that eventually many of the birds which used to inhabit the place
when the settlement was only small are driven out—though they
are rarely expelled entirely—and a less varied avifauna, better adapted
for survival in the modified conditions, takes its place. Even when
the climax. avifauna of a large town has been reached it does not
necessarily remain static. A town, after all, is a living organism.
The town council may in its wisdom decide to make public gardens
370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
when the rows of houses occupying a certain site fall or are pulled .
down; or an acre or two of undeveloped waste land may be allocated
for the erection of a factory. Basically, no doubt, the climax urban
avifauna undergoes little alteration, though within its limits local
changes do take place. In London the Black Redstart (Phoenicurus
ochrurus) was almost unheard of twenty years ago, yet today its
numbers are increasing and a small number has even successfully bred
there, so that it looks as though this species is taking its place as
one of the regular London birds. The increase of this species has
no doubt been helped by the large number of derelict buildings made
available through the ravages of the recent war. And it is surprising
what a variety of birds can be met with casually in even the largest
and most congested of towns.
It would be an interesting study to carry out a properly organised
survey of the changes taking place in the bird population of a given
area owing to the growth, and perhaps the industrialisation, of a
rapidly expanding town, but such opportunities rarely present them-
selves in an accessible form.
It is not possible in relation to ecology to apply any legal definition
of a built-up area. It is a question of degree to be considered in each
separate case whether the impact of the settlement on the countryside
to which it has been added is sufficiently great to have created a
distinct ecological habitat of its own. A tentative classification of
Indian built-up areas might be as follows :—
1. Large industrial towns or ports: types, Bombay, Calcutta.
2. Large non-industrial, European-type towns in the plains:
type, New Delhi.
3. Large non-industrial, Indian-type towns in the plains: type,
Old Delhi.
4. Smaller industrial towns: type, Jamshedpur.
5. Small non-industrial, European-type towns in the plains:
type, Ambala Cantonment.
6. Small non-industrial, Indian-type towns in the plains: type,
Jessore, Bengal.
7. Small towns in the hills: types, Simla, Darjeeling.
8. Large villages in the hills: types, Solan, Kurseong.
9. Large Indian villages in the plains.
Small villages might or might not be worth including as a separate
habitat, depending on their character, size and looseness of construction.
Smaller units still usually have no easily defined avifauna of their
own. Incidental to this classification there are the larger man-made
features, such as sewage farms, public parks and gardens, which
may each attract its own particular set of birds.
The following account of the bird associations of some, built-up
areas does not pretend to be either exhaustive or even representative.
It is compiled from notes made at various times and places during the
recent war, when opportunities for controlled surveys of this kind
were extremely rare. It may, however, ,act as a pointer for more
thorough and better organised work on the subject in the future.
The forest regions referred to are those adopted by H. G. Champion
(1936). |
BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF INDIAN BUILT-UP AREAS 371
DESCRIPTION OF AREAS SURVEYED
r Solan, Simla Hills. Punjab. Western Himalayan foothills,
Montane Temperate Forest Region. Altitude: 4,500-5,500 ft.
A.S.L. Periods of survey: 6 June to 5 July and 2-10 August,
1942. 5
A small cantonment adjoining a small Indian hill town, with the
usual congested bazar. The cantonment buildings were mostly
wooden bungalows, where some 5-600 troops were then being housed,
scattered over part of one of the smaller hills, fairly well-clothed
with deciduous trees and bushes. The Indian town was of the usual
type, with small open-fronted shops attracting myriads of flies, with
the usual collection of refuse about the streets. Weather: temperature
from 85° to 100°F.; varying cloud; a few heavy rain and thunder
storms.
2. Jessore, Bengal. Indo-Gangetic Plain. Inland portion of
Delta area. Moist Tropical Forest Region. Altitude 20 ft.
R.S.L. Period of survey: 14 April 1943 to 9 September 1944,
with several breaks of a fortnight and one of a month.
A small typical Indian town, with a small congested core (the bazar)
near its north end, spreading out more and more thinly away from
the bazar. The bazar consists of little more than 2-3 narrow streets
jined with rather dilapidated buildings, with here and there a few trees.
The only apparent drainage consisted of a narrow stone gulley down
the sides of some of the roads, which were often littered with garbage.
There were large numbers of eating houses, with the usual open
fronts where the food was exposed to the air and attracted clouds of
flies.
Outside the bazar area the roads were fairly open and lined with
large mature trees. The buildings were well spaced out and the
rest of the ground was occupied by large compounds and some patches
of waste land. The whole area was very green and well-wooded
with mature trees of many species and luxuriant vegetation. The
native population had been swelled by the influx of several thousand
servicemen. Traffic consisted of a fair number of service vehicles,
but otherwise the only forms of transport were the cycle-rickshaws
(which were legion) and a large number of Indian carts drawn by
bullocks and water buffalo. There were also a few old-fashioned
stage coaches and ‘family’ carts drawn by horses.
The whole area was liberally sprinkled with tanks which were
normally full of water. Most of the larger houses and public buildings
had plenty of open work about them in the form of verandahs, covered
balconies, large carriage porches and so on, which attracted such
birds as house swift, house sparrow and common myna for nesting
purposes. Many of the Indian buildings were merely of the busti type,
though a fair number of them were of brick or stone. The cracking
plaster of many of these buildings must afford good cover for innumer-
able insects, as well as rats, mice, snakes and lizards.
Predominant among the trees. were banyan (Ficus bengalensis),
mango (Mangifera indica) and coconut palms (Cocos nucifera), with
a few tamarinds (Tamarindus indica). Fauna: Bullocks, water-
372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
buffaloes and goats predominated, with a few horses and many pie-
dogs. Jackals (Canis aureus), striped squirrel (Sciurus palmarum),
common grey mongoose (Herpestes mungo) all numerous. Flying
foxes (Pteropus edwardsii) were very numerous from July to November.
Other bats (not identified) were plentiful. Frogs very numerous during
the rainy season. Snakes (various) fairly plentiful. Insects: legion.
3. Bally, Calcutta. Lower Bengal.. Inland portion of Delta
area. Moist Tropical Forest Region. Altitude approx. 20 ft,
A.S.L.. Period of survey: 11 December 1944 to 16 April 1945.
A fairly large Indian village among which was mixed a service
camp. The whole neighbourhood, which is really an outer suburb of
‘Calcutta, was sprinkled with jute mills and small factories. The built-
up area covered the best part of half a square mile. Many of the
buildings, both Indian and service, were of the busti kind (mud or
bamboo wattle, with thatch, corrugated iron or felt roofs, and mud
or concrete floors) and the rest were mostly of more permanent con-
struction; all the service buildings were fairly large. Probably 90%
of the surface of this area was taken up with compounds, and it was
all well-wooded with various kinds of trees among which neem
(Melia azadirachta), banyan, coconut palm and palmyra palm (Borassus
flabelliformis) predominated. There was no real core to the area,
which was liberally sprinkled with tanks; the buildings were spaced
out fairly evenly in density over the whole of the built-up area. The
roads were poor, the majority unmetalled and rather dusty. In one
corner of the area, adjoining the Hooghly, was a large Hindu temple
set in extensive well-wooded grounds, to which crowds of people
thronged at every Hindu festival. Almost adjoining it was a small
factory which periodically emitted a good deal of black smoke and
noxious fumes. I lived in this area and had fairly frequent, though
usually short opportunities for bird-watching.
Fauna: oxen, water buffaloes, dogs, cats and poultry were plentiful.
Mongoose and striped squirrel, both fairly plentiful. A few flying
foxes seen, and other bats (not identified) fairly numerous. On the
whole, the variety of birds seen here was small and disappointing.
Weather: cold season, up to almost the beginning of the South-west
monsoon.
4. Ambala, Punjab. Upland area of Indo-Gangetic Plain. Dry
Tropical Forest Region. Altitude about goo ft. A.S.L.
Period of survey: 6 July to 1 August, 1942.
The cantonment comprises the military camp and a fairly large
residential area. The camp itself is fairly open, most of the buildings
being large and arranged in series some distance apart with open
grass land between them. The trees bordering the roads, which were
all macadam, included neem and sisham (Dalbergia sissoo), with a
few peepal (Ficus religiosa), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.), and babool
(Acacia arabica).
The residential part consists of well-planned roads, with many
large bungalows set well apart, each in its own compound, which usually
seemed to be allowed to run fairly wild without becoming overgrown.
Most of the trees there were large and mature; nearly all were in
leaf and some in flower. A considerable variety of species was repre-
‘sented, whose names I did not know. Fauna: many oxen, water
: BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF INDIAN BUILT-UP AREAS 373
buffalo, goats, horses and striped squirrel. A fair number of snakes
reported, though I saw none myself. Weather: temperature 80° to
OOP | AN ou deal of heavy rain which caused severe temporary
flooding. I had a good deal of opportunity for bird) watching.
5: New Delhi, Punjab. Indo-Gangetic Plain. Dry Trop‘cal
Forest Region. | Altitude approximately 718 ft. A.S.L. Period
of survey: 15 August to 30 December, 1942.
“New Delhi is no doubt so well- known as to make a full description
of it as an ecological type unnecessary, but I give below a short note
on it for the sake of completeness. |
New Delhi is built to a great extent on the open garden city design,
with well laid-out metalled roads, with large ‘roundabouts’ at the
junctions planted with trees and flowering shrubs. The bungalows
and houses are large, with big compounds (very few of which are
formally laid out). The whole area is well-wooded with mature trees
of many kinds ee shade trees are planted along all the roads. The
traffic at the time of this. short survey was not heavy and’ consisted
chiefly of horse-drawn tongas and bullock-carts (with a consequent
abundance of manure), and a good proportion of motor, vehicles.
The open spaces are really almost large enough to merit being
treated as a separate habitat, but for the sake of completeness I have
included them in this record. Kingsway, leading up. to the vast
buildings of the Secretariat, runs through a large area of open grass-
land, with two parallel rows of mature trees and a series of large
artificial rectangular ponds or tanks on either side; most of these tanks
were empty or almost so during the survey period. The Lady
Willingdon Park, covering probably nearly 100 acres, is a fairly typical
urban park, with sandy-gravel paths, grass kept in check by hand
scything, and a good sprinkling of trees, mostly ‘in straggling clumps
and of the light-leaved kind; babool are plentiful. A few fairly large
clumps of bushes with some long, rough grass of the pampas type.
The Lodi tombs are here, consisting of 4-5 large, mosque-like build-
ings of more or less open construction, with plenty of holes and cracks.
Fauna: Striped squirrel and mongoose plentiful, and a few jackals.
Weather: end of monsoon and first half of the cold season. [I had
plenty of opportunities of bird watching.
6. Karachi, Sind, Indo-Gangetic Plain (Punjab, Sind,.and
Rajputana portion). Salt Steppes and Semi-Desert Region.
Altitude: sea level, or negligible. Period of survey: 14 Sep-
tember to 2 October, 1943.
The cantonment is of the usual type with a lay-out rather similar
to an English garden city. Large houses, bungalows, hotels, clubs,
etc., all in fairly large compounds. Roads usually metalled, broad,
and bordered with shade trees. A fair amount of traffic, comprising
both motor vehicles and slow-moving camel-carts, ete. Fairly well-
wooded with various kinds of trees, of which J. particularly
noticed tamarind and babool, The whole area was. fairly dusty with
sand and so on blown in from the surrounding desert.
The list of birds for here is merely a list of those I happened to
see, as I did not have very many opportunities for bird-watching. It
is certainly nothing: like a 1 complete list of all species to be found in
Karachi.”
3
374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
INCIDENCE OF SPECIES
The following symbols have been used:—
* = identified beyond doubt.
T probable, but not certain identification.
§ = species definitely identified, but sub-species uncertain.
|
The scientific names are chiefly those given in the Fauna of British
India—Birds (2nd Edition). |
Species o ay Ss
‘ a |S Pie 2 Vs
eo |/2l/a)8)]ols
Gg? iy jaa) c 6 a) M
Jungle Crow oesi Ald gill) Shih n
(Corvus macrorhynchos)
Hcuse Crow
(Corvus splendens) ASTOR EST A SOU BATE
‘Tree Pie So J j i.
(Dendrocitta vagabunda )
Grey Tit 4S i é §
(Parus major)
Jungle Babbler ger
|
|
|
{Zurdoides somervillei (terricolor) | S| ed. Ei tw don
Common Babbler ose .
(Argya caudata)
Large Grey Babbler ave
=
( Argya malcolmi) '
Abbott’s Babbler Ls T
(Malacocincla sepiaria abbott:)
Common lora eee *
( Aegithina tiphia)
Redvented Bulbul soa | kee Slistag yr MeennT O tee
(Molpastes cafer)
W hitecheeked Bulbul wwe (150% A
(Mol pastes leucogenys)
Redwhiskered Bulbul eee a ae
(Olocompsa jocosa)
Northern Indian Stonechat eee | 4
(Saxicola caprata)
Brown Rock Chat eos A
(Corcomela fusca)
(Saxicoloides fulicata)
Magpie Robin gel iio ha oad ha bali lhc tafe
(Copsychus saularis )
Redbreasted Flycatcher éae seule
(Muscicapa parva)
Verditer Flycatcher
(Lumytas thalassina)
Pars dise Flycatcher see [ht Gk |
(2 chitrea paradisz) |
Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher ame x |
(Rhipidura aureola)
Brown Shrike
(Lanius cristatus)
Ashy Swallow-Shrike ao A
(Artamus fuscus)
Brownbacked Indian Robin bewallat as Ne | "
Species
Black Drongo
( Dicrurus macrocercus)
Tailor Bird
(Orthotomus sutorius)
Crowned Willow (Yellow-browed) Warbler
(Phylloscopus huimit)
Indian Oriole
(Oviolus o, kundoo)
Black headed Oriole
(Oriolus xanthornus)
Rosy Pastor
(Pastor roseus)
Greyheaded Myna
(Sturnia malabarica)
Blackheaded (Brahminy) Myna
( Temenuchus pagodarum)
Common Myna
( Acridotheres tri 'stis)
Pied Myna
(Sturnopastor contra)
Indian House Sparrow
(Passer domesticus)
Dusky Crag Martin
(Riparia concolor)
Wiretailed Swallow
( Hirundo smithit f ilifenay
Striated Swallow
(Hirundo daurica)
Indian White Wagtail
[Motacilla alba (dukhunensis)]
Masked Wagtail
[Motacila alba ( personata) |
Large Pied Wagtail
(Motacilla maderaspatensis)
Whitefaced Wagtail
(Motacilla leucopsis )
Indian Tree Pipit
(Anthus hodgsont)
White-eye
(Zosterops palpebrosa)
Purple Sunbird
(Cinnyris asiatica)
Purple-rumped Sunbird
(Cinnyris zeylonica)
Tickell’s Flowerpecker
(Dicaeum erythrorhynchum)
Little Scalybellied Green Woodpecker
(Picus vittatus)
Yellowfronted Pied (Mahratta) Woodpecker
(Dryobates mahrattensis)
Goldenbacked Woodpecker
(brachy pternus bengalensis)
Tickell’s Goldenbacked Woodpecker
(Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus)
Green Barbet
(Megalaima zeylonicus)
Solan
*
Bally
Ambala
»
Delhi
Karachi
376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.) SOCIETY;\ Vol, 51
‘
Se
3
fe)
2.
<
Species
Delhi
(Megalaina asiatica)
Coppersmith
(Megalaima haemacephala)
Indian Cuckoo 34s,
(Cuculus micropterus)
Common Hawk Cuckoo
( Hierococcyx varius)
Pied Crested Cuckoo
(Clamator jacobinus)
Indian Koel tee | ieee « dak @2dSle
(Eudynamis scolopaceus) | | | .
Common Crow-Pheasant Bos a | ‘
(Centropus sinensis)
Lesser Crow-Pheasant op} t
(Centropus bengalensis) | |
Blue-throated Barbet e! ee
|
Large Indian Parakeet
(Psittacula eupatria) '
Roseringed Parakeet ee al
( Psittacula krameri) |
Roller és . |
(Coracias bengalensis) |
|
Common Green Bee-eater
(Merops ortentalis)
Pied Kingfisher
(Ceryle rudts)
Common Indian Kingfisher se x
(Alcedo atthis) |
Brownheaded Storkbilled Kingfisher a east AT a
(Ramphalcyon ¢apensis)
Whitebreasted Kingfisher ay + ies
(Halcyon snivrnensis)
Hoopoe eas
(Upupa epops) | '
Indian House Swift ooo it OS Big enloly
(Wicropus atfinis) lacy
Palm Swift aN | « this
(Cypsiurus batassiensis) |
Indian Longtailed (Horsfield’s) Nightjar si ip}
(Cabrimulgus macrourus)
Barn Owl
(Tyto alba)
Collared Scops Owl wes tb pb
(Otus bakkamoena)
Indian Scops Owl
(Otus sunita) Lee,
Spotted Owlet fX Gallic
(Athene brama)
Jungle Owlet stele ¥
(Glaucidium radiatum)
King Vulture ¥ -tiioedboe W hea
(Sarcogyps calvus)
Longbdilled Vulture Ser didogeclrse
(Gyps indicus) ,
Whitebacked Vulture SA | Base |e
(Pseudogyps bengalensis)
st”
BIRD ASSOCIATIONS OF INDIAN BUILT-UP AREAS 377
SCP EPA TO STEP ET
{
Species
Solan
Jessore
Bally
Ambala
Delhi
| Karacnie
White Scavenger Vulture
(Neophron percnopterus)
Crested Serpent Eagle ep °
(Spzlornis cheela) |
Brahminy Kite Bs nil ee
(Haliastur indus) | | |
Pariah Kite ts . ger|onnlg ap wl oh Ps
[Milvus migrans (govinda)|] | | |
Shikra ek LY {ayil |
(Astur badius) Liars Ndi) inp. Soules
Blue Rock Pigeon seen g0| | aera pete
(Columb livia) | | | |
Rufous ‘lurtle Dove
(Streptopelia orientalis) |
Spotted Dove me |
(Streptopelia chinensis) |
*
*
%
%
Little Brown Dove ane
(Streptopelia senegalensis)
Indian Ring Dove —
. (Streptopelia decaocto)
~ Red Turtle Dove
(Oenopopelia tranguebarica) |
Grey Partridge 138 | |
(Francolinus pondicerianus) . |
Indian Stone Curlew | |
(Burhinus oediénemus) |
Redwattled Lapwing wat | } |
(Lobivanellus indicts) |
Indian Darter | a
(Anhinga melanogaster) |
Cattle Egret ee eee |
(Bubulcus 161s)
Indian Pond Heron
(Ardeola grayi)
REFERENCE
Champion H. G. (1936). .‘ A Preliminary Survey of the Forest Types of India
and Burma.’ Ind. For. Reds. (New Series) Sylviculture, Vol. I, No. 1 : 1-287.
MUGIL POECILUS DAY, SAME,AS
MUGIL TROSCHELI BLEEKER
BY
T.. Va ReeRivvay
I.C.I. (India) Research Fellow of the National Institute of
Sciences of India |
(From the Laboratories of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta)
(With a plate)
INTRODUCTION
Day (1865 a) described for the first time, from Cochin, the spotted
Grey Mullet, Mugil poecilus. Though Day (1889) has given Bombay
and Western Coast of India as the habitat of the species, there are
not many records of its occurrence in this area. It has since been
recorded from Bombay waters by Spence & Prater (1931). ‘I had
opportunities of collecting specimens referrable to this species from
its type locality, viz. Cochin and also from the backwaters of. Ennore,
near Madras, and the study of these specimens showed their close
similarity with M. troscheli Blkr. A single specimen of M. poecilus
in the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society was also
obtained and examined in detail. These studies revealed some interest-
ing facts about the identity of M. poecilus.
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF Mugil poecilus Day
A comparison of Day’s (1865 a) original description of M. poecilus
with Bleeker’s (1858) description of M. troscheli shows that Day distin-
guished this species from M. troscheli only by the presence of deep
central black spots on its body. He laid considerable stress on the
diagnostic importance of the black spots and mentioned that ‘each
scale on the body and the base of the fins in the adult fish’ has ‘a gland
in its centre of a deep black colour’. He also pointed out that ‘in
the young fish these glands are not so apparent; and until they reach
about three inches the black central spots on the scales do not com-
mence to show themselves; but still each scale is marked by a central
cavity of a rounded shape, but very irregular in size.’ As regards the
adipose eyelids he stated that it ‘covers a little more than one-third
of the eye on either side in the adult fish. In the young the anterior
curtain is much broader than the posterior one’.
MUGIL POECILUS DAY 379
Day (1865 b) in his work: ‘The Fishes of Malabar’ described
another species of Grey Mullet, Mugil cunnamboo which he later (Day,
1878) considered the same as M. poecilus, but without black spots,
having instead brownish stripes along each row of scales. He was of
the opinion that this is the adult form, but he also, mentioned that in
some of his specimens two-thirds grown, a very few black spots are
apparent.
A comparison of the descriptions of M. poecilus and M. troscheli
in Day’s later work (1889) shows that he distinguished them by the
following characters :—
M. troscheli | M.. poecilus
Ie — ~ =so
C. 15 | Ca 14
Pyloric caeca 4 | Pyloric caeca 5
Moderately broad posterior
adipose and a narrow anterior
one.
No adipose eyelids.
Eye situated one diameter from
end of snout.
First and dorsals
commence above gth and 18th
second
Caudal lunate.
Eye situated } diameter from
end of snout.
First and second dorsals
commence above roth and 2oth
scales of Ll. respectively.
Caudal emarginate.
Dark
scales.
spots not
|
|
|
scales of Ll. respectively.
present on Dark spots present on scales.
Reference to the descriptions of M. troscheli given by Weber & de
Beaufort (1922), Oshima (1922), Whitehouse (1922), Peter Deva-
sundaram (1951) and Chandy (1951) shows that the only diagnostic
characters of importance are, the size of the adipose eyelids which
according to Weber & de Beaufort are only ‘rudimentary developed’, the
commencement of the first dorsal below the 11th or 12th lateral line scale
in M. troscheli instead of below the roth lateral line scale as in
M. poecilus, and the presence of dark spots on the scales of M. poecilus.
Reference to the figures of M. poecilus in Day’s ‘Fishes of Malabar’
1865, Pl. 1x and ‘Fishes of India’ 1878, Pl. Lxxv, Fig. 4, would
show that the adipose eyelids are not well developed and are only
vestigial. In the specimens examined by me the number of pyloric
caecae have been found to be the same in both the species, viz. five.
Thus it will be seen that the only characters that could be considered
helpful in distinguishing M. poecilus from M. troschel: in the des-
criptions are: the presence of black spots on the scales and the relative
position of the first dorsal fin,
380° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST,’SOCIETY, Vol, 51
MORPHOMETRIC AND BIOMETRIC COMPARISON OF
M. poeciltis ann M. troscheli
In the present’ study twelve specimens of M. troscheli collected from
Ennore’ (Madras State) and five specimens referrable to M. poecilus
collected from Cochin and one specimen in the collections of the Bombay
Natural History Society, from Bombay, were’ examined in’ deta'l.
Table’ I presents the range of morphometric characters of the samples.
The characters considered to be of diagnostic importance were’ bio-
metrically analysed following the method recommended by Simpson and
Roe (1939) for small nee to ascertain whether the individual
differences were statistically significant. The results are presented in
Table II, and it is evident from the P values that the differences between
the samples are not statistically significant.
TABLE J
RANGE OF MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERS OF M., troscheli AND M. poecilus
Length of caudal peduincle/ Least eee S of
caudal peduncle |
Character M. troscheli M. poecilus
tob, bao rence PIBAIOD |
|
Total length/Standard length , eral 1°2-—1°3 | 1°2— 1: 3
Total lenoth/ Head leneth Drees. 4°7—5°3 | 4-8—5:0
Total length/Heigcht of body 0, 4:9—5:3 | SrQeeem
Standard length/ Head length enh) 3°7—4'4 | 4°1—4°2.
Standard length/ Height of body | 3°9—A1'3 | 3'9—4'0..
Standard length/ Distance of D1 to the tip | |
of snout 1:9—2'2 _ 2:0—2'1
Standard length/ Distance of D1 to fret tp
of snout | 1:8—}-9 1:9
Length of head/Diameter of eye 3°3—4°3 4:N—4°3
Post-orbital distance/ Diameter of eye 1-8—2-0 20
Inter-orbital distance/Diameter of eye... 1:5—2:0 ~oog jo 1e8
Proportion of anal before the origin of D2, 3-3 33
Width of anal base/ Height of anal ee Saaae
Diameter of eye/Total width of adipose
eyelids wis 2>9—6 *3 | 2°7—5'0
Length of head/ Height of D! L'5—18 1.5—Lé
Length of Head/ Length of chin space 1:3—1°7 | 1:7—1'9
Length of Head/ Length of pectoral fin 1*3—1'7 1:3—1°5
Mandibular angle 120 brig. «2 8039°
Length of chin space /Width of chin space, 1:6—8:5 hfe «Oo [hid
Height of D1/ Height of D2 . 1:0—1:2 | 1:0
Number of Lateral line scales of 302238 ( 3031
Ll. scale below D1 bes 10—12 10-11
Ll. scale below D2 se 20—23 20—-21
Ll. scale above Pectoral fin sae 6—8 hs 7—8
Ll. scale above anal fin | | a! 1821 | eS
L1. scale above ventral fin web , 5—6 a 5—§
Ltr. scales 10—11 | '. 10 5
MUGIL POEGILUS DAY 331
TABLE II
BIOMETRIC COMPARISON OF M. troscheli AND M. poecilus
Soe ye
.Character , we | |
I | Il | I : II | I | I] |
Diameter of eye/ Width of | |
adipose . | 49163) 3°850 | 1°162 | 1628] 0°411 | 1-151 | 0°294 | >0-10
Ll. asi naan .. |31°667) 30°550 | 0°883 | 0:707 | 0:266 | 9°500 | 1°315 0°10
Ll. below D1 ... | 10-917) 10 560 | 0'520} 0-707 | 0-157 | 0°500 | 0°541 | ~0-10°
L1. below D 2 ».. | 21°818) 20°50: | 0°874 | 0°707 | 0°276 | 0:500 | 0:423 | =0-10
Il. aboveranal »». | 19°178! 19°009 | 0:888 | 1,000 | 0°258 | 0°708 | 0:718)| +0:10
Aca Y
Note.—Nos. land II above refer to J. troscheli and M. pboecilus respectively,
Tue IDENTITY OF THE DARK Spots on Mugil poecilus
‘From the comparison of the morphometry of M. trascheli and M.
poecilus it emerges that the only significant difference between the two
species is.the presence of dark spots on the scales of the latter. But
Day (1865 b) himself has mentioned that all adults of the species: do
not have the dark spots., Though in the figure of M.. poecilus, given in
his ‘Fishes. of Malabar’ .(1865-b,;\ Plate rx) it is shown: to have the
black spot regularly on every\-scale, in the ‘Fishes of India’ (1878,
Plate Lxxv, Fig.. 4), these- spots are not shown, to be very regular
in, disposition. The specimens examined. by me,. both from my own
collections and the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society,
had them absolutely irregular, scattered. over the body. The. spots
could easily be, removed and on their removal, prominent depressions
could be seen in their original places, varying from, minute. spots
to. fairly large ones of about 3 mm. diameter. A. careful examination
of the conor bodies, which. were more or less hemispherical, revealed
that they were actually groups of certain unicellular algae, growing
in rather close apposition on the fish, scales, giving the superficial
appearance of dark spots. An‘ attempt was ‘made to determine the
algae, but it was soon realised that it is necessary’ to culture them and
study them in their living condition also for their identification. This
work has not been possible for want of suitable fresh material.
..Of the three types of algal associations with animals, observed
A Indian waters (Biswas, 1936), the present one appears to be of the
first type, viz.) simple association of algae: growing on ae body
which forms.a suitable substratum.
Obviously, as is clear from the evidence presented above, M. poecilus’
is the name Day gave to young specimens of M. troscheli most of which
had..the. algal association. His statement (Day, 1865 a) that though
382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY) NATURAL UASIST. (SOCIETY, Vol, 51
M. poecilus is ‘by no means rare at times, in some years they almost
absent themselves’ ; indicates that probably this algal association occurs
only during certain seasons of the year. His observation (Day, 1865 b)
that the dark spots are generally seen only on young and half-grown
specimens suggests that large-sized specimens of M. troscheli are com-
paratively free from algal associations. The largest specimen with
these dark spots, I have examined, was 17.1 cm. in total length. In
this connection it may be added that such algal growths have been
observed on certain other species of mullets also from Cochin.
SYNONYMY
As M. poecilus Day (Figs. 1 & 2) has now proved to be synonymous
with M. troscheli Blkr, (Fig. 3), the synonymy of the latter species will
be as follows :—
M. troscheli Blkr.
Mugil troschelii Bleeker, Nat. Tijdschar. Ned. Ind. xvi, 1858, p. 277
Giinther, Cat. Brit. Mus., 11, 1861, p.. 448 Day, Fish. Brit. India,
2, 1889, P. 355:
Mugil troschelit (Sic) Day, Fish, India, 1878, p. 358.
Mugil troscheli Bleeker, Act. Soc. Sct, Indo-Neerl., vitt, 1860, p. 80.
Liza troschelii Kendall & Goldsborough, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool.
Harv. Coll., xxvi, No. 7, 1911, p. 256. Whitehouse, Madr. Fish.
Bull., xV,-1922, p. 89.
Liza troscheli, Jordan & Evermann, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxv,
1903;""P. 332: ai
Jordan & Seale, Bull. U.S, Bur. Fish., Xxv1, 1906, p. 11.
Jordan & Richardson, Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish., Xxvu, 1908, p. 244.
Smith & Seale, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., xtx, p. 76.
Seale & Bean, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XXXII, 1907, p. 240.
Jordan & Richardson, Mem. Carneg. Mus., tv, No. 4, 1909, p. 176.
Jordan & Starks, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxxm, 1912, p. 494, Ann.
Carneg. Mus., xt, Nos. 3 and 4, 1917, p.. 439.
Oshima, Ann. Carneg. Mus., xt, 1919, Nos. 2 and 4, p. 274; Ann.
Carneg. Mus., xilI, 1922, Nos. 3 and 4, p. 256.
Mugil poecilus Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1865, p. 33; Fish. Malabar,
1865, p. 140; Fish. India, 1878, p. 351.
Mugil poecilus Day, Fish. Brit. India, 11, 1889, p. 345.
Mugil cunnamboo Day, Fish. Malabar, 1865, p. 141.
SUMMARY
A close comparison of the descriptions of M. troscheli Blkr. and
M. poecilaus Day contained in’ relevant. literature shows that
very few differences, except for the occurrence of black spots on the
scales of the latter, have been noticed.'. The morphometry of specimens
examined is. presented: A: biometric comparison of characters of
diagnostic importance failed to show any significant differences. Thus
it was found that the occurrence of black spots is the only character
"G/y X (SL81 ‘Aeq wos) -heq smpoa0g podnpy JO MIA yeroyeT *¢ “BI
‘S/p X “FIG 719498041 psnyy JO peoy oy) Jo MIA yerUZA °Z “BIY
‘S/p X “DYE yayssou, psnpy Jo mora peso] “T *3iq
eiaf .:
Peat Wed
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yA ane ee ot SN : COMER [ has ee “| Ay 4 A: Oy
20S “ISI “3eN Aequiog ‘‘uanog
MUGIL POECILUS DAY 383
of importance to justify the recognition of M. poecilus Day. These
spots were found to be only growths of unicellular algae. In view of
this M. poecilus Day has to be considered as a synonym of M, troscheli
Blkr.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am deeply indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora for his guidance and
encouragement. Mr. K. S. Sreenivasan helped me in the examination
of the algal material referred to in this paper, and my thanks are due
to him for it) Thanks are also due to the Honorary Secretary, Bombay
Natural History Society, for the loan of the specimen of M. poecilus
and to the National Institute of Sciences of India for the award of
a Research Fellowship which provided me the opportunity for this
study.
REFERENCES
1Biswas, K. (1936): Association of some of the common algae with animals in
Indian waters. Hedwigia, Dresden, 16: 114-130. |
. Bleeker, P. (1858): Vergaderingen der Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederlandsch
Indie, Batavia 16: 277.
Chandy, M. (1951): The Grey Mullets of Bombay. (unpublished).
Day, F. (1865 a): On the fishes of Cochin, on the Malabar Coast of India.
Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1865, pp. 2-40.
_— = — (1865 b): The Fishes of Malabar, London, pp. 140-142.
— — — (1878): The Fishes of India, Vol. II, London, p, 351.
— — — (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma:
Fishes, II, London, pp. 345-346 and p. 356.
Oshima, M. (1922): A review of the fishes of the family Mugilidae found in the
waters of Formosa:—Ann. Carneg. Mus., Pittsburg, 13: 240-259.
Peter Devasundaram, M. (1951): Systematics of Chilka Mullets with a key for
their identification. J. Zool. Soc. India, Calcutta, 3: 19-25.
Simpson, G. G. & Roe, A. (1939): Quantitative Zoology, New York and London.
Spence, R. & Prater, S. H. (1931): The fish supply of the West Coast of
India, II. J. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc., 35: 77-88.
Weber, M. & de Beaufort, L. F. (1922): The Fishes of the Indo-Australian
Archipelago, Leiden, IV, pp. 248-249.
_. Whitehouse, R. H. (1922): The Grey Mullets of Tuticorin. Madras Fish, Bull.
18: 71-98.
1 The full paper. was not available for consultation.
THE BIONOMICS OF TABANID*LARVAE (DIPTERA)!
BY
Nawas H, Kuan, M.sc, (ALIG.),, Ph.D, (MASSACHUSETTS), , F.R.E.S,
Department of Zoology, Muslim University, Aligarh
(With two plates)
Tabanids constitute one of the most important groups of insects. from
the agricultural as well as the medical point of view. They not only
suck the blood of man and livestock and reduce their working hours,
but also transmit serious disease pathogens among man and his domesti-
cated animals. .With, the exception of mosquitoes, they are undoubtedly
the most important of all the blood-sucking insects. But in spite
of all their importance very little has been accomplished so far, with
respect to their bionomics. |
The present paper deals, with the various methods which have been
employed for collecting and rearing the tabanid larvae together with
some original observations. The author has described the movements
of tabanid larvae in the soil and has observed the effects of various
ecological factors on their population,
The larvae of Tabanidae are characterised by eleven body segments,
in addition to head and siphon. The small retractile head is provided
with strong mouth hooks, which are adapted for piercing and extracting
the contents of their prey. The cylindrical body tapering at both ends
has.a shiny transparent striated integument through which the principal
body viscera are usually visible. The siphon bearing the opening of
the respiratory system at the end of the anal segment is capable of
retraction and extension.. The general coloration is variable. It may
be white, white tinged with green or pink, eee gray, brownish,
yellow, or chlorophyll green.
The larvae are either saprophagous or carnivorous or both. They
are very efficient in penetrating the soil, and their great power of
crawling through small and narrow spaces is very noticeable. They
exhibit strong negative phototropism.
Ecologically the larvae inhabit hydrophytic, mesophytie or’ lotic
areas. Though some species having well-developed tracheal trunks
can float on water, a great majority of them burrow in the soil or
mud soon after hatching. The feeding period lasts from the time of
hatching until the approach of winter. During winter the larvae
cease feeding and hibernate. With the oncoming of spring, they again
renew feeding and after a time pupation may result. The feeding
nee
? This is a part of a doctor’s thesis, submitted in January, 1951, at the University
of Massachusetts, U.S.A. The author wishes to express his sincerest gratitude to
Dr. Harvey L. Sweetman for his guidance during the progress of this work.
THE BIONOMICS OF TABANID LARVAE B85
time ‘is variable, different with different Suh os and even within the
same species.
Collection: Various methods have been used by different
workers for the collection of tabanid larvae. Collection is often
difficult, either because of their wide and varied distribution or because
the larvae are not abundant in the locality under investigation. | This,
however, becomes HN Be VENTA easy with experience. Marchand
(1917) advocated his ‘sieve method’ in which a lump of mud from a
suitable locality is taken into a sieve and gently shaken in. water.
The soil is thus washed out and the larvae exposed. Cameron (1926)
and Philip (1928) used a hand fork and horticultural weeder respectively.
The» method -consisted in turning over the soil and thereby. exposing
the larvae., A group of workers including Stammer. (1924), Logothetis
and. Schwardt (1948), and Tashiro and Schwardt (1949), have recom:
mended the transportation of mud from infested .areas and hecoMenOR,
the larvae in the laboratory by drying.
The present work was started with the sieve method and at first
a spade was used for digging. Digging with a spade was soon
discarded in favour of a hand trowel. This made the work easier and
gave as good or better results. The procedure consisted in cutting ‘the
vegetation from the selected areas, each area being one square foot,
digging a few inches (4-6) deep, and placing the soil in a sieve. The
sieve was then gently shaken in water to wash off the mud, During
this shaking) the big larvae were easily detected and picked: up ,with
a forceps. They were placed in ‘suitable tin containers and | brought
back to the laboratory.’ Often the larvae were tangled in’ the roots
of the plants. ‘The method is quite satisfactory for collection if:a small
number of larvae are desired and the collector is quite sure of their
distribution, but has its greatest drawback in being time consuming.
Another method consisted in the use of pyrethrum-kerosene emulsion
called ‘New Jersey mosquito larvicide’ on the lines suggested by Bailey
(1949), who used it as a means of his mass collection and population
survey of tabanid larvae. Bailey diluted the concentrate seven to eight
times with water and after cleaning away surface vegetation applied
two gallons of the mixture to five square yards. The larvicide used
by the author contained 65% of active ingredients composed of
petroleum distillate, sodium laury] sulfate, thiodiphenyl amine and
pyrethrins. The vegetation was cleared ne a hand sickle and the
emulsion, diluted from one to eight to one to twelve, was applied to
square foot areas at the rate of one gallon to four or five square feet.
Within two to five minutes a number of organisms, including the
tabanid larvae, came to the surface. Ten areas were observed at a time
and the larvae collected with a forceps as they appeared. The retreating
of the larvae from the mud was produced by the pyrethrum. Such
larvae were paralysed after their appearance on the surface.
The ease and effectiveness of the above method for collecting the
larvae in making population surveys suggested its use for collection
of larvae for rearing purposes, The larvae as they appeared were
immediately transferred to untreated mud, brought back to the
386. JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY’ NATURAL -HIST) ‘SOCIETY; Vol. 51
laboratory. and placed in separate cans with food. Larvae collected
by the ‘sieve method’ were handled similarly as checks (Table 1).
TABLE 1
EFFECT OF ‘ NEw JERSEY Mosouito LARVICIDE’ ON LARVAE
Number dead after | Numbe: survived Percentage
Number of larvae 25 hours ten days | survival
40 (treated) As 23 17 42°5
10 (Untreated) ..,. 0 10 100:0
Since’ 42.5 per cent of the treated larvae appeared normal after ten
days this seems to be a satisfactory method of collecting larger larvae for
rearing studies. During the test the smaller larvae were more
susceptible to the insecticide. Adults of Tabanus quinquevitattus and
T. lineola were reared from the larvae thus collected.
The larvicide was used successfully with dilution of 1:14. At a
dilution of 1:19 only one larva was collected in 20 sq. ft., but as
stronger concentrations were not used to determine if the larvae were
missed due to greater dilutions of the insecticide, any precise statement
regarding the inefficiency of the dilution cannot be made.
Movements in Soil: Except for occasional references
stating their wide and varied occurrence a few inches deep in the soil,
very little is known regarding the movements of tabanid larvae. Segal
(1936) states that Chrysops larvae occur about two inches deep in the
soil near the edge of any permanent pond in New York (U.S.A.).
The writer has made preliminary surveys to determine the prevalence
and distribution of larvae in the soil. Square foot samples of, mud
to a depth of 1 to 1.5 inches were placed separately in collection funnels
shown in Figure 1.. The larvae, if any, dropped into the bottles con-
taining water, below the funnel openings. Two 60-watt bulbs were
fixed inside each funnel for drying the mud. The samples of mud
completely dried within three to four days, and no larvae were
collected after four days of drying.
After collecting the mud from the selected areas, the spots were
sprayed with pyrethrum-pipéronyl butoxide emulsion having a dilution
of 1:14, to find if any larvae were present below the mud collected
(Table 2).
TABLE 2
OCCURRENCE OF TABANID LARVAE WITH REFERENCE TO DEPTH
‘ No. of larvae in No. of larvae below
oer areas | upper 1-1°5 inches 1:5 inches
|
CAG a CEE : s
100 52 15
Average larvae found per |
area, ded 0°52 0°15
Piate I
, Funnel in parts
| Fig. 1. Funnels used for obtaining larvae from the soil
e
=
THE BIONOMICS OF TABANID LARVAE 387
The above findings have certain limitations. The depth at which
the larvae occur would vary with different species, abundance of’ food
in the habitat, and weather conditions. All species would probably
move downward during winter when the upper layers become frozen,
as the larvae ‘cannot survive in frozen soil, at least if it is moist.’
(Stone, 1930). The behaviour of different species was significant. While
most species were present within 1-1.5 inches depth, T. atratus always
occurred’ below that depth. As for food, no generalization can be
made. It seems that if the species is saprophytic, the food within
the above limits would be abundant, but if predaceous it might have
to move downwards, due to lack of sufficient food within the above
limits.
The distribution of ‘tabanid larvae at varying distances from the
edge of the water bodies varies according to the species. Logthetis and
Schwardt (1948) found numerous larvae of T. viscavis (costalis) in
pastures and meadows, while Gerry (1948) reports the presence of
94% of the larvae of T. nigrovitattus, a very abundant species within
200 feet of the upland. The writer sampled soil for larvae at varying
distances in the field by the use of pyrethrum-piperonyl butoxide
emulsion and ‘New Jersey mosquito larvicide’ after the manner des-
cribed above. The results obtained are presented in Table 3.
TABLE 3
POPULATION OF TABANID LARVAE AT VARYING DISTANCES FRCM WATER
ALONG A BROOK
Distances from No. of areas No. of larvae | Average number of
water-edge in feet tried | found larvae per square foot
i apaka: aR RR eR TD ae
0-1 age 00 | 75 | 0-75
12 | 20 | 4 | 0-20
2-3 10 | RS) | C°S0
3-8 | 50 | 0 | 0-0
| |
8-50 100 | 0 | 0-0
No larvae’ were found beyond three feet of the water’s edge. One
most probable reason for this absence beyond three feet was the low
moisture content of soil in distant areas. This was further substantiated
by the fact that even the larvae found within three feet of the water edge
were present in areas presenting moisture contents very close to that in
areas within one foot of the water.
To determine the influence of moisture on larval movements to a
depth of 2 to 3 inches, soil was placed in a 11” by 30” terrarium in the
laboratory. Varied moisture conditions were maintained by supplying
sufficient water to wet the soil at one end. Leaves, bearing. the egg
masses of C. callida and T. atratus were fixed in the terrarium so that
the newly hatched Jarvae dropped on the mud., About twenty well-
388 JOURNAL; ‘BOMBAY, NATURAL \HIST;‘SOCIETY, Vol, 51
developed larvae were also placed in the container. \Housefly maggots
were supplied as food. |
Observations were made after 4 months when it was found that’ only
18 larvae. survived in the container, and this included 15 .well-developed
larvae and 3 small laboratory hatched ones. Thus, 3 out of some
3,000 to 4,000 newly hatched larvae of C. callida and T. atratus survived
this, period. There may be various reasons for the loss of the great
majority of small larvae during the experiment. At the start, nearly
the whole terrarium was saturated, or very nearly so; and this’ per-
mitted larval movements al] through the container.. Later, as the
moisture. conditions became differentiated, the larvae moved toward
the more favourable and moist portion until the low moisture content
,of the .drier part inhibited any further migration. It is very likely
that. the smaller larvae in the,dry portion.could not withstand lack) of
moisture and.died. Also the smaller larvae served as food for the bigger
,anes.. (This predatory. habit was. demonstrated, while, recovering the
larvae, as a large Tabanus larva. was observed to attack and feed on
_a smaller Chrysops one.) What proportion of the young larvae succum-
bed to parasitism, or to other causes is unknown.
TABLE 4
FINAL POPULATION OF TABANID LARVAE IN ‘TERRARIUM
AEFTER 4 MONTHS
Temperature
Percentage ;
Oo eee see ne ir
| Range .Average ,
1 | 20°53 —23°C 21°8°C 91°3 13
2 | 20°5—-23°C 21-728 81'5 2
3 | 20: 5—23°C 22°0°C 63°8 3
|
sone eee eee |] oe SS TE (ee
The results showed the effect of varying moisture content of the
soil on the abundance of the larvae. This further confirms the above
findings that tabanid larvae generally prefer a high moisture content
of the soil. The presence of three well-developed larvae in the drier
portion of the terrarium is self-explanatory, as well-developed tabanid
larvae can survive for months under unfavourable environmental
conditions.
BMG 701 we CO logic al, ta Cit_O rs Ome ORD LUeleadt 1lOena:
The effect of ecological factors on tabanid larvae presents an interesting
and puzzling problem, as little has been accomplished by previous
workers, tee
Undoubtedly biotic and’ physical factors influence the prevalence
of larvae in the soil. Cannibalism as well as predatism is common
among many species and reduce the initial population considerably.
The Jarvae are generally predaceous, feeding on earthworms, available
insect larvae, andthe like.’ Several workers have also reported the
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THE BIONOMICS OF TABANID. LARVAE 383
saprophytic habits of these larvae especially those belonging to the
genus Chrysops, (Segal, 1936). Several workers have pointed out
that the young larvae have difficulty in locating food under laboratory
conditions and suggest placing the larvae directly on food. This
suggests that organic matter may serve as food in their normal habitat.
This view has been further substantiated during the rearing of
larvae, by the high mortality which occurred shortly after hatching,
which it. was first believed to be due to unsuitable physical conditions.
Later bigger larvae also died, in spite of exposing them to different
temperatures and humidities, imitating the natural conditions closely.
It seems likely that while many species are saprophytic in the earlier
instars, they acquire predaceous habits as they mature. The writer
while digging the bigger larvae at different places in the field, observed
that the larval population along the edges of water was much greater
than away from them. It cannot be definitely stated that this distri-
bution was entirley in accordance with the food distribution, for it
may have been more a result of temperature and moisture conditions
of the soil, or an equal effect of both biotic and physical factors.
Parasites and predators on the larvae may also greatly influence
their abundance. MacCreary (1940) and other workers have found
tabanid larvae infested with certain nematodes. Philip (1931) has
recorded Phorostoma.sp. parasitising the larvae of T.. trimaculatus,
Moisture has a greater influence on local distribution than tem-
perature. The difference between the temperature of the soil near and
away from the water edge was not so marked as the moisture contents
of the two locations. However, certain areas away from water, and
being equally moist to those near the water edge, were devoid of
larvae. This is due to the fact that in most cases the females do not
lay their eggs in areas away from water, and the larvae do not leave
their favourable environment near the water edge.
A preliminary effort was made to find the correlation between larval
infestation, soil temperature, and saturation. In the light of ‘Funnel
tests’ discussed above, it was ascertained that most of the larvae
occur between 1 and 1% inches in the soil and hence during the present
experiments, the temperature and moisture at such depths was
considered. The soil temperature was determined by inserting a thermo-
meter in a small hole in the soil made previously by a peg. The percentage
of saturation of the soil was determined by drying the samples in an
oven with a temperature of about 100°C. The various samples
completely dried within 48 to 72 hours. The saturation point of the
soil was determined by placing the collected mud on a slanting glass
plate and letting all the excess water drip off. After the water ceased
to flow off, the soil was regarded as saturated.
Areas presenting different temperature and moisture contents and
‘containing larvae were selected for test purposes. The grass over
the selected areas was cut with a sickle and the soil temperature
‘determined in the manner described above. After taking the soil
samples for moisture determination, population counts were made with
the use of insecticide formulations.
It appears that both temperature and moisture of the soil have
important bearings on the distribution of the larval population during
the summer. The preferred zone lies between 20.5°C and 24.5°C;
and 87% saturation to a supersaturation of 118% (Fig. 2). The
4
“
390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
moisture, however, seems to have a greater effect, for in the same
temperature limits the population was greater in the above saturation
belt than either above or below it. However, the population was
not entirely limited to the above zone. A favourable zone extended
from above 20-26.5°C. and 52% saturation to a supersaturation of
164%. .
Rearing: Rearing of tabanids in laboratory is difficult, Hine
(1906) used jelly glasses covered with perforated lids for rearing the
larvae separately. Minute aquatic invertebrates, mainly crustaceans,
were provided as food. Cameron (1926) substituted small wide mouth
bottles of 3}-ounce capacity and provided muscid larvae, coleopterous
larvae, earthworms, molluscs and ox meat as food.
Patton and Cragg (1913), realizing the limitations of the above
methods for mass rearing, advocated collective rearing of tabanid larvae
in young stages in trays containing moist sand or mud with some
growing vegetation in it. Neave (1915) has also favoured collective
rearing of tabanids.
Marchand (1917) states that the preceding methods have the
disadvantage of keeping the larvae in sand or mud and completely out
of sight. The larvae have to be washed out of the mud for obser-
vations and this not only takes considerable time and disturbs the
larvae, but is also liable to injure them. He kept the larvae of a
number of species in test tubes, containing a rolled sheath of filter
paper and water to a depth of about an inch to keep the filter paper moist.
The larvae were prevented from escaping by a cheesecloth cover fixed
with a rubber band. Marchand recommended this method for general
use, especially when close observations were desired.
Isaac (1924) regards Marchand’s device unnatural and unsatis-
factory for young larvae. He employed tilted cages containing moist
sand to provide moisture gradient in the form of small beakers for
younger, and glass jars for older larvae. Stammer (1924) reared larvae
in covered glass dishes containing sand and moss. Philip (1928) com-
bining the various techniques of the preceding workers used with
success smal] homeopathic vials containing short strips of tough paper
towelling and covered with cheesecloth by means of a rubber band.
Schwardt (1931) used the earlier methods for rearing larvae,
separately in half-pint jelly glasses fitted with perforated lids of tin and
containing an inch of sand. Later in 1948, Logothetis and Schwardt suc-
cessfully reared tabanids in large shallow pans having mud freed from all
arthropod life and slightly elevated at one end to provide a moisture
gradient.
To sum up, none of the above procedures is entirely satisfactory
for the rearing of tabanid larvae. The writer started rearing larvae
separately in tin cans containing mud. Housefly maggots were supplied
as food. As most of the newly hatched larvae seemed unable to find
their food, they were placed on the food by means of a brush. Because
of the rusting of the tin cans smal] plastic cages 1” by 1” were used
instead. These cages were very handy and convenient to use. A
single larva was placed in each cage containing some mud and food.
The cages were cleaned frequently by adding a little water and shaking
gently. During this process the larvae along with moulted skins,
THE BIONOMICS OF TABANID LARVAE 39k
food particles, and other wastes, came to the. surface from where the
waste materials. were easily removed.
The plastic cages were convenient to use, but the results were no
better than those of the previous workers. Four species—Tabanus.
lineola Fabr., I. melanocerus Wied., T. reinwardtii Wied., and. T.
guinquevitattus Wied.—have been reared from field larvae to adults.
Two specimens of T. lineola were reared under laboratory. conditions
from eggs laid by caged females. The total period of development
was 240 and 244 days respectively. A larva collected on September
I, pupated on January 3; a period of 125 days.
Six larvae of T. melanocerus were collected from Fort River
(Amherst, Mass.). They were found in the river bed and were collected
by straining the mud through a sieve kept against the river flow. Each
of the larvae was placed separately in covered petri dishes containing
damp mud, tilted to provide a gradient of moisture. Three of these
larvae pupated after 66, 67 and 79 days in the laboratory.
A great majority of the larvae of T. reinwardtiu, collected in the
field died after 6 to g months in the laboratory. Two such larvae,
however, pupated after 263 and 296 days in the laboratory.
Only a single larva of T. quinquevitattus collected in the field could
be successfully reared in the laboratory. This larva collected on April
Ig, pupated after one month under laboratory conditions.
A great number of egg masses of Chrysops callida were collected
from the field and larvae hatched from them were kept in small plastic
cages. An overwhelming majority of young larvae died within a week
of hatching, and only 12 were reared to third instar. One of these
larvae survived through 3rd instar and died after moulting for the
third time. All the larvae observed immediately after hatching had
either moulted or were in the process of moulting. In other words the
duration of the first instar was less than an hour, The durations of
the second and the third instars varied between 47-72 days, and 3 to 80
days respectively.
In spite of imitating natural conditions by placing the larvae on food
with a brush, no success could be achieved. It seems likely that the
larvae of this species are saprophagous and the lack of sufficient
organic matter in the habitat resulted in the high mortality. The
possibility of injuring the larvae was practically negligible in the
light of precautions taken.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The present paper records the successful use of ‘New Jersey
mosquito larvicide’ for collecting the larvae in making population
surveys, and for rearing purposes. Most of the tabanid larvae were
observed within 1 to 14 inches of the soil surface during the summer
months. One species T. atratus, however, always occurred below this
depth. The distribution of these larvae depends on season, food con-
ditions, and the species involved. No larvae were found beyond three
feet of the edge of the water.
A preliminary investigation regarding the occurrence of tabanid
larvae with respect to ecological factors showed a preferred zone
between 20.5°C. and 24.5°C. and 87% saturation to a supersaturation
of 118 per cent. Other factors liable to effect population include food
392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
abundance, parasites, predators, and the cannibalistic habits of many
species. |
No great success was obtained in rearing attempts. Four species—
T. lineola, T. quinquevitattus, T. malanocerus, and T. reinwardtii—
were reared under laboratory conditions, from larvae to adult stage.
Newly hatched larvae of C. callida from egg masses collected in the
field were not reared beyond the third instar, except in one case when
the larva lived up to the fourth instar.
REFERENCES
Bailey, N. S. (1948): A mass collection and population survey technique for larvae
of Tabanidae (Diptera). Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc., 43 (1): 22-29.
Cameron, A. E. (1926): Bioncmics of the Tabanidae (Diptera) of the Canadian
Prairies. Bull. Ent. Res., 17: 1-42.
Hine, J. S. (1906): Habits and life-histories of some flies of the family Tabanidae.
U.S.D.A. Bur. Ent, Tech. Ser. Bull. 12 (2) ; 19-38.
Isaac, P. V. (1924): Papers on Indian Tabanidae. Agr. Research Inst., Pusa,
{ndia. Dept. Agr. Memoirs, Ent. Series, 8: 53-62.
Logothetis, C. & Schwardt, H. H. (1948): Biological studies on the horseflies
of New York. Jour. Econ. Ent., 44 (2): 335-336.
MacCreary, D. (1940): Report on the Tabanidae of Delaware. Delaware Agr.
Exp. Sta. Bull., 226: 1-41.
Marchand, W. (1917): Notes on the early stages of Chrysops (Diptera, Tabanidae).
Jour. New York Ent. Soc, 25 (3); 149-163.
— — — (1917): An improved method of rearing tabanid larvae. Jour. Econ.
Ent. 10 (5): 469-472.
Neave, S. A. (1915): The Tabanidae of the Southern Nyasaland with notes cn
their life-histories. Bull. Ent. Research, London, 5 (4): 287-320.
Patton, W. S. & Cragg, F. W. (1913): A text-book of medical entomelogy.
Christian Literature Society for India, pp. 271-305.
Philip, C. B. (1928): Methods of collecting and rearing the immature stages
of Tabanidae (Diptera). Jour. Parasitology 14: 243-253.
— — — (1931): The Tabanidae (horseflies) of Minnesota with special reference
to their biologies and taxonomy. Minnesota Agr. Exp, Stat. Tech. Bull., 80: 1-132.
Segal, B. (1936): Synopsis of the Tabanidae of New York, their biolcgy and
taxonomy. Jour. New York Ent. Soc., 4% (1): 51-78, 125-154.
Schwardt, H. H. (1931): The biology, of Tabanus atratus Fabr. Ann. Ent. Soc.
America, 24 (2): 409-416.
Stammer, H. J. (1924): Die larven der tabaniden. Zeit. Wiss. Biol. Abt. A.
Zeit. Morphol. Okol, Tiere 4; 121-170 (Abstract).
Stone, A. (1930): The bionomics of some Tabanidae (Diptera). Ann. Ent. Soc.
America, 23 (2), 261-304.
Tashiro, H. & Schwardt, H. H. (1949): Biology of the major species of horseflies
of Central New York. Jour. Econ. Ent., 42 (2): 269-272.
A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA
BY
M. A. WyYNTER-BLYTH
Part III
1. IN PURSUIT OF THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN |
(With a plate)
(Continued from p. 572 of Vol. 50)
All that can be said in favour of the road from Pathankot to.
Srinagar is that it is less exhausting than that from Pathankot to
Manali in Kulu. Between them they must comprise two of the worst
motor journeys in the world. The road to Kashmir, however, is far
less beautiful than that to Kulu, and, in these days when it is the
source of supply to the army in Kashmir, it is the more dangerous.
It was because we had been violently forced into a ditch by an army
lorry approaching from the opposite direction some distance short
of Kudh (where we stayed the night) that disaster was laid up for us
the following day.
Consequently, seven miles beyond the Chenab crossing at Ramban,
unpleasing noises proceeded from the engine of our car and we came
to a stop with a shattered gear box. Two obliging lorries took us and
our belongings the nine miles to the rest house at Banihal where we
soon learnt that it is a foolishness to break down in Kashmir on a
Saturday, for the Kashmiri takes his long week-end seriously.
Therefore it was not until forty-eight hours later that Kashmir Govern-
ment Transport, from whom we had hired the car, deigned to rescue
us. They then sent a Landrover driven by the fastest driver in Kashmir.
He must have been a very good driver indeed otherwise we should
never have survived that whirlwind ride up to the Banihal Pass (for
it is only those that have made the journey who can realise how
terrifying this road can be). So it was not until late that afternoon
that we emerged on the Srinagar side of the Banihal Tunnel to enter
Kashmir proper. Once more we had chosen the wrong day. All was.
enveloped in thick mist, and rain was falling heavily. The road
ran between high banks of snow and I was exceedingly uncomfortable
in the back of the vehicle where I had been placed on top of the
luggage with rainwater trickling down my neck (the family occupying the
front seats). No sight was to be obtained of the world famous view
of the valley, bounded on one side by the snowy peaks of the Great
Himalayan Range, and on the other by those of the Pir Panjal (the
mountains over which we were at that moment passing). Occasionally
through gaps in the mist far below us could be seen glimpses: of
flooded. paddy. fields, murky and. uninviting. The impression was
more that of an approach by air to one of the most unpleasing parts:
of China than of a descent into the Blessed Vale of Kashmir.
394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
However, our misfortunes were now at an end. On arrival in
Srinagar my future movements were taken in hand by Colonel Ghulam
Kadir, Director-General of Tourism, to whom I had an introduction,
and before I was really conscious of what was happening I had been
despatched on a shooting expedition to the Wadhwan Valley in Upper
Kishtwar. The fact that I had his blessing made all the difference,
not only to the arrangements made for the expedition, but also to my
reception everywhere I went, for his popularity, and his reputation
as a sportsman, are not confined to the ricefields of the Kashmir
Valley.
We arrived at Achchabal, at the eastern end of the Kashmir Valley,
on the afternoon of May 7 and settled for the night in the dak
bungalow, a gloomy building pleasantly placed within a grove of
ancient chenar trees, melodious with golden orioles and running water.
Achchabal is famous for its unkempt old Mughal garden and for
the waterfall that provides its fountains with water. The garden
is rustic and possesses that charm which all the old Mughal gardens
of Kashmir possess. There is, too, leading from it, a trout hatchery,
but this, being much like other trout hatcheries, is perhaps best
‘avoided as it gives full scope for the Kashmiri genius of extracting
baksheesh from the visitor.
To my mind, though others may disagree, the remarkable thing
about the garden is not the waterfall, nor the fountains, nor the
hatchery, nor the flowers, but the warning notice at the entry gate.
Here is displayed a long list of activities prohibited within the garden
and its precincts .. . the pitching of tents, the making of tea, bathing
in the fountains, the entry of dogs (always, of course, excepting
pariahs, which have free licence to wander in and out as they please),
all of which prohibitions are typed in small print, much faded
by the weather; but finally, in the boldest of capitals, which have,
somehow or other, survived the wind and the rain, is the stern warning
that DRINKING IN THE GARDEN IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN. Although the
list of prohibitions is long, it omits so many more undesirable activities
that might well take place within the garden.
* * * * *
I was the first person to go on a long shooting trip in Kashmir
since partition in 1947.
At the start the party consisted of twelve, including myself and the
three ponies and two mules.
Firstly, was Ahmed Lone, shikari. He was of unassuming manner
and quiet and gentlemanly demeanour, but of an untiring persistence
... an artist at his job and the descendant of a long line of shikaris,
Both in his case and in that of Abdullah Bhatt, whom I employed
in Gulmarg, I was the first to give them anything more than the
most transitory of daily employment for the last five years.
What is to happen in the future to these shikaris whose remark-
able skill is the result of generations of experience? If there is no
employment for them they and their sons must put their hands to
other tasks, and the old craft will be no more.
In appearance Ahmed Lone, umbrella in hand, and my shotgun
slung over one shoulder, lacked only the parrot to make him an exact
replica of Robinson Crusoe, as portrayed in the books of my childhood.
A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 395
The cook, Ahmed. Bhatt, was a singular old character, Aged at
least seventy years, he could walk the hills and mountain passes with
the best. After the longest trek he turned out a good meal in the
very shortest time—everything, I think, having been half cooked the
night before and carried with him, for nothing else can explain the
speed with which he produced meals at the end of a march. He again
was an artist at his job, and, unlike so many cooks, he was always
cheerful and a great favourite with the rest of the party.
The third member was the ‘tiffin coolie’, a truly undignified title that
does scant justice to Akbar Rattur. He belonged to a different
generation and to different times, a very different type from the other
two. He himself was a good shikari, but his job was to keep a close
eye on myself and my wants, and generally to keep me out of trouble.
All this he did most successfully, and controlled my exchequer as
well, so that what I paid out in tips was a mere third of what it would
have been had I done it myself. If ever I want a trusty companion
for a particularly nefarious poaching trip, I shall choose Akbar Rattur.
In addition there were three muleteers, one of whom, a sort of
supervisor, left us once we were across the Margan Pass. He was,
I think, a senior member of the firm from whom we had hired the
mules, who had come with us to see that all was going well because
we were travelling under the auspices of Colonel Ghulam Kadir. The
head muleteer was the best muleteer that I have yet come across, but
at the same time he was of the most sulky and disagreeable appearance
imaginable. This disagreeable side of his nature was reserved, for-
tunately, for outsiders; but heaven help those who fell foul of his
tongue !
For the mules and ponies I have nothing but praise. On the
Margan Pass they surmounted difficulties that I should have thought
were impossible.
We set out from Achchabal very early the following morning. Since
the previous day I had developed a streaming cold and was feeling
very far from well, so that I did not appreciate the pleasant walk over
hill and dale, through forest and cultivation, that divides Achchabal
from the Naubug valley. After twelve miles I felt so unwell that I
gave orders for the pitching of camp, but this was not necessary as
we were only one mile from Shutru tourist hut, close to Naubug
village. It was in this little rest house that I spent the next forty-
eight hours in considerable discomfort with a sharp attack of ’flu.
After luncheon on the third day I felt strong enough to continue
the seven miles to Lilhwan at the head of the Naubug valley, though
on a pony, not on my own feet.
Like all hill ponies engaged at random the saddle was most un-
comfortable and the beast itself refused to travel at more than two miles
an hour; that was until a little through Naubug village it remembered
that it was directly below its home, situated up the mountain to the
left. With a sudden violent convulsive movement, so skilfully per-
formed that it bespoke much practice, it shed bit, bridle, reins and
everything connected therewith, and careered up the hillside at speed,
still bearing myself with no means of controlling it. Presence of
mind, in spite of my weak state of health, did not desert me, and
I managed to leap (or fall) off the animal before it had gathered any
great momentum. The pony having been caught with some difficulty,
396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
I insisted on its being led for the rest of the way up the very stony
valley.
Late in the afternoon, after the longest seven miles I can remember,
I arrived, sore and tired, at Lilhwan tourist hut, where the valley
narrows and begins to slope steeply up to the Margan Pass, situated.
to the left of the broad snowy mountain that bars the head of the
valley.
The following morning we set out before dawn (a frightful hour)
so as to catch the snow on the pass in a still frozen state. On this
occasion I rode a tranquil but even smaller and more uncomfortable
pony. For two miles the way led through the forest, where the only
signs of spring were the waxy pink blossoms of a thick shrubby
growth of Viburnum foetens—the specific name of which refers to the
unpleasant smell of the crushed leaves—and, when we emerged from
the forest onto the meadowland at the foot of the pass, a carpet of the
early yellow stars of Gagea lutea (Star of Bethlehem). From here the
stony track zig-zags up the steep craggy hillside to the left of the
nala at the top of which is the pass (12,000/). Most of the hillside
is above the treeline and the predominant plant is juniper (Juniperus
recurva), a close-growing shrub that, from a distance, looks much like
heather. Later on, no doubt, there are many flowers, but at this
season the higher altitudes have not emerged from the grip of winter.
As we were climbing, the report of my shotgun was heard from
away to the left where Ahmed Lone was scrambling about in the pursuit
of snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis) locally called ramchukor,
for this neighbourhood has a name for it. He fired at one, but missed,
nor did I see the bird as it escaped. My introduction to it had to
wait for a month until I was climbing Apharwath behind Gulmarg.
Here at 12,000’ we flushed one that was probably nesting. She flew
rapidly downwards at an oblique angle, shrilling loudly, a very large
brownish white bird with noticeably white wing tips.
It was not until late October this year (1952) at Manali that I saw
the skin of a snowcock, The text-books describe its plumage as of mixed
grey, white, chestnut and black, but the main theme of the skin I saw
was white, striated with minute patterns of brown. Perhaps, like the
ptarmigan and willow grouse it puts on a pale winter plumage, re-
serving its best and finest dress for the spring? This skin came from
Lahoul, and the man who had shot it said that it was one of a group
or covey of about fifteen. They were very averse to taking to the
wing and waddled away uphill for all the world like turkeys.
At about 11,500! the track bore away to the right at a more gentle
slope towards the top of the nala and up to the pass. Here had to
be crossed tongues of hard snow sloping steeply across the path,
extremely difficult obstacles for our transport. Just below the pass
it was necessary to climb up one of these steep snow slopes and this
proved more than the animals could manage whilst loaded. The baggage
therefore had to be manhandled and the ponies and mules left to
flounder as best they could to the top of the slope, sometimes slipping
and often breaking through the frozen surface, so that at any moment
I expected them to injure a leg or to slide down to destruction below.
However, they overcame this difficulty with neither hurt to them-
selves nor to my belongings. Later I was to find out that they could
surmount harder obstacles than this.
A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 397
Soon we stood on the pass, in the bitterly cold wind, to look back
at the magnificent view of the Pir Panjal range stretching along the
~SW. side of the Kashmir Valley towards Baramulla. Ahead were
snowfields. gently sloping downwards between snow covered fells.
There were four miles of this snow before us.
It was not, however, until we had left the snowfield and were
descending very steeply into the Wadhwan Valley that the real trouble
for our transport began. Here, whenever we crossed over to the north
side of a ridge—such a side being away from the direct rays of the
sun and therefore wet and forested—thick, steep and melting snow
(as it was now the warmest time of the day) presented conditions of
the greatest difhculty for our unfortunate animals, for they broke deep
into the soft snow at almost every step and frequently slipped and
cast their loads.
I had dismissed my pony at the head of the pass and had walked
the rest of the way, with the result that I arrived at Wadhwan (or,
as it is more correctly called, Uriwan) forest bungalow in a state of
considerable exhaustion. Here on the verandah we waited, chilled
and shivering, whilst the chowkidar was found to open the building
for us. He, seeing how tired I was, massaged my legs for me, for
which kindly action I was grateful.
An early visitor was the local police constable whose duty it was
to report the arrival of strangers. This was not an arduous task as,.
according to the bungalow book, the last stranger had stayed here over
five years ago. He, however, was much more interested in having his.
photograph taken (which was promised for the next morning when the
sun should be shining), and in getting some medicine for his small son,
who, it appeared, had pneumonia. In spite of gloomy warnings from
Akbar Rattur that I should undoubtedly be held responsible if the
child died, I handed over a few Cibazol tablets with the most conser-
vative of instructions.
I found the people of the valley a friendly lot. In appearance they
are a tall race of hawk-nosed Muslims, much in appearance like what
I imagine the inhabitants of the NW. Frontier to be.
Close outside the Uriwan rest house is a sign board pointing to
THE KUTH PLANTATION. In my ignorance I imagined this to be perhaps
some experimental conifer plantation, the name of which has possibly
been coined from a neighbouring village. It was not until, as coin-
cidence would have it, I met the D.F.O. of the Jamwala Division of
the Gir Forest in Saurashtra, an ex-forest officer of the Kashmir
service, that I learnt that it was a plantation of the plant Ruth, or
Saussurea lappa, of the Compositae, a State monopoly of Kashmir,
which country used to produce almost the entire supply that comes
from this part of Asia.
To summarise what Coventry says of this plant in Wild Flowers
of Kashmir :—
‘The kuth plant is tall robust perennial with a large radical
leaved and stout flowering stem bearing at its summit a cluster of
several rounded sessile very dark blue-purple or almost black flowers.
It flowers in August and September and grows between 9,000! and
12,000/, mainly in moist shady situations in the Jhelum and Chenab
Valleys, in the Zanskar’ Tract of the Indus Valley, at Gulmarg and
Sonamarg, and in the Kishenganga Valley and in Kishtwar, often
398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
as undergrowth in birch forests. Outside Kashmir it is hardly found
at all.
‘It is the root that is of value, and this is cut into lengths of
about three inches, and is dried and exported, mainly to China and
japan. The smaller irregular bits are ground into powder and used
for the manufacture of incense sticks, while the longer more regular
pieces are cut into slices for burning in lamps at shrines, or are
used for medicinal purposes and putting into baths. Old Sanskrit
books give kuth as a cure for almost all the evils that the flesh is
heir to.
‘Private export of any part of this plant from Kashmir is strictly
prohibited, but much used to be smuggled out by way of Chamba,
Hazara and Kulu.’
In November of this year I saw bags of kuth being brought in to
Manali bazaar from the direction of the Rohtang Pass. On enquiry
I was told that this had been grown in Lahoul. Some time between
the two wars a large quantity of kuth seed was smuggled out of
Kashmir and planted in Lahoul where the plant has thriven ever
since, to the great profit of the Lahouli as it was fetching a very
high price, until the outbreak of the war in the east spoilt the market.
Since then the export to China and Japan has been difficult and the
price has fallen.
Kuth used to grow wild in the Kulu Hills but owing to the great
demand for the root it has been almost exterminated.
* * % % *
The Wardhwan Valley is of grim and rather desolate appearance.
Its very steep but evenly sloping sides and more gently sloping bed
show it to be of glacial origin. As usual, the southern side is forested,
though not very thickly, with the silver fir (Abies pindrow), the blue
pine (Pinus excelsa), and a scattering of plane trees (Acer species): but
the northern side is bare and rises steeply to snowy mountains of
about 13,000’ and 14,000,’ which present a surprisingly regular wall
without any notable peaks at all.
This valley might well be named the Valley of Avalanches for in
the winter these sweep down each gulley, and often down parts of the
wooded hillsides as well, so that it appears that few places in the
valley are really safe from the danger. Indeed, the situation of its
few villages seems entirely to be decided by this factor.
When we set off up the valley on the morning of May 12th we
had to cross the old unmelted snow left by several avalanches, and
found it to be littered with shattered tree trunks, smaller branches
and wooden debris crushed to matchwood, whilst churned up into
the old snow was an infinity of pine needles. What greatly surprised
me was the long distance that the avalanches had run over the
relatively gentle slopes of the valley bed beyond the steeps and
gulleys whence they had come. After seeing this I can better realise
how an avalanche may utterly overwhelm a village, or, indeed, a
town.
In two places I saw a phenomenon which I could not understand.
Within these areas, each of an acre or two in extent) avalanches
had broken many trees clean in two at about fifteen feet or more
from the ground, the lower parts of the trees being stripped of their
Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc,
Author
Wadhwan Valley. Avalanche damage
A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 399
branches but left standing, while the upper portions had been carried
clean away (see plate). Normally in the track of avalanches the
whole tree had been uprooted and swept away.
The morning of the twelfth was gloriously fine as we walked up
the valley. The very earliest of butterflies were about:— painted
ladies (Vanessa cardui), tortoiseshells (V. cashmiriensis), large cabbage
whites (Pieris brassicae), dark clouded yellows (Colias edusina),
peablues (Lampides boeticus) and common blue Apollos (Parnassius
hardwicke1). The Kashmir skylark (Alauda gulgula) was in full song,
and all around there were fine views of the snowy mountains.
Five miles from Uriwan, where a large nala debouches from the
mountains, we passed through a village, whose people told us that
they had khabar of three red bears. They were very anxious for us
to camp there and to go after them (for any form of shikar is of the
greatest interest to almost all Indian peasants, except perhaps to certain
castes in Kathiawar and Gujarat who are so averse to taking life that
they will not even kill the locusts that are destroying their crops), but
Ahmed Lone would have none of this, as he was bent on going to a
favourite nala of his further up the valley. At the next village there
was khabar of two bears, so that it seemed as if these animals, not
having been shot for some years, were now far from rare, and that
our chances of getting one were quite good.
At about ten miles from Uriwan we crossed the river by a crude
wooden bridge (three large tree trunks with earth between) and made
up through the squalid village of Gumur (Gumbri?)* into Gumur nala.
Two miles further on, where the river runs through a sort of gorge,
we pitched camp on a small flat piece of ground in a grove of gaunt
and leafless plane trees.
After tea we set out up the nala to see if there was any game
about. This nala is typical of side nalas found in the high Himalayas.
Its bed—if we may so term the steeply sloping lower part that is
littered with boulders and debris brought down from above by the
action of the weather and by the avalanches which torment it even
more than they do the main valley—slopes up on the north-western
side to magnificent crags and pinnacles, to which here and there
hang almost inaccessible little margs or meadows (the feeding grounds,
as I was shortly to learn, of the red bear). The south-eastern side,
as is usual, being more protected from the sun’s rays, is heavily
forested and so less denuded by nature’s action and of a more gentle
slope. Down the nala, here and there still spanned by snow bridges,
runs the river through a steep-sided gulley.
As the north-western side of the nala faces the mid-day sun, spring
was there more advanced, and the ground was carpeted with a pro-
fusion of Star of Bethlehem, purple fumitory (Corydalis ruataefolia?),
wild carrot (Chaerophyllum villosum) and Thalspi alpestre, a small
white flower something like an underdeveloped candytuft, of no parti-
cular beauty in itself but attractive when massed as it was here. There
was also an occasional lilac Primula denticulata, and on grassy slopes
facing the sun, that lovely dark blue gentian (G. carinata), later on
1 The name Gumur can be found on no map, nor had anyone in Srinagar heard
of it. I use it because it is the name the villagers themselves, use.
400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
very common throughout Kashmir at this altitude (9,000’-11,000’).
Near the camp were fritillaries (fritillaria roylei) in bud, and one
solitary waxy pink blossom of the curious Podophyllum emodi, an
extremely abundant forest plant at Gulmarg.
The air was. full of musical chak!, chak! of yellow-billed
choughs (Pyrrhocorax graculus), always common in such places, and
a flock of snow pigeons (Columba leuconota) circled quickly around
before settling. Although the latter birds are magnificently skilful in
flight, as anyone who has seen one chased by a hawk or a falcon will
realise, they are easy to shoot, for when in a flock they are not timid and
fly bunched close together. After one shot the flock will generally
swing round once again within easy range before making off. . They
are only tolerably good eating, better than the blue rock, but not
to compare with the common green pigeon of the plains.
Further on, some way up the northern hillside, we saw a hangul
or Kashmir Stag (the local barasingha, Cervus hanglu), the first I had
ever seen,
Having climbed to perhaps 11,000’, I felt that honour was satisfied
for the day (in view of my recent ill-health and lack of training) and
called a halt, whilst Ahmed Lone and the local shikari whom he had
collected from Gumur climbed higher to try to spot a bear, As Akbar
Rattur and I waited, he pointed out to me a marmot (Marmota
caudata?) eighty yards away. All I could see was a piece of old
wood, but, as when next I looked that piece of wood had disappeared,
I assumed he was right. As in Kulu, the ground from. which
the snow had recently receded was criss-crossed with the old winter
tunnels of a vole—perhaps in this case those of Hypercarius wynet.
The following day dawned with leaden skies and the mutter of
distant thunder, the most ominous of morning: sounds in the north-
west Himalaya. Ahmed Lone had set out very early in his search
for bear, and a rendezvous had been fixed with him three. miles
further up the valley. While we climbed up the nala the weather
steadily became more threatening as the rumble of thunder drew nearer.
Just before we reached our meeting place the storm broke and snow
began to fall very heavily. We lit a fire to keep ourselves warm, and,
after shivering over it for an hour, Ahmed Lone arrived with the news
that the new snow had made the hillside unsafe. He had seen a
muskdeer but no bear.
And so we returned to camp, where for the sake of warmth 1
went to bed to read the autobiography of one of the best-known of popular
authors. One character in this work intrigued me—the serang. of
a vessel plying between India and England, a Jain from the Punjab
named Hassan, who, during an epidemic of smallpox on board, recited
verses of the Ramayana over the bodies of his unfortunate (Muslim?)
shipmates as he consigned them to the deep! After this it was not
surprising to learn that the table stewards on the vessel were
Parsees.
When I became bored with reading I watched the bird life of the
riverside from my tent. The storm kept most of them at home.
However, three of my oldest Himalayan favourites seemed quite cheer-
fully to ignore the weather—the brown dipper (Cinclus pallasi), and
the plumbeous. and whitecapped redstarts (Rhyacornis fuliginosus and
Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus), who all made their cheerful sallies up
A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 401
and down the stream to settle on rocks in and around the water with
their tails bobbing up and down. There was also a pair of redflanked
bush robins (Ianthia cyanura) who had taken possession of the hollow
root of an old tree close to my tent, but they were more affected by
the weather. Indeed they kept at home unless someone approached
very close to them. Otherwise, apart from the occasional cheerful
musical screech of a whistling thrush (Myiophoneus caeruleus) and the
intermittent grating cries of nutcrackers (Nucifraga caryocatactes),
there were little other signs of bird life except the visits of a pair of
wet and bedraggled jungle crows (Corvus macrorhynchos).
Snow continued to fall throughout the day without cessation and
the night was bitterly cold. To keep myself warm I retired to rest
wearing socks, two pairs of trousers, vest, shirt, pullover, sports-coat
and scarf, though I shed the last article of wear as soon as I had
warmed up. Around myself I wrapped a large rezai, and over that
placed two blankets and a very thick and heavy Austrian overcoat.
I was sleeping on the ground on a rush chattat which is warmer
than a camp bed as the cold cannot strike in from below. In spite
of blood made thin by Rajkot summers (and autumns), the result,
though cumbrous and heavy, was cosy, and I slept well.
Snow was still falling the following dawn and there had been a
sharp frost. Nevertheless, I was not to be left in peace on this cold
morning for at about 8.00 a.m. Ahmed Lone arrived to say that he
spotted a bear. He had been out scanning the mountainsides with
my binoculars since first light. And there, from a mile beyond the
camp, we could see, rooting about in the snow on a little hanging
meadow high above us on the mountain, a small brown speck. Its
position horrified me, for the only way of approach was up a terri-
fying nala on the right, behind and then over a precipitous spur,
and down onto the animal from above by way of a knife-edged rocky
ridge covered with snow, and probably ice, It was to my mind
obviously a mountaineering feat that would fully have tested a Smythe
or a Shipton. Happily at that moment the weather put the venture
out of the question and it was decided to wait until it should clear ;
and so back to camp, leaving Ahmed Lone with the binoculars to
watch the animal. I must confess I put up my ardent prayers for
continued bad weather.
Both this morning, and the previous one, I had donned grass
shoes, which, together with leathern socks for use with nailed chaplis,
were two essentials which the worthy Mahommed Baba, the outfitter
of our expedition, had insisted upon.
For grass shoes I have nothing but opprobrium. This evil inven-
tion, which I was expected to wear over a thick felt sock with a
large separate big toe, between which and the next toe passes the
main securing thong of the grass shoe (in function much like the
corner stone of an arch), is supposed to have the virtue of neither
slipping on grassy hillsides nor on snow. This is a fiction. It may
be argued that it is worn by the locals, but the reason for this is
obvious, as it is the cheapest possible form of footwear, and it is most
indicative that they take them off and go barefooted whenever parti-
cularly difficult country is to be crossed. For the rest, if the ground
is muddy, or if the snow is wet, the unfortunate wearer will begin,.
402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
and continue throughout the day with cold wet feet. Away with
them! Heavy nailed boots are the answer.
Leather socks and chaplis have great virtues, for they are the
most comfortable of all footwear, provided firstly that they are not
used in snow for that balls up between the chapli and the heel of
the sock and the result is rather like walking on stilts, secondly that
the ground is not muddy, for the result is then much the same, and,
thirdly that they are not used for walking on a hard surface, for
the constant tap-tap-tapping between the heel of the leather sock
and the chapli causes the largest and most painful blisters imaginable.
In short they are a perfect form of footwear for use on soft dry
ground, better even than perfectly fitting nailed boots or shoes.
At about 4.00 p.m. the weather improved and as the bear was
still rooting about on his cold draughty little meadow there was talk
of our making a sally up the mountain. Fortunately, as this was
being discussed, the mists once more descended and snow again began
to fall heavily. Whilst keeping his afternoon vigil Ahmed Lone had
seen another bear crossing the mountain.
The third day began even worse than the two before, with snow,
thunder, and frost, the conditions later being varied with hail and
sleet, so that all of us were confined to camp.
In the afternoon the weather improved enough for the indefatigable
Ahmed Lone to resume his watch on the mountainside. At 5.00 p.m.
the news was brought that he had seen a bear leave the mountain
and descend into the nala bed a mile and a half from the camp.
We started out at once.
The setting for the exciting stalk that followed was superb.
Watery gleams of sunshine illuminated the high crags and precipices
on the northern side of the nala, and from them every now and then
fell small avalanches of new snow. Little clouds and patches of
mist hung to the hillsides below the peaks. As the wind had dropped
there was a snowy silence in the valley only broken by the sound
of the avalanches, the muffled roar of the river in its gorge and the
occasional cry of a chough.
As we topped the steep rise above the camp we disturbed a group of
six barasingha four hundred yards away, which, like the bear, had
left the mountain for the shelter of the valley. They made off back
up the mountain as soon as they saw us.
Ahmed Lone joined us. He had seen the bear come down into the
labyrinth of large rocks half a mile ahead. It was among these huge
boulders that we had to seek him out. As there was every prospect
of having a close shot when we found the bear, I took the 12-bore and
gave Ahmed Lone the rifle. I felt this would be the best arrange-
ment as I still became easily out of breath with exertion and would
probably aim very poorly with the heavier weapon.
For some ten to fifteen minutes we threaded our way amongst the
boulders, peering stealthily round corners with the greatest care, with-
out finding the bear or seeing any trace of his pug marks. At Jast
we decided to climb onto the heaped up snow of an old avalanche
which led down through the rocky wilderness from a gulley above us.
Looking back from the height we soon attained we could still
see no sign of the bear, so we continued towards the apex of the
avalanche snow. )
A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 402;
There, on the other side cf it, going in the same direction as we
were, but at a slight angle towards us, was the bear, peacefully plodding
along through the snow. Although I had never seen a red bear before
(except in Regent’s Park) I seemed to recognise this old gentleman
at once, for what immediately struck me was his remarkable resem-
blance to Father Bear (of the Three Bears) in the fairy story of my
childhood.
The surprise of meeting this old acquaintance, added to the fact
that Akbar Rattur was directly in between him and myself, made
me slow in shooting. Perhaps also the fact that one does not lightly
attempt to murder an old friend delayed me somewhat. However,
the thought that Ahmed Lone would hardly understand this viewpoint
made me pull a belated trigger. At this time the bear was perhaps
fifty yards away and, probably owing to the above considerations,
my aim was not good, so that, although I hit him, the only immediate
effect was to speed him more rapidly on his way up to the safety
of the mountain. I did not fire the second barrel as that contained L.G..,
and, as the range by that time had naturally increased, I felt that
this would be nothing more than an unkind irritation, the gentleman’s
posterior now being almost the only possible target.
In the meantime there had been profound silence from Ahmed
Lone on my right. To begin with this was understandable for I had
been the first person to see the bear, the rest of the party having
been concentrating their attention over their right shoulders onto the
rocky wilderness below them. However, silence continued whilst I
reloaded my right barrel with ball and fired an ineffectual parting shot,
and it was not until the bear was well away that I heard the report of my
rifle. This shot was a miss, and I learnt afterwards that Ahmed Lone who,
was justifiably annoyed at what had happened, had already had two
misfires (from a newly opened tin container of cartridges).
My next recollection was of him running across the snow to a
low rock where he lay down to take careful aim at the animal which
was now one hundred and fifty yards away, already moving more
slowly but still probably capable of getting onto the hillside and
giving us a long, arduous and very possibly unsuccessful chase. A
magnificent shot, taking all things into consideration, hit the centre
of the only target possible to pass through the entire length of the
bear so that the bullet came to rest in the skin of his chest. No longer
able to climb, he turned to the right across the avalanche and after
a few steps collapsed. My old friend was dead.
Skinning took place on the spot in the bitter cold of a snowstorm,
for the weather had once again worsened. At 6.30, one hour later,
we made our way back to camp, satisfied but half frozen.
As we returned I inspected the tracks of the bear. It was easy
to understand how these, after the weather has had its way with
them, can be claimed as those made by that fiction of the gullible,
the Abominable Snowman (Homonivalis fabulosus), for they are placed,
both hind- and fore-feet, to give the impression of some portly, large-
footed old gentleman walking through the snow. They were, neverthe-
less, very different from those I had seen the year before on the Hamta
Pass. I am inclined to think that the latter were made by a black
bear, for made by a bear they undoubtedly were.
404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
The recent theory that certain footprints, far above the snow-line
of ‘biped plantigrades’ (i.e. Abominable Snowmen and Snowwomen)
are made by some species of langur seems to me the summit of futility.
I have seen the Himalayan langur (Semnopithecus entellus) up to a
height of 10,000! but can see no reason for any of the species taking
a long excursion above the treeline away from their food supplies,
and above all doing so on their hindlegs! No, it is easier to believe
in Snowmen than in these mountaineering monkeys.
As I was still far from well, and as the weather, though improving,
was yet far from good, we decided to return the following day. Our
start was delayed until after luncheon, the morning being devoted to
attention to the skin, which was indeed a fine one. The fur was of
a thick and silky texture, that of the underparts, the forelegs and
the large and pronounced hump, being of the richest reddish-chestnut,
and the remainder silvery-brown. The length of the anima] was 6! 32”.
He now lies in dignity and pride of place on our drawing room floor.
He should find the climate of Rajkot pleasantly warm after the chilly
regions he inhabited.
Our return to Uriwan was made through intermittent showers of
rain which finally abated as we arrived.
The following day, which was celebrated as a whole holiday, was
gloriously fine, and so was utilised for the drying of bedding and
clothes, a much needed bath and shave, and to basking in the sunshine.
I was warm for the first time since leaving Shutru.
A very early start was made on the eighteenth in the hopes of
getting over at least some of the snow of the pass whilst it was still
frozen, for much had fallen between the 13th and 17th. Indeed the
pass had been closed for four days, and the first man over had been
a coolie bringing me a letter. Our early start was in vain, for the
day was warm and we floundered through five miles of soft, deep
snow—bad for us but worse for the animals. ,
On the 19th we left Lilhwan at sunrise to cover the 20 miles to
Achchabal before noon, arriving tired and with very blistered feet.
And so on the morrow a tonga to Islamabad whence we travelled by
bus to Srinagar.
2. ARAV
Very early in June I camped for three nights in the Liddar Valley
at Arav, seven miles above Pahlgam. Except for Pahlgam, which is
a man-made blot, the Liddar Valley is lovely. But, apart from Nanga
Parbat, Kashmir mountain scenery cannot compare with that further
east in Kulu and Bashahr, neither in the size of the mountains nor in
their character, nor in the richness of their vegetation nor their flower-
ing plants. The uniqueness of Kashmir lies in its lakes and their
scenery, in its gardens, in its native handicrafts, and in the nature
of its inhabitants.
It was at Arav that at last I saw a black bear, an animal that some
oddity of fate had decreed that hitherto should have escaped me in my
Himalayan travels. There it was, a small dot visible through my
binoculars a mile away up the hillside.
A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 405:
3. GULMARG
In mid-June we moved up to Gulmarg, a place that appealed to
me more than any other in Kashmir.
Here at last were some of the wild flowers for which I had always
understood Kashmir to be renowned. The woods abounded in Podo-
phyllum emodi, Valeriana wallichii and Viburnum foetens, and on the
golf course (amongst others) the lovely Gentiana carinata, anemones,
and, in the wetter parts, the marsh marigold, Caltha palustris. Higher
up, the pink, yellow-centred Primula rosea could, be found in the forest
and above at Killinmarg and on the slopes of Apharwath the fine,
yellow-flowered Adonis chrysocyathus, blue, white and yellow forms
of Anemone obtusiloba, Fritillaria roylei, the fine lilac Primula stuartii,,
a common species of Pedicularis, and others...
_Gulmarg is placed at 9,000’ on a grassy, forest-bordered shelf that
juts out. from the Pir Panjal Range towards the Vale of Kashmir.
Two thousand feet higher up the mountains is Killinmarg, another
smaller shelf, behind which rises the high, snow-covered shoulder. of
Apharwath (14,000’).
From Killinmarg the vista across the Kashmir Valley is superb,
one of the finest views in the world, extending along the whole length
of the Great Himalayan Range from the distant hump of Nun Kun
(23,000') far to the east in Zanskar, to well beyond Nanga Parbat
in the west. Nanga ‘Parbat and his immediate associates tower
above the rest of the range, one of, the most magnificent of mountains,
perhaps only second to. Kinchinjanga, the incomparable.
Gulmarg is now an eerie place, a town of the dead. Built as a
summer resort for thousands of visitors who have now ceased to come,
the great majority of the houses, which are scattered throughout the
forést that surrounds the grassy marg, are mere skeletons with roofs
crushed by the weight of winter snow, and broken doors and window.
frames. Many are charred wrecks, having been burnt in 1947, not
by the raiders who stayed but a short time and did little damage,
but by the local bad hats| who took every opportunity to loot and
pillage. :
The population of Gulmarg, which was dependent on tourist traffic,
is now. very poor. | Indeed much of it is not, far removed from.
starvation. I spent my time at Gulmarg in the pursuit of golf on the
ruins of the upper course—now neglected but still potentially the
finest in the east—and to making earnest efforts to shoot a_ black.
bear. There were plenty about Gulmarg and they were destroying
cattle. Nevertheless, as ever, they proved too elusive for me.
-- Soon after our arrival a bear killed a cow close to a ruined house
on the outskirts of Gulmarg. Over this corpse we sat for the whole of
two consecutive nights. Ordinarily I regard the sitting up for animals.
as a pastime for the young and foolish (for it is so seldom that any-
thmg happens), but this was sitting up in luxury, if, indeed, it can
have been called sitting up all. The kill had taken place in a ravine
but twelve yards below one of the windows of the old kitchen (still in
a fair state of repair) and I spent the night curled up in my bedding
on the floor whilst old Abdullah Bhatt kept watch from the window.
ot
eS neat ane wm
* var, alba with a pale yellow-white flowers.
5
406 JOURNAL, -BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; \-Vol,. 51
No animal turned up except a trespassing local shikari and policeman
who had to be warned off on both nights. The arm of coincidence
is long. I found out that this ruined house and its kitchen had ‘been
built by a late British Resident to Kashmir whose daughter has married
my first cousin.
Having failed in this, a big operation was planned for June 14.
Large areas of the Ferozepur Nala, famous for its bears, were to be
beaten out, the Kashmiri word for this operation being, to my perhaps:
inaccurate ears, the charming word ‘honk’. From these prospective
‘honks’ I was promised; nay guaranteed, one, if not many, bears.
As it had always been impressed on me that the black bear is the
most dangerous animal in India—of which statement I, however, have
my doubts,—the first ‘honk’ made me very uneasy, for we stood on
an ordinary hillside twenty yards behind a thick shrubbery, ‘so that
any bear emerging would do so at almost point blank range. However,
nothing appeared, nor did anything from the next two beats except a
pair of monal. These latter ‘honks’ were more orthodox as we were
placed on the safe side of small nalas, so that, if any bear did appear,
he would do so well ahead of us and our position would have been
much as though we were in a machan.
Mr. Salim Ali in his most excellent book on Indian Hill Birds
refers to the monal as ‘a silent bird on the whole’, He must only
have met these birds during the nesting season, I fancy, when they
are silent. During October and November, as I learnt this year in
Kulu where they are very abundant, they are the noisiest of birds.
They are also the finest game birds that I know and the hardest to
shoot. In the autumn in the north-west Himalaya they are found
between 8,500’ and the treeline, coming out in the early morning and
evening to scratch about in the meadows, especially, I think, where
they have been overgrown by Polygonum of the seeds of which they
are very fond, retiring by day to the recesses of the forest. They are
exceedingly wary and no matter how careful is the sportsman they
nearly always rise at a distance of half a furlong’ or more, the male
giving his ringing cry, and sweep downhill with tremendous speed at
the level of the treetops. On one occasion my shikari disturbed several
monal some distance uphill! and above me and these came swooping
down overhead at such a speed that I could not help comparing them
with jet fighters, although undoubtedly they were not flying faster
than sound, for it was possible to hear them coming. I suppose my
shots must have been some 20 yards behind the birds! I am told
that the time to walk them up is when there is snow on the ground,
for then they will allow of a much closer approach.
By the time the fourth and final beat was being arranged old
Abdullah Bhatt was very cross indeed at our lack of success and was
using the most shocking language to the beaters. However, this did
not mend matters for this beat was no more successful than the others,
except that it did bring forth one musk deer, which, strangely, broke
cover behind the beaters after the beat was over. ~ .
Although it was growing late, Abdullah Bhatt, now in a raging
fury, was prepared to hold beats until midnight if necessary, and it’
took some wheedling and soft words before he could be persuaded
to call it a day. -And so we trudged peek the seven stiff miles to
Gulmarg, sunburnt and exhausted.
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL
BY
M.. L.: BANERJI
Botany Department, Meerut College, Meerut
(With a sketch map)
Part I
To the. scientific world the flora of Nepal is known by. the
collections of Hamilton made in 1802-3 and Wallich in 1820-21... These
have been described in D. Don’s ‘Prodromus Florae Nepalensis’ and
Wallich’s ‘Tentamen Florae Nepalensis’.. Besides these two works
Burkill’s ‘Notes from a journey to Nepal’ in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. IV, 4.
is the, only other, publication dealing with the flora of Nepal, But all
these. works concern the collections made in the middle of Nepal, i.e.
from Raxaul to Naiakot and further north to Gossain, Than.
Many persons have doubtless collected from Nepal; and from the,
time of Wallich those who have collected are—Dr. J. Scully in, 1876,
Burkill in 1907, Sir C. Wigram and Sharma from 1927 to 1931. Sheets
of Gimlott and of Maries are also to be found although not: many. : In
1848.Sir J. D. Hooker collected in the valley of river Tamur.* In 1947
Dr.,S. K. Mukerji made his collections along the Nepal-Sikkim boundary
and. the author, in 1948, 1951 and 1952 collected from Kathmandu to
the Nepal-Sikkim boundary. These are the collections made in East
Nepal.
During the years 1884-86 Duthie and Reid made extensive collec-
tions from British Garhwal to North Kumaon and Western Nepal. Basant
Lal in collaboration with Lal Dhowj collected plants from West Nepal
in’ 1929. From) West Nepal collections have also been made by Col.
Lowndes in' 1950. There have been other’ collections about’ which
the author has no information.
The major set of the collection by Wigram and Sharma and that
of Col. Lowndes are at the British Museum and have not been worked
up so far. Only a few particular genera, i.e. Meconopsis, Primula and
Gentiana of Wigram and Sharma’s collection have been worked up,
and along with some part of the collection are at the Herbarium, Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.
As some of these works on the flora, of Nepal are published and
some yet unpublished, the author takes the opportunity of cataloguing
the plants so far collected and reported from the East Nepal, i.e. from
Kathmandu eastwards to the Nepal-Sikkim boundary, based on the
available material in the Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta, and his
personal herbarium deposited in the Botany Department, Meerut
College, besides the references appearing in ‘Flora British India’ and
Burkill’s ‘Notes from a journey to Nepal’.
1 Hooker has used Central Nepal for the area where Wallich collected, and Eastern
Nepal for the valley of the river Tamur where he collected. I propose to treat the
kingdom of Nepal intc two halves—East and West.
4.08 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
There being no,book by. which to identify the plants from East
Nepal, this work, which in the present series will only embrace up to
Malvales, is intended primarily as an aid for field work. To make this
work as comprehensive as possible, the descriptions have been
condensed as far as is compatible with clearness. In the enumeration,
Families, Genera and Species have been arranged in accordance with
the order adopted by Sir J. D. Hooker in ‘Flora of British India’. It is
now generally recognised, however, that some of the families as under-
stood by Bentham and Hooker do not constitute homogeneous units,
for which reason many systematic botanists have sought to improve
the Bentham-Hooker classification, either by regrouping genera, or
by elevating certain tribes or individual genera to family status. Many
of the new families thus created have been treated as separate units.
Modifications have thus been’ made in conformity with modern con-
ceptions. '
In this condensed preliminary work it is naturally impossible to say
anything about the relative abundance, and one specimen seen, collected
or heard of ‘in the region counts the same as a million, but that is
true for most of the local floras and it must be accepted as somewhat
inevitable. For the casual critic this work may be a ‘mere compilation’ ;
nevertheless, it is fervently hoped, this catalogue will be of some value
for the ‘students. of the Nepal flora who will make additions where
necessary as their work progresses.-
It is with deep gratitude the author thanks Rev. Fr. H. Santapau
for his deep interest in the work and guidance without which it would
not: have been possible for the author to continue the work for long.
To the many friends who have from time to time made valuable
suggestions and rendered help in many: ways the author is very
grateful.
DICOTYLEDONS
Embryo. with two. cotyledons; stem with open bundles arranged
in a ring; leaves usually net-veined; flowers usually not 3-merous.
RANUNCULACEAE
Herbs. or climbing shrubs. Mostly herbaceous perennials with.
rhizomes chatty of condensed form, and always sympodial. The pri-
mary root soon dies away and adventitious roots are formed from the
stem. Leaves usually alternate with sheathing bases and often very
much divided ; rarely opposite and compound,. Inflorescence is typically
determinate. Flowers typically spiral upon a more or less elongated.
receptacle; usually regular and hermaphrodite, Perianth usually.
petaloid. Stamens indefinite and spiral; carpels usually . many,
apocarpous. Fruit a group of achenes or follicles, rarely a capsule.
or berry. Wee laeiltaa :
Key to the genera
Climbing shrubs:
Petals absent, tendrils absent but petioles often 3 1
twining ... I. Clematis
Petals present, terminal leaflet modified into a Bhs hed
tendril: 3. 'Navav ela
SBS Po _
ade
“Says
= saree iSite Sem: : : hs Vie i os x"
PEGOAL VARIED) WH Gace: ike Rc ZIM = wg
. ; ; aM “a se a os = ore 3
we vs F J, SS A035
3 &
fe
aigeote é
: Z “s ~~ of
cies : 2 eat
00S “FSIHT “3eN Avquiog ‘uanor
PLANTS \FROM EAST NEPAL
Herbs with leaves alternate or radical :
Fruit an eterio of achenes
Sepals petaloid
Involucre present
Involucre absent
Sepals herbaceous
Sepals 3-5, deciduous; petals usuai
Sepals 5, persistent; petals 10-15
Fruit a follicle or an eterio of follicles:
Flowers solitary or, panicled
Petals. absent
Petals small
Flowers in racemes:
Flowers irregular
Posterior sepal spurred
Posterior sepal vaulted
Flowers regular
CLEMATIS Linn.
Dur
CoAT
409
Anemone
~ Thalictrum
Ranunculus
Oxy gvaphis
Caltha
Trollius
. Delphinium
10.
a oF
Aconitum
Cimicifuga
Woody climbing undershrubs. “Leaves opposite, exstipulate, com-
pound, petioles climbing. Inflorescence’ terminal or axillary. Sepals
usually 4 and petaloid. Petals o.
Key to the species
Leaves with 3 leaflets:
Pedicels shorter than the leaves
Pedicels longer than the leaves
Leaves with more than 3 leaflets:
Sepals spreading |
__. Panicles simple
_ Panicles decompound
Sepals erect with tips recurved
Stems glabrous
Stems hairy
Sepals tomentose on both the
surfaces |
Sepals hairy on the outside
Sepals pubescent inside and to-
mentose outside
_4. Clematis napaulensis DC,
C. Maries! no number, no locality.
1. C. napaulensis
iQ.
NI
LC. montana
C. gouriana
C. acuminata
..C, connata
C. buchananiana
C. tortuosa
.C. grewiaeflora
410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST! 'SOCIETY, Vol, 51
2. Clematis montana Buch. Ham. ex DC., Subsp. normalis,| var.
incisa O. Ktze. Wallich 4681!; Scully ! no en ae, no locality ; Banerji
253! Patala to Phaplu, & aya Namchebazar to Dingbochee..
var. chubica P. Bruhl.
Banerji 3321 Namchebazar to Tarangan. (very closely resembling
the other var.)
3. Clematis gouriana Roxb.
Maries! no number, no locality ; Burkill 29544, Hettaunda.
(In Herb. Calcut. Wall. Sheet 4673H—C,. dentata—placed under this
species.)
4. Clematis acuminata DC. var. wallichii Hk.f.
Leaflets small, membranous, flowers few. and large.
Wallich 4670!
5. Clematis connata DC.
Wallich. 4679! Scully no number, no locality! (In Herb.
Calcut. Wall. Sheet 4679 named as C. montibus.)
6. Clematis buchananiana DC. sub-sp. buchananiana, var. rugosa,
Stem tomentose, leaves rugose. Wallich 46774! Burkill 29679,
Chitlong.
var. vitifolia.
Stem pubescent, leaves membranous.
Banerji. 463! Khandbari to Dhrangaon.
7. Clematis tortuosa Wall., Cat. 4675. ex C. E.'C. Fischer.
(In Herb, Calcut. Wall. Sheet 4676 from Nepal] placed under
this species.)
8. Clematis grewiaeflora DC. :
Wallich 4687! Maries ! no number, no yee Rane 29580,
below Bhimpedi and 29588 Chessapani pass.
2. NARAVELIA DC.
Climbing shrubs with three-foliate leaves, terminal leaflet transform-
ed into a tendril. Flowers axillary with 4-5 sepals and 6-12 petals.
Achenes narrow and with a long bearded style.
Naravelia zeylanic DC.
Wallich 4687.
3. ANEMONE Linn.
Perennial herbs ; leaves radical, lobed or divided. Flowers in scapes
which may be simple or branched. Involucre 3-partite. Bracts free
or connate. Sepals 4-20, petaloid; petals absent. Stamens many and
outer ones sometimes deformed and petaloid. Fruit of sessile achenes
with short or long, naked or bearded styles..
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 411
| Key to the species
Radical leaves 5-7 lobed
Leaves glabrous on upper surface,
tomentose on lower surface.
Achenes wooly
Leaves very hairy. Achenes very.
LS)
. A. vitifolia
hairy Psa (POlVamnives
Radical leaves 3-partite |
Leaf margin crenate | a edo Bp Ble Olormnsikalayas
Leaf margin dentate
Flowers) showy; achenes’ with
short styles | VO etatt le) AL aepicola
Cymes many flowered; achenes
with hooked styles Dsbud i Ain PELL aA
Cymes few flowered; achenes
with short, straight, styles
oD
—
. elongata
-.1.. Anemone rupicola Camb.
Wigram, no number, no locality !
we)
Anemone vitifolia Buch. Ham. ex DC.
Wallich 4695 A & B! Scully, no number, no locality ! Wigram
135, no locality!
3. Anemone obtusiloba Don,
Mukerji; Banerji 441, Paktaru !
sub-sp. omalocarpella P, Bruhl.
~ Scully, no number, no locality !
4. Anemone rivularis Buch. Ham.
Wallich 4694! Scully, 5 no locality ! and 28, no locality !
5. Anemone polyanthes Don.
Wallich 4691 !; Wigram 11, no locality !
6. Anemone elongata Don.
“Wallich 4692! |
4. THALICTRUM Linn.
Erect. rigid perennial herbs. with compound. leaves: , Leaf-bases
sheathing, auricled or stipulate. Regular small flowers, panicled. or
racemed with 4-5 petaloid sepals. Petals 0. Stamens many; few or
many carpels, each with one ovule, Fruit a small head of achenes with
persistent or deciduous styles.
Key to the species
Leaves simple ae 3) Fy.rotundifolium |
Leaves much divided gan
Flowers lilac or purple -achenes — Wai
long stalked Mon “rod. ¢helhdonu
412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
Flowers small and white; achenes
short stalked aerate 2 > plan NIU LLIID
Flowers white, pale green or dull ,
purple; achenes. sessile .. 4. TL, foliolosum
1. Thalictrum chelidoni DC.
Scully, no number, no locality ‘
2. Thalictrum virgatum Hk.f.
Wigram; no number, no locality !
3. Thalictrum rotundifolium DC.
Wallich 2713! Scully, no number, no locality!
4. Thalictrum foliolosum DC.
Scully, no number, no locality !
5. RANUNCULUS Linn.
Annual or perennial] herbs; leaves entire or dissected, stipules when
present membranous. Flowers white or yellow, tegular ; sepals 3-5,
caducous; petals with a nectary at the base, usually 5; stamens many.
Key to the species
Leaves lobed ; achenes turgid, not margin... 1. ER. sceleratus
Leaves much divided; achenes flattened with Bh T?
an intramarginal 1 rib Hag
Stem and leaves hairy, nodes rooting ;
achenes not dotted 2. R. diffusus
Stem and leaves hairy, rooting at the |
_ base; achenes dotted | | ... 3. R. pensylvanicus
T | Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. | ure:
Wallich 4699C, & E! Burkill; Banerji 102, Tinpipli- to
Nepalthoke ! :
2. Ranunculus diffusus DC. Doel
Scully 87, no locality! Burkill 29819, Chandragiri Pass;
Mukerji; Banerji 386, Puyia to Jubing!
3. Ranunculus pensylvanicus Linn.
Wallich 4706! Scully 25, no locality ! Burkil] 2969! Chitlong ;
Banerji, no number, no locality !
6. OxXyGRAPHIS Bunge.
Dwarf perennial stemless herbs. Leaves entire. Flowers regular
in 1-flowered scapes, yellow ; sepals 5, persistent, enlarging after flower-
ing; petals 10-15, with many stamens. Achenes many, membranous,
in a globose head, beaked by the straight subulate persistent Pe
Oxygraphis polypetala Hf. & T. sb dh Chins
- Banerji 280, Rhingmo to Jubing ! bastiere -grol
PHAN TS\ BROW EAST, NEPATON ALY 30) 413
7, CALTHA, Linn,
,,.derbs, with short creeping rootstock. .Leaves radical, ovate or
enviar Flowers. few and. terminal. . Calyx of 5 or more petaloid
sepals. Petals ©; carpels many and sessile, Fruit an eterio-of many-
seeded follicles. : }
Caltha palustris Linn. var. normalis. Hik.f.
Flowers yellow.
Scully, no number, no locality ! Wigram 8, no locality !
var. alba Hk.f. Flowers. white
Banerji 523, Hongaon to Poptila Pass!
8. Trouuius Linn.
Erect perennial herbs with palmate leaves. Flowers terminal with
five or more petaloid sepals; petals five or more, small and clawed.
Stamens indefinite and gynaecium with five or more carpels, Fruit
an eterio of follicles. Seeds angled with a coriaceous testa.
Trollius pumilus Don.
SES JA no locality !
Q. DrauEEasriee Linn.
Annual and perennial erect herbs with palmately Iobed leaves.
Irregular flowers in racemes or panicles. , Sepals 5, free or united at
the base and petaloid. Posterior sepal spurred. Petals 2-4, united.
Bases of two posterior pétals developed ‘into a spur. Stamens with
flattened bases, many. Follicles 1-7.
Key to the species
Leaves. 5- wy fid : i RS
_ Racemes few ‘flowered’ na Sar ieee wD Be altissinvum ‘i
~ Racemes.dense flowered | :
Lower bracts leafy Vigna eg WEN elatum
Lower bracts 3-lobed
D
. D. vestitum
Leaves reniform D
- Cconocentrum
ac
tr. Delphinium altissimum. Wall.
Wallich 4718! Scully 204, no locality !
bn 28 Delphinium elatum Linn. var. raninculifolium H.f. & T. Leaves
5-lobed to about the middle, segments broadly cuneate. .
King’s collector, no number, no locality ! |
.» (1 am. doubtful if King sent any collector to Nepal; if he did
then. it must.be in the area along the Nepal-Sikkim boundary. ):
var. incisum, Af. & T. Leaves 5-partite, segments incised.
- Scully, no number, no locality ! Gimlott, no number, no locality !
3. Delphinium vestitum Wall., Cat.
Wallich 47154! Scully, no ‘number, no locality ! !
ote el g: eonocentrum Rhastesth
a > Wegrane 112; Sebbak Jong’!
414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL” HIST,’ SOCIETY, Vol. $1
10. ACONITUM Linn.
Perennial erect herbs, rarely twining. Leaves palmati-partite, rarely
entire.’ Blue’ purple, white’ or yellow irregular flowers in racemes.
Sepals petaloid, posterior sepal vaulted and the rest flat. Petals 2-5,
posterior two clawed and hooded and enclosed in the helmet, lower 3
small or absent. Stamens many. Follicles 3-5,. sessile.
Key to the species
Upper leaves petaloid; carpels 5:
Pedicels 2.5-5 cm. long; helmet
oblique, slightly concave in front .... 1. A. balfourii
Pedicels stout, 2.5 cm. long or less;
hemlet erect or slightly oblique,
almost equally curved in front and
on the. back |
Upper leaves sessile ; carpels 3-5 ; helmet
3 times as long as high
lo
4. Spicatum
. A, napellus
ACS)
t. Aconitum balfouriu Stapf. 3
Wallich 4721, Gossain Than! Scully 230, no locality !
2. Aconitum spicatum Stapf.
Wigram 191, Sherman Than!
ae) Aconitum napellus Linn,.
Wallich 4724!. Scully, no number, no. locality !.
11, CrwiciFuGA Linn.
Erect perennial] herbs with 2-5 ternately divided leaves. Flowers
regular in long slender racemes. Sepals 4-5, petaloid; petals 1-8, small
and clawed, two horned at the tip, sometimes transformed into stamens.
Many slender stamens. Fruit of many-seeded follicles - Hitec
Cimicifuga. foetida ie
Wallich 4725
DILLENIACEAE
Usually trees and shrubs, with alternate, usually leathery leaves,
entire or toothed, usually exstipulate with ‘sheathing petioles, more
rarely with lateral stipules, Flowers yellow or white, often showy.
Sepals 5, imbricate and persistent ; petals 5 rarely 3-4, deciduous. Sta-
mens indefinite in many series, anthers innate, with lateral slits or
terminal pores. Carpels 1 or many, free or cohering: | in the axis; styles
always distinct. Fruit of follicles or indehiscent or subbaccate.
DILLENIA’ Linn.
Trees. Leaves broad with conspicuous parallel lateral nerves.
Flowers large, solitary or fascicled, yellow or white with 5 spreading
sepals; petals 5, broad. Stamens cohering ‘slightly at the base, anthers
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 415
linear, bursting by small slits or pores. Carpels 5-20, cohering in axis.
Ovules indefinite. Fruit globose, formed of the matured .indehiscent
carpels enclosed in the thickened fleshy ee
iey to the species
Flowers white, appearing with the leaves ... 1. D. indica
Flowers yellow, appearing before the
leaves :
Flowers solitary
Flowers fascicled.
. D. aurea .
. D. pentagyna
Ny
ies)
1. Dillenia indica Linn:
Wallich 943, E. Naiakot!
2. Dillenia aurea Sm.
Ref: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 37.
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb..
Burkill, Simalbasa.
G2
MAGNOLIACEAE
Trees and shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, often with big’ stipules
covering young leaves. Flowers terminal or axillary, usually solitary;
hermaphrodite or unisexual. Perianth cyclic in Magnolia and spiral
in others, usually petaloid. Stamens indefinite ; carpels indefinite,
. free, spirally arranged on an elongated axis, Fruit an eterio of berries
or follicles, ; |
Key to the genera
Trees or shrubs; stipules conspicuous. Flowers hermaphrodite
Gynophore absent |
Carpels with two ovules .. 1. Magnolia
Carpels with 6 or more ovules” ... 2. Manglietia
Gynophore present eS ViGielea
1. MAGNOLIA Linn.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves evergreen or deciduous, buds enveloped
in the convolute stipules. Flowers large and terminal. Sepals 3; petals
6-12 in’ 2-4’ series. Stamens indefinite, many-seriate, filaments flat.
Gynophore sessile; carpels many, imbricate on a long axis; stigma
decurrent on the ventral suture. Fruit an eterio of follicles, elongated
axis with persistent follicles ‘dorsally dehiscing.
Key to the species
Leaves 4-12 in. long ; flowers appear-
‘ing before . the Eanes, » Petals pat ;
Q-12. ij te) iter toe ue, eaurpbellat
Leaves 8- i6° in. long; flowers a,
appearing with the leaves. Petals KS H are
a © ies 2. M.. sphenocarpa
416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) SOCIETY, Vol, 51
.t.. Magnolia campbellii Hk.f, & T.
Banerji 312, Jubing to Puyia!
2. Magnolia sphenocarpa Roxb.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 41 (Wall., Cat. 975).
2. MANGLIETIA Blume.
Trees; foliage and inflorescence as in Magnolia. Sepals 3; petals
6 or more in 2 or more series. Stamens indefinite, many-seriate.
Gynophore sessile. Carpels many cohering in an oval head; stigma
decurrent on the ventral suture. Fruit an eterio of follicles, An ovoid
with persistent, 6- or more-seeded follicles.
Manglietia insignis BI.
Wallich 973! Gimlott, no number, no locality !
3. MicuHe.ia’ Linn.
Trees, leaves as in Magnolia. Flowers axillary or solitary. Sepals
and petals similar, 9-15 in’3 or more series. Stamens as in Magnolia.
Gynophore stalked. Casinos in a loose spike ; stigma decurrent. Fruit
an-eterio of follicles, a lax or dense elongated axis bearing coriaceous
2- or more- seeded, allrsalty dehiscing carpels.
Key to the species
Leaves usually 8-10 by 2.5-4 in.,
thinly coriaceous. Fruit spike 4-8
in. long; flowers 2 in. diam.,
perianth segments 15-20, pale | |
yellow, strongly scented ~ .._... ,.1,, Ml. champaca
Leaves .5-8 by 2-3.5 in.,_ thinly rn
coriaceous. Fruit spike 5-8 in. -
long... Flowers 4-5 in. diam.,
-perianth segments about 12
Leaves 6-10 by 2-3.5 in., sub-
coriaceous. Fruit spike 2-5 in.
long. Flowers 3-4.2 in. diam.
‘perianth segments about 18, pale |
» white, not sented .. 3. M,., lanuginosa
Leaves 2.5-6 by 1.5-3 1n., chartace-
ous, Fruit Lice 2- He in. long.
Flowers 4-1 in. diam., perianth
segments about 12, pale-yellow,
scented .. 4. M. Risopa
. M. excelsa
bo
1. Michelia champaca. Linn.
A sheet in Herb. Calcut. with no number, no locality; doubt-
fully Wallichian as the year of collection is 1821.
2, Michelia excelsa Bl. | mr
“Wallich 6494! | a)
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL LMA OY, Al?
3. Michelia lanuginosa Wall.
Wallich 6493 !
10 4. ‘Michelia kisopa Buch. Ham. re eer
Wallich 970! Maries, no number, no. locality ! Banerji 2a2y
Kaituka ! | } |
SCHIZANDRACEAE,, |.
Climbing’ or trailing shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate “and
exstipulate.’ Flowers unisexual, small, axillary or solitary. Sepals.
and petals 9-15, scarcely distinguishable from each other, the inner
gradually petaloid, imbricate. Stamens numerous, short, partially
or wholly united into a fleshy mass; anthers small. Carpels numerous.
Fruit baccate. | he
Key to the genera
Fruit with a slender spike ede Schizandra
Fruit with a globose head te 8 2. Kadstra
1. SCHIZANDRA Michaux.
Climbing glabrous shrubs with exstipulate leaves. Flowers unisex-
ual, white, yellow or reddish; axillary or in the axil of scales near the
base of short lateral leafy branches. Sepals and petals 9-12. Male
flowers’ with 5-15 or more stamens spirally arranged on an ovoid
fleshy column. Female flowers with numerous carpels ; stigmas sessile ;
ovules 2. Fruit an eterio of berries on a slender axis. | Baa
. Key to the species
Stamens monadelphous below and free above
Leaves distinctly toothed; fruit axis eae
cylindric and fleshy fe ie 3S. “erantiiflora
Leaves minutely toothed; fruit axis
slender Ve 2S. Clonvata
Anthers sessile in cavities of the fleshy heads |
“of filaments 4p oi. Propingiua
“a Schizandra grandiflora Hk.f. & ai
| Wallich 49854!
‘Schizandra elongata Hk.f. & T.
Wallich 4983A in part, and C.
3. Schizandra propinqua Hk.f. & T.
Wallich 4968!
2. KaDsURA Kaempfer. |
‘Characters of Schizandra, but ie carpels arranged in a globose
head. Ovules sometimes 4. Re
Kadsura roxburghiana Arn.
Ref.:, Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 45.
418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
ANONACEAE
Trees or shrubs, often climbing. Leaves ‘alternate, exstipulate,
simple, entire and penninerved. Flowers bi- or unisexual, Sepals 3 or
rarely 2, free or connate. Petals 6, generally biseriate, hypogynous.
Stamens many Closely packed on the torus, filaments short or absent,
anthers adnate, connective produced into an oblong dilated or truncate
head. Carpels numerous, rarely few or solitary, apocarpous or syncarpous
with distinct stigmas. Fruit of 1 or many distinct sessile or stalked, 1 or
many seeded usually indehiscent carpels or rarely of. several carpels
cohering together in a 1 or many locular dry or fleshy dehiscent -or
indehiscent fruit.
Key to the genera
Petals flat, uniform and spreading from
the base. Ripe carpels indehiscent
with many ventral seeds and con-
strictions, between them. utenath- «U aua
Outer petals thick, rigid, triquetrous,
connivent; inner similar but smaller
or o. Fruit of confluent carpels,
fleshy, globose aupe eeLOne
t. Unona Linn.
Trees or shrubs, erect or climbing. Flowers axillary, leaf-opposed
or terminal, often solitary, Sepals 3,, valvate; petals 6, valvate, in 2
Series. Stamens cuneate, top of connectives subglobose or truncate,
concealing the anthers. Carpels numerous, style ovoid or oblong,
recurved grooved. Fruit a ring of many carpels generally elongate
and constricted between the seeds.
Unona discolor Vahl.
Banerji 588, Phutuk to Namsaling?
ANONA Linn.
Small trees or shrubs. Flowers terminal or leaf-opposed,, solitary
or in fascicles. Sepals 3, small, valvate. Petals 3-6, or the outer
whorl, if present, very small, strap-shaped. Stamens numerous, anthers
hidden by the overlapping ovoid tops of connectives. Carpels many,
partly free in flower, afterwards confluent into a large syncarpous fleshy
fruit.
Anona reticulata Linn.
Banerji 103, Tinpipli to Nepalthoke !
MENISPERMACEAE.
Climbing or twining shrubs, occasionally herbs. Leayes alternate,
exstipulate, simple or rarely compound, entire or lobed usually palmi-
nerved often peltate. Flowers dioecious, small solitary, fascicled,
capitate or cymose or frequently racetned or panicled ; sometimes
bracteate, occasionally 3 bractéolate.. Sepals 6 in 2 whorls, rarely
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL : 419)
fewer or 9-12 in 3-4 whorls... Petals 6 or fewer, free or connate.
Male flowers: stamens usually as many as petals, antipetalous, filament
free or connate. Rudimentary carpe] very small or absent. Female
flowers: staminodes 6 or 0; carpels 3 rarely 11 or 6-12; ‘simple or
divided; style scan becoming basilar by the curvature of the ovary.
Fruit a small drupe.
Key to the genera
Male specimens:
Stamens free. Leaves not peltate or
cordate. Flowers in panicles —s.... . 2. Cocculits
Stamens united into a’column. Leaves |
peltate or cordate, glabrous —
Flowers in axillary dichotomous |
cymes mi Late Rar aU@esay)
_-Flowers in solitary umbellate heads ... 3. Stephania_
Pubescent or tomentose. Flowers in
cymes or clustered in the axil of !
orbicular.bract . .- .)..° .. 4. Cissampelos
Female specimens: |
Flowers in a raceme of small cymes.
Drupes hirsute a
Flowers in umbellate heads or in solitary
condensed cymes. Ovary solitary 1.0130 Stephania
Flowers in short erect panicels or, sub- ue sta 5]
solitary. Ovaries 3 or many. Drupe
4. Cissampelos
pisiform 2. Cocculus
Flowers in axillary dichotomous cymes. , 7
Ovaries 3. Drupes ovoid _ ... 1. Parabaena
1. PARABAENA Miers.
A climber with milky juice. Flowers in axillary dichotomous cymes,
Sepals 6; petals much smaller. Male flowers with stamens 6, united
to form a column. Anthers encircling the top of the column. Female
flowers with staminodes 6. Ovaries .3; styles subulate, recurved.
Drupes ovoid. Stylar scar sub-terminal.
Parabaena sagitata Miers. |
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 06.
2. CoccuLus DC.
Climbing or straggling or erect shrub or even tree. Petioles not
dilated at the base. Flowers panicled or rarely fascicled in the leaf-
axils. Sepals 6 in 2 series, outer small. , Petals 6,. smaller than the
sepals, usually auricled at the base. Male flowers—stamens embraced
by the petals; anthers sub-globose, dehiscence transverse, Female
flowers—Staminodes 6 or 10; ovaries 3-6; styles usually: cylindric.
Drupes compressed laterally. :
420! JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 61
Key to the species
Climbing, shrubs:
Branchlets pubescent. Leaves ovate,
glabrous. Panicles axillary,
Shorter than the leaves. Male
flowers in irregular cymes. Female
flowers 1-3. Bracts filiform.
Drupes tuberculate "= ~""" my Me iG. nollis
Branchlets villose, Leaves sublance-
olate, obtuse at the base, softly
pubescent. Male flowers in axillary |
panicles. Female flowers 1-3,
axillary. Bracts minute, linear.’ Ra as
Drupes purple black hn. Gan C. NIPSUps
Small trees. Leaves lanceolate. Panicles a
axillary. Bracts and flowers minute. a
Drupes minute and globose ~ a» ff, ©, Jaurifolns..
tr. Cocculus laurifolius DC. . 10 2omnys
~ Ref: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 101 3- Banerji 4, Pashu-
pati Nath temple area! ) ah
~
2. Cocculus mollis Wall.
~ Ref: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 102..
3. Cacculus hirsutus Diels:,
Ref: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal.
3. STEPHANIA Lour.
Climbing shrubs. Leaves usually peltate. Heads of flowers in
axillary stalked umbels or rarely solitary or cymose. Male flowers:
sepals 6-10, free, ovate, or obovate. Petals 3-5, obovate, fleshy.
Anthers 6, on the rim of the flattened top of the staminal column,
dehiscence transverse. Female flowers: Sepals 3-5. Petals 3-5,
obovate, fleshy, (as in’ male flowers). Staminodes 0}; Ovary 1, style.
3 -6, partite. Drupe aioe i Fee ade es saa
-Key to the species
Heads of flowers in stalked umbels.
Leaves ovate- deltoid with petioles Go NUTTY
14-4 in. 1. (T.-S) japonita
Male flowers in solitary axillary
stalked heads; female flowers. in
condensed stalked cymes. Leaves
ovate or orbicular with petioles |
3-G. ital 25 MA ait? Dy.glalna,
nel Stephania japonica Miers.
Wallich ag77! — : cian
2. Stephania' glabra (Roxb.) Miers. | ) »2oboriniate--erewol
Wallich 49728! Mukerji. Usisi sl beeaeigeias
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL HH, 421
4. CISSAMPELOs Linn.
Suberect or climbing shrubs, Leaves often peltate., Male flowers—
cymose. Sepals 4 (5-6), erose. Petals 4, connate, forming a 4-lobed
cup. Anthers 4, connate round the flattened top of the staminal column.
Dehiscence transverse. Female flowers—racemed, crowded in the
axil of leafy bracts. Sepals 2 (or 1 each of sepa] and petal), binerved,
andate to the bracts. Staminodes 0; ovary 1; style short, 3-fid or
3-toothed. Drupe ovoid.
Cissampelos pareira Linn.
Burkill 2473, Adabhar to Bichiakoh; Banerji 461, Dingla
to Khandbari ! )
LARDIZABALACEAE
Twining or rarely erect shrubs. Leaves alternate, digitately com-
pound or rarely pinnate, petiolules swollen at the base. Flowers
racemose, arising with the leaves from perulate buds. Sepals 3 or 6,
imbricate or the outer valvate, often petaloid. Petals 6, smaller than
the sepals or absent.. Male flowers: stamens 6; or monadelphous,
connectives often produced. Female flowers: staminodes 6 or absent.
Carpels 3 or more; stigma oblique, subsessile. Mature carpels fleshy.
Key to the genera
Erect shrubs. . Leaves unequally
pinnate. Petals 0; stamens free.
Fruit of 3 spreading, fleshy many:
seeded follicles ... 1. Decalisnea
Climbing shrubs. Leaves digitate.
Petals 6; minute; stamens mona-
delphous. Fruit of 3 berried many
seeded carpels ... 2. Holboellia
1. DECAISNEA H.f.,& T.
An erect shrub. Leaves unequally pinnate; petiolules joined at
base. Flowers racemose, monoecious: Sepals 6, narrow, subimbricate
in 2 rows. Petals o. Male flowers: Stamens 6, monadelphous, anthers
oblong, connectives subulate. Female flowers: Staminodes 6, small,
free; ovaries’ 3, subsessile, oblong; stigma subsessile, oblong. Ovules
many in 2 series. Fruit of 3 spreading fleshy many seeded follicles.
Decaisnea insignis Hk.f.
Mukerjt.
- 2. HOLBOELLIA Wall,
A climbing shrub. Leaves digitate. Flowers monoecious in
axillary fascicles or racemes. Sepals 6 in 2 series, 3. outer valvate.
Petals 6, minute, orbicular. Male flowers: Stamens 6, free, anthers
spicate. Female flowers: Staminodes 6, minute; ovaries 3; stigma
oblong:; ovules many.-: Fruit of 3 berried many seeded carpels.
6
422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST... SOCIETY, Vol, 51
Holboellia latifolia Wall.
Wallich 4951! Scully 21, no locality! Mukerji; Banerji 263,
Phaplu to Rhingmo! 378, Namchebazar to Chunrikherka !
BERBERIDACEAE
Glabrous herbs or shrubs. Leaves 1-many foliate. Stipules petiolar
or usually absent. Flowers hermaphrodite; regular, axillary, solitary
or in simple or compound racemes; usually yellow. Sepals 3-9 in
1-3 whorls, often petaloid, imbricate or outer rarely valvate. Petals
equal in number to the sepals or twice as many, and like them, caducous,
nectariferous at the base, or reduced to nectaries. Stamens 4-6 rarely
8, opposite to petals, free or connate; anthers adnate, dehiscing by
Jateral or dorsal slits. Carpels 1-3 rarely 9; style short or 0; stigma
large and dilated. Ovules many on a ventral suture or few near the
base or covering the whole wall. Ripe carpels berries or capsules,
dehiscing or not.
Key to the genera
Leaves simple ..» emeaBerber1s
Leaves pinnate ... 2. Mahonia
1. BERBERIS Linn.
Erect shrubs with yellow wood. Leaves simple, fascicled in the
axils of 3-5 partite or rarely simple spines. Flowers yellow, herma-
phrodite, solitary, fascicled, racemose, corymbose or panicled, with
2-3 small appressed bracteoles. Sepals 6 in 2 series, imbricate; petals
6 in 2 series usually with 2 glands inside at the base, imbricate. Stamens.
6, free, anther cells opening by recurved valves. Ovary simple;
stigmas peltate, sessile or on a short style. Ovules few, basal. Berries.
few seeded.
Key to the species
Flowers racemed, corymbose or sub-umbellate
Shrubs 6-18 ft. high. Flowers
in compound often corymbose
racemes. Berries tapering into
a short style; stigma small, sub-
globose eeonileyD
Shrubs 2-4 ft. high. Flowers sub-
umbellate on a naked peduncle. |
Berries oblong ; stigma flat, sessile .... 2. B. umbellata.
Shrubs 4-6 ft. high. Racemes
short corymbose. Berries with a
distinct style; stigma capitate Seige De astatica.
Peduncles fascinated, 1-flowered
Tall evergreen shrubs upto io ft.
high. Flowers in _1-flowered
axillary peduncles in fascicles of
to-15. Berries oblong-ellipsoid ..; 4. B. wallichiana.
. aristata.
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 423.
Shrubs 4-6 ft. high. Flowers
3-20 in a fascicle. Peduncles
short, thick. Berries ovoid; E
stigma sessile .. 5. B. insignis
Peduncles solitary rarely 2-3; 1-flowered
Peduncles stout, curved and exceed-
ing the leaves. Outer Sepals
equalling the inner. Berries broad
and red .. 6. B. angulosa
Peduncles slender. Outer sepals half
as long as the inner. Berries
large, oblong ... 7. B. concinna
1. Berberis aristata DC. var aristata Hf. & T.
Racemes compound; flowers with red pedicels, Wallich 1474!
Burkill 29696, forest above Chitlang. (In Herb. Calcut. Wall. sheet
1494 named as var. normalis.) Var. floribunda Hf. & T. Racemes
sub-simple or sub-umbellate. Ref: D.Don’s Prodr. Fl. Nep. (B.
affinis & B. ceratophylla.)
2. Berbers umbellata Wall.
Wallich 1475! Banerjt, no number, no locality !
3. Berberis asiatica Roxb.
Scully 30, no locality! Burkill 29644, Markhu; Banerji, no:
number, no locality !
4. Berberis wallichtana DC. var. atroviridis, Hf. & T.
Leaves lanceolate or narrow obovate, Scully 22, no locality.
Var. pallida, Hf. & T. Leaves lanceolate. Few flowered
fascicles. Banerji 247, Patala to Phaplu !
5- Berberis insignis Hf. & T.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 111. Weallich from
E. Nepal; Mukerji.
6. Berberis angulosa Wall.
Fef.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 111. Wallich from:
Nepal; Banerji 351, Tarangan to Lonakh!
7. Berberis concinna Hk.f.
Mukerji; Banerji 352, Tarangan to Lonakh!
| 2. Manonia Nutt.
_Characters same as of Berberis but leaves pinnate with opposite
leaflets ; usually 2-toothed below the anthers.
Mahonia nepalensis DC.
Wallich 1480! Burkill, Notes from a Journ. to Nepal; Mukerji;
a sheet of Hooker, doubtfully from E. Nepal.
(In Herb. Calcut. Wall. sheet 1480a placed under Mahonia
acanthifolia. According to Takeda M. nepalensis proper has only, been
collected from Nepal, and not from outside Nepal).
(To be continued)
NOTES ON SOME RODENTS FROM SAUDI ARABIA
AND KUWAIT
BY
DESMOND VESEY-FITZGERALD, M.B.E., B.SC.
The following notes were made on_ specimens collected while
travelling in the Arabian peninsula on desert locust control chiefly
during the year 1946 which was a particularly good rat year following
the good rains and consequent abundant herbage of the 1945/46
season.
The author is much indebted to the authorities at the British Museum
for determinations and for the taxonomic characters which are included
under each species.
1. Tatera indica Hardwicke
This is a large grey rat (Q specimen, H & B. 20.5 cm., tail 22 cm.)
living in warrens with large entrance holes. Nocturnal.
Tatera was only collected at one place in Arabia and that was in
the immediate vicinity of some wells in a shallow depression ‘just to
the south of Kuwait town, on 15-3-46. Here a thriving colony existed.
This species was unknown to a Nejdi Arab and indeed no rat holes
so large as those of these Kuwait warrens were seen anywhere in Saudi
Arabia.
The warrens were dug in firm sand which was quite bare of vegeta-
tion during the greater part of the year due to the fact that any shrub
suitable for fuel had been grubbed out and all the other herbage was
heavily grazed by the flock of town goats which daily visited the
wells during the hot season. Nevertheless, during the cooler part
of the year, the depression supported a rich mat of annual herbage
and occasionally crops were grown there.
Extralimital range, Central Provinces of India westward to Syria.
2. Gerbillus cheesmani Thomas
A beautiful pinky-sandy backed mouse with white underparts about
the size of a large field mouse. Silky hairs present on the soles of
its feet. No black hairs in the pencil at the end of the tail. Nocturnal.
Vernacular name (Nejd) ‘Jerdiya’.
This species is common in sandy places of eastern and N.-E. extra-
tropical Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
It is especially abundant amongst dunes of red sands where deep-
rooted perennial shrubs such as Calligonum and Ephedra alata grow
and where .varied annual herbs spring up during the cool months
following winter rains.
This mouse does not form warrens but lives in a small hole with
a single entrance which it leaves open. The hole is often burrowed
into the side of a sand hummock built-up around a bush. The: species
is not at all gregarious though two or three are usually about in the
same vicinity.
RODENTS FROM SAUDI ARABIA AND KUWAIT 425
Specimens from Al Saiyarat (27° 10'N. x 44° 50'E.), 22-2-46; Kuwait
(29° 29'N. x 48° E.), 15-3-46; Hafar el Batin (28°30'N. x 46°E.), 17-3-46;,
Qariya (27°35'N. x 47°40’E.)
3. Gerbillus dasyurus Wagner
A small desert mouse difficult to distinguish in the field from the
next species; but the hairs of the upperside are clearer yellow without
any greyish ones. Soles of hind feet are naked. |
Common throughout central and east-central Arabia in limestone
escarpment country overblown with red sand supporting steppe vegeta-
tion composed of perennial Rhanterium eppaposum with abundant and
varied annual herbs and grasses in season.
Nocturnal. Feeds on seeds of annual herbs especially Medicago.
Frequents small holies which are often under loose stone slabs. The
entrance and often a chamber just within» the entrance, are usually
littered with the dry pods of its feasts.
Apparently not gregarious but often abundant where it occurs.
Specimens from Thamami wells (27°40'N. x 45°00’E.), 24-2-46, 6,
H & B. to cm., T.. 10.9 cm., H.F. 2.2 cm., E. 1.4 cm., Balum wells.
(27°15'N. x 44°00’E.), 24-3-46, 9, H & B, 8.5 cm., T. 10.5 cm., H.F.
2.4,.¢M., 1.2 cm s,and., dyli 8% By, 8.5), mast Vay ems. dt Bice.
em., EB ¥.2 cm.,,and .d). Fl. &B...9) em.40,-4q9) cm.,,(tip; broken),}, Hob.
2. CIM.) Baate2y Cie
4. Gerbillus nanus Blanford (=arabicum).
A small desert mouse difficult to distinguish from the last; both
are variable but in general nanus has shorter and greyer, less silky
hairs on the back, and larger bullae. The soles of hind feet are naked.
Nocturnal. Vernacular name (Nejd) ‘Farr’ plural ‘Farran’, (but this:
name also applied to rats and mice in general).
Probably commoner and more widespread over extra tropical Saudi
Arabia than the last. This is typically a mouse of silty wadis draining
escarpment (limestone) country where varied perennial vegetation
occurs including trees (Acacia), shrubs (Zizyphus and Lycium) and
woody herbs, (Zilla spinosa), and varied Chenopodiaceae, etc., together
with a mat of annual herbage during the cool season. But nanus also:
extends into the habitat occupied by dasyurus.
This species lives in small holes burrowed in the sides of hummocks.
of firm silty soil and at least sometimes it occupies the holes of larger
rats, e.g. Psammomys.
Specimens from Median Saleh (26°50’N. x 38°00’E.), 27-4-46, 3,
H & B:t9 cm; ) Djiniem,, (aeR: 2.4).cm. j\,E: .1.4,em.; Rumaihiya
(25°30°N.x47°00’E.), 26-2-46; Balum wells. (27°15’N. x 44° 00’E.);
25-3-46; Thamami wells (27°40'N. x 45°00'E.), 23-3-46; Artawiya
(26°30’N. x 45°30’E.), 20-2-46; Raudha Tinhat (26°15’N. x 46°00’E.),
17-2-46.
5 Psammomys obesus Cretzchmar
A desert rat, rather larger than a common rat; upper parts distinctly
yellowish at shoulders with rufous tinge on back. The absence of
a groove on the outer surface of upper incisors distinguishes this genus.
from Meriones.
426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Strictly diurnal, Lives gregariously in warrens composed of large-
mouthed holes marked by much excavated soil in front of the entrance.
The warrens are situated on mounds formed round bushes of Haloxylon
sp., a plant which provides this rat with both food and shelter and
from which it seldom wanders during its hours of activity in the cool
of the morning and afternoon.
This rat lives in very populous colonies and although specimens
have only been taken in western Arabia at Median Saleh it almost
certainly extends into central Arabia at Hail (27820 N. x at -45 8.)
but probably does not occur in the limestone escarpment country of
eastern Arabia.
6. Meriones buryi Thomas
Very distinct from other members of the genus. Hind feet with
naked soles. Colour about the same as that of a wild rabbit. Tail
very dark. Diurnal in habits.
This is a species confined to S.-W. Arabia, Aden and the Yemen
and in the highland trans-montane valleys of Asir in Saudi Arabia.
In the last locality colonies occur in wadis draining the inland slopes
to the east where large trees of Acacia and other robust vegetation
provide thickest cover. Probably also the common rat of the terraced
cultivated fields up to 8,000 ft. in the vicinity.
Buryi was collected only in the wady Hijla (18°20’N. x 42°35’E.),
26-6-46, but in future it should be searched for in the Hejaz highlands
as far north as Ashaira (21° 40’N. x 40° 40’E.) where similar vegetation
occurs and to which locality several other Yemeni fauna] elements
(especially birds) are known to penetrate.
7. Meriones erythrourus Gray
A medium-sized rat with the tail sometimes longer than head and
body (measurements of some specimens, unsexed, H & B. 16 cm.,
T. 15 cm.). The upper parts of the body are sandy. Soles of hind
feet hairy; skin on soles of hind feet black or dark coloured; nails
black; hairs on top of feet yellowish; tail reddish-brown above with
a pencil of black hairs at the end.
Very common and widespread at least in north-central and north-
eastern Arabia where these rats live in small warrens of open holes
usually made in sandy-silty hummocks around bushy vegetation
especially in wady beds where varied herbage grows at’ certain seasons.
Nocturnal. Excavate and feed on bulbs of Ivis sp.
Juveniles, three parts grown, have been trapped in considerable
numbers during March. Vernacular name {Nejd) ‘Jerdi’ (Meriones
in general). .
Specimens from Artawiya (26°30’N.~x 45°30’E.), 20-2-46; Hafar
et Batin (28°30’N.'x 46°00’E.), 15-3-46; Anaiza (26°05'N. x 44°oo’E.),
B0-3-A0,- 1G), (rie Won elses Mele.) Ge LO “Chis kein | 227 Cie kee 2) (Crate
Adwa near Hail (27°20’N.x 42°15’E.), 9-5-46, .9, H & B. 16 cm.,
T. 15'cm., H.F, 3.5'cem., ‘E. 2.2'em.,' Rumaihiya’(25°30'N. x 47°00 E.),
26-2-47.
RODENTS FROM SAUDI ARABIA AND KUWAIT 427
8. Meriones crassus Sundevall
Distinguished from erythvourus by its slightly smaller size and by
the tail being usually SOTO than head and body (measurements <,
Hy & Bi 14 em,.,) Ds 12.5 cm. 3.9), El & Blears ‘om rina” cases Soles
of feet and ene flesh coloured ; tail cream coloured with blackish
pencil of hairs at the end. Cranial characters distinguish the two
species immediately, in crassus the auditory bullae being enormously
developed. |
Very common and widespread throughout Arabia, even extending
into the tropics along the Tihama coastal plain. Lives in warrens
which are sometimes of great extent. The warrens are very often
made in silty flats which may support rich annua] herbage after rain
but are quite bare at other times of the year, though of course sub-
terranean parts of the plants such as bulbs, tap-roots, seeds, etc.,
remain available to the rats as food during dry periods... Warrens
have even been found on what are probably perennially barren flats where
the only available food appeared to be grains of wheat, etc., which
had fallen from passing camel trains. Common amongst Rhaniherium
steppe on limestone over-blown with sand where their food was chiefly
seeds of Medicago. Feeds also on locusts (Schistocerca) when oppor-
tunity arises. Nocturnal, crepuscular and probably diurnal as well.
Specimens from Qunfidah (19° 10'N. x 41°05’E.), Gariya (27°35'N. x:
47°40'E.), Hafar el Batin (28° 30'N. x 46° OE) 19-3-46, H & B.
I5 Gm uacm.) HH... 3.2 cm, EK. .1.6 cm,,3, Balum wells, (27° 15’N.'x}
44 °o0'E,), 25-94-46, ON Fa brea 1B ms oy Cove aoe (A Me 12, mn. HB 3 em.,) i. 05
cm., 9-4-46, 10-5-46; Rumaihiya (25° a0’N.x 47 0arE oe:
Kuwait (29°25'N.x,48°o00’E.), 15-3-46; Ajibba (27° 20’N. x 44°20’E.),
24-3-46, 6, H & B. to em,,.1.8.8 em.,° H.F.)2.8.cm., E,, 1.5,,.cm.
g. Acomys dimidiatus Cretzchmar
Rocky country, frequenting niches and crevices amongst boulders
where annual herbage springs up in abundance after rains, and stony
hills with scattered small trees and woody herbs or scanty cushion plants.
These mice move with lightning rapidity amongst boulders but remain
quite still while under cover. Food consists of seeds of various herbs
and grasses. Special feeding shelters are frequent in which debris
of their feasts are scattered about. Captive specimens drink water
with avidity.
When alarmed the spines are erected causing the animal to appear
much larger than it really is.
Much commoner in western Arabia, Hejaz, where suitable habitats
are widespread. Apparently less common in central and eastern Arabia
where specimens were only taken occasionally amongst limestone
rocks.
Specimens from Rumah, INejdi (25 1g0N.) x47: 0018.),, Nh a5-c-a4a)
Shaib Hajlil (27°30°N.x 44° 30’E. ) 24-3-46, 6, H & B. nee Keoa yy Di
Liag em bn m7.em.) i432) em) Birkal (27,7 30’N. x 44° 30’E.), 6- 6: -46,
Oso ainn om. ail vnrems ELF. 128! chokes emt andiiO®
eee Biimayer ene hi wna nerny, Eth F. 2 7h Cine nbn 2 oni (4m hOetae) ;
Wady Liya near Taif (21°15’N. x 40°20’E.), 17-6-46, | H & B.
rem, | De LON emeWwhaky Teo.em).)) i. )2)'emiyband) Go) wHi& |B Yin iem.,
428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
T. a1 cm., H.F., 1.9 cm., E. 1.9 cmg,Abha (t7.00jN,i04e.08'E.))
21-6-46, 2, P&B atcm.. An tT 8 Cm. cub k, v2 .Cnt nmi. soem:
io. Acomys russatus Wagner
This species is recognised by its grey belly and feet and by the
spines starting on head. Habitat similar to the last, the two species.
having been collected together at Wady Liya near Taif. Habits also
similar.
Common in suitable rocky places in Hejaz and Jebel Shammar,,
Hail, in north-central Arabia.
Specimens from Wady Liya, near Taif (21°15’N.'x 40°20’E.),
0770-46}; ig.) Fd) & (Be. 21,5, cm;, T,..7.5,Cm.,, 41.6 -:1.7.cm., EB. 1.5. cm.
11. Eliomys melanurus Wagner
This dormouse, which had not previously been recorded from Saudi
Arabia, was only collected upon one occasion. However, it appeared
to be locally common in the district frequenting crevices in sand-stone
outcrops.
Locality: Dar el Hamra station on the abandoned Hejaz railway
(26°50’N. x 38° 20’E.), 24-4-46, 9, H & B. 13 cm., T. 12\/cm., H.F.
2.§c0m aa Rougvems
12. Jaculus jaculus Linnaeus
Common in sandy places, especially in eastern Arabia where its.
tracks may be seen all over the dunes, but as it is strictly nocturnal
and retires by day below the ground blocking the hole behind itself,.
this species is seldom seen. Vernacular name, ‘Jerboa’.
Artawaiya (26°30'N. x 45°30’E.), 20-2-46.
STUDY OF THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE KARWAR COAST
AND THE NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS
BY
A, M. PariL, M.sc.
(Department of Zoology, Karnatak College, Dharwar)
ParT IV: ECHINODERMATA AND OTHER GROUPS
(Continued from p. 41 of this volume.)
This is the concluding part of the series of articles on the marine:
fauna of the Karwar coast and neighbouring islands. It deals mainly
with the Echinoderms and minor groups, while some vertebrate fauna
has merely been referred to.
ECHINODERMATA
This group is easily recognised by the presence of some degree
of radial symmetry, usually pentaradiate. They move about by means.
of their tube-feet which are arranged along the radii. All the five
classes of this phylum are well represented in Karwar. In December’
1949; representatives of all the five classes of Echinoderms were
collected in Kamat’s Bay alone. The most common echinoderms found’
here are the starfishes, sea-cucumbers and sea-urchins. The |arval.
forms have also been observed in the plankton.
ASTEROIDEA
AVSI Ei O, prelc) tut muiid)aye):
Astropecten is the only starfish that has been collected in good’
numbers. They are easily recognised by their five slender arms
bordered by a row of large plates. These marginal plates are cons-
picuous and bear spines on their outside. The tube-feet have no
suckers and they are pointed at their tips. There is no anus. They
are usually found half buried in sand, exposed at low tide. They have
been collected in large numbers in the southern region of Karwar Bay
and also in Kamat’s Bay from November to January. During the rest
of the year they are only occasionally seen on the shores.
OPHIUROIDEA
Ophiothricidae:
A number of small brittle-stars have been collected from among
the sponges and the ascidians encrusting the rocks in Kamat’s Bay.
They all belong to the genus Ophiothrix, recognised by their distinct
central disc and long slender arms which are covered with fine serrated
spines. They are greyish in colour and are seen struggling with their
430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
long arms when the encrusting sponges and the ascidians are scraped
off from the rocks. The number of arms in these brittle-stars varies
from three to seven.
HOLOTHUROIDEA
Holothuriidae:
The sea-cucumbers are quite common in Karwar. They have been
collected in Devagad Island and Kamat’s Bay. MHolothuria atra (Jager)
is the only species collected in this area. They are elongated sausage-
shaped animals without any arms. Their skin is very thick, leathery
and is pigmented with purplish brown. At low tide, they can easily
be observed half buried in sand in the crevices of rocks. They are
very common at the northern end of Kincaid Bay and they have also
been collected from Devagad Island. Those found in the latter area
were very big, measuring about twelve inches in length.
ECHINOIDEA
Two families of sea-urchins, Temnopleuridae and Stomopneustidae
are represented in Karwar. Only a few specimens of the former have
been collected occasionally. Stomopneustidae are available in good
numbers.
‘Demn od ple wridae:
This family is represented by two ‘genera in Karwar. Temnopleura
is the commonest and has been collected in Kamat’s Bay. It is a
- small form covered with slender spines which have faint brown bands.
Live specimens have been collected in the crevices of rocks. Occa-
sionally entire coronas are cast upon the shores and a few have
been collected in Karwar Bay and Kamat’s Bay. The corona is
greyish in colour with very small tubercles arranged in two vertical
rows in each area.
The other form is represented by only two specimens, probably
belonging to the genus Salmacis, They have been found on_ the
‘surface of the rocks in Kamat’s Bay. They are fairly large in size
covered with fine slender banded spines.
S Com oipmye ust 1diave:
Bits of the corona and spines of Stomopneustes have always been
‘collected washed ashore on almost all the beaches of Karwar. Occa-
sionally a number of entire spines in heaps have been seen on the
rocks which were slightly above the high tide level. Sometimes
half-broken coronas have also been collected. These sea-urchins are
recognised by the presence of big tubercles on their coronas and broad
ambulacral areas. The spines are long, thick and of a deep violet
colour. At the northern end of Kincaid Bay these sea-urchins are
found in large numbers attached to rocks, which are always submerged
in water. They have been collected from about one to two fathoms
deep. It is said that they are available in large numbers in the Devagad
aslands also.
MARINE FAUNA-.OF KARWAR COAST & NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS 431
CRINOIDEA
Mariametridae:
A good ‘number of feather-stars have been collected in the
southern corner of Kamat’s Bay only once in the month of December,
1949. They belong to the genus ‘Lamprometra. The tide was low
at the time of collection and they were found in a large depression of
the rock covered over by water. It was a very interesting sight to
see the continuous wriggling of the fine plumed arms of the animals
and also the peculiar experience of the sticky feeling of their touch.
They are flower-like in appearance with forty pinnate arms and a
bunch of cirri at the base of the calyx. They were deep brown in colour
with white blotches all over.
POLYZOA
This group is represented in Karwar by two families. They include
plant-like colonial forms which are usually found in the shallow waters
of the coast. Each colony consists of a number of individuals known
as ‘polyps’ or “zooids’. Each polyp is a cup-shaped structure with
the mouth situated at the centre of the free end. The mouth is sur-
rounded by a circlet of ciliated tentacles springing from an expanded
base known as the ‘lophophore’. They possess a U-shaped alimentary
canal with the mouth and the anus at the same end. The colonies
are usually fixed to some solid substratum. Their ciliated free-swimming"
larval forms have often been observed in the plankton.
Membraniporidae:
In Kamat’s Bay Membranipora is quite common, growing on sea-
weeds and the rocks. They form white encrusting colonies in which
the zooids lie flat on stones, shells or algae. The colonies are mem-
branous and calcareous or semi-calcareous and hence they are popularly
known as ‘sea-mats’. Bivalve shells with dry colonies of Membranipora
encrusted on their inner surface, are also washed ashore.
The other form is plant-like, found attached to empty shells or
sea-weeds caSt upon the shore. Occasionally a few such colonies
have been collected on the Karwar beach. ‘These colonies are small,
transparent and dichotomously branched. They may probably belong
to the family Bicellariidae.
BRACHIOPODA
This group includes solitary animals enclosed by a bivalve shell
which is secreted by the surface of the body. They are popularly
known as ‘lamp shells’. The only representative of this group recorded
in Karwar is Lingula. It belongs to the family Lingulidae and order
Ecardines. The two valves of the shell are thin, horny, somewhat
rectangular in shape and of equal dimensions. There is a long fleshy
stalk passing out between the two valves. The two valves are held
together by a set of muscles; there is no hinge. They live in deep
vertical burrows in muddy sands. However, only dry shells of Lingula
have occasionally been collected on the Karwar beach.
432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
CHAETOGNATHA
This is a small group including transparent pelagic animals. They
are small, worm-like and often observed in the plankton darting about
and appearing like cellophane arrows. They are popularly known as
‘arrow-worms’. The body of these worms is divided into head, trunk
and tail, bearing fan-like transparent projections. The mouth is on
the ventral side of the head surrounded by curved bristles. | Sagitta
is the common arrow-worm abundantly seen in the plankton and
easily recognised by its graceful swimming movements and the two
pairs of lateral fins.
UROCHORDA
These animals are mostly sessile. growing permanently attached
to rocks or sea-weeds. A few are pelagic. They are easily recognised
by the jets of water coming out of their body, when the animals are
disturbed. They are commonly known as ‘sea-squirts’. The forms
collected and observed in Karwar are mostly colonial animals of the
‘Compound Ascidian’ type, and probably they belong to the family
Botryllidae. Some solitary forms—‘Simple Ascidians’, have also been
observed in the shell debris (‘shell sand’), attached to bits of shells
and dry pieces of weeds. The compound ascidians are commonly
seen between tide marks as massive colonies encrusting the rocks
which do not face the breaking waves and they are also found in the
crevices of the rocks. These animals are abundant in Kamat’s Bay,
Binge Bay and Kincaid Bay. The rock surfaces near the low tide
mark are usually covered with these ascidian colonies along with
sea-weeds and sponges. These encrustations harbour a variety of
animals such as planarians, nemertine worms, polychaete worms, Sipun-
culid worms, isopods, amphipods, prawns, crabs, nudibranchs,
ophiuroids, etc. |
The free-swimming larva of ascidians, popularly known as the
‘Tadpole larva of Tunicata’, is often seen in the plankton in good
numbers. It is usually seen swimming about by means of a short
straight tail containing the dorsal nerve-cord and notochord.
The plankton also contains the free-swimming. pelagic solitary
tunicate, Oikopleura. They are found in large numbers almost through-
out the year. They can easily be recognised by the jerky movements
of their large locomotor tail which contains the notochord. Their
body is comparatively small and is periodically cast off.
EMoiGeHeE RCH ORDA TA
In these groups no attempt has been made to make intensive
collections and also to classify them in detail. However, all those
specimens which were easily available on the coasts have been collected.
The chordates are numerous even if only the different kinds of fishes
caught in the nets are included; and they would be too many if they
were to be dealt with here in detail. Hence only the names of those
that have been collected on the shores and those that are commonly
seen in the area are recorded here.
MARINE FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST & NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS 433,
‘Like other places on the west coast of India, Karwar also abounds
in a large variety of fishes. The fishes are commonly divided into
two sub-classes, the Elasmobranchii—cartilaginous fishes with at least
five pairs of gill-slits—and the Teleostomi—bony fishes with the gills
covered by an operculum. Amongst the cartilaginous fishes, the
following sharks, skates and rays are frequently seen in the nets
drawn to the shores : Scoliodon, Chiloscyllium, Zygaena, Trygon,
Aetobatis, Rhinobatus, Narcine, etc. Amongst the bony fishes, the
following are some of the most common: Rastrelliger (the common
Indian Mackerel), Tetrodon (the Puffer fish), Periophthalmus (the mud-
skipper), Anguilla (the eel), and many others like the Tviacanthus,
Solea, Cynoglossus, Sillago, Silurus, Caranx, Serranus, Batrachus, etc.
Sea-snakes have been collected occasionally on the Karwar shores.
They were either caught in the fishermen’s nets, or cast up on the
beaches, or sometimes collected by hand nets. They varied in length
from one to three feet. The smaller specimens were dark grey in
colour with transverse yellow bands. These markings were faint
in the larger specimens. The lower jaw has a median groove which
is partly indented at the anterior end. These snakes probably belong
to the genus Enhydrina (Gray). But it is interesting to note here
that there are certain fundamental differences in the specimens collected
in Karwar and the species already described, which has rendered the
identification difficult. There are very small scales on the head and
the ventrals are not at all distinct. The hemipenis is club-shaped and
smooth.
Amongst the mammals, only Dolphins have been observed in the
Karwar seas. When the water is calm they are often seen at the
surface. They can easily be recognised by their peculiar swimming
movements which is an up and down rolling motion in contrast to the
side-to-side movements of the fish. They have very often been seen
in the Baitkal Cove and Karwar Bay.
CONCLUSION
From the foregoing accounts (J.B.N.H.S., 50 & 51), it is evident
that the fauna of the Karwar coast and neighbouring islands offers
a great variety covering almost all the classes of the animal kingdom.
It should however be noted that the Karwar coast is conspicuous by
the absence of any coral formations. In spite of the variety of forms
recorded, their numbers are generally poor and their availability quite
uncertain. This observation is especially true of such animals as are
washed ashore at different seasons of the year. It can also be observed
that the Karwar coast is particularly rich in its molluscan fauna.
REFERENCES
1. Bather, F. A. (1900): The Echinodermata, Lankester’s Treatise on Zoology
(London).
2. Clark, A. H. (1932): ‘On the collecticn of Crinoids from Indian Ocean and
Bay of Bengal’, Rec. Ind. Mus., 34 (4): 551-566.
3. Eales, N. B. (1939): The Littoral Fauna of Great Britain, (Cambridge).
434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
4. Gravely, F. H. (1941): Shells and other animal remains found on the Madras
beach. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus., 5, (1).
5. MacBride, E. W, (1922): The Echinodermata, The Cambridge Natural History,
London.
6. Patil, A. M. (191): ‘Study of the marine fauna of the Karwar coast and
Neighbouring Islands’, Parts I & II, J.B.N.H.S., 80: 128-139, 549-558.
7. — — — (1952): ‘Study of the marine fauna of the Karwar coast and Neigh-
bouring Islands’, Part HII. J.B.N.H.S., 54: 29-41.
8. Smith, Malcolm, A. (1943): Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. II]. The Fauna of
British India, Ceylen and Burma (London).
9. Various Authors, (1927): The Littoral Fauna of Krusadai Island in the Gulf
of Manaar (Madras).
Concluded
CERCIAPHIS EMBLICA SP. NOV. (FAM. APHIDIDAE)—A
NEW APHID PEST ON EMBLICA OFFICINALIS
BY
G. A. PaTEL, Ph.p. (Cornell)
AND
H. L. Kucxkarni, M.sc. (iAgri.)
Agricultural College, Poona
(With a plate)
The genus Setaplis is of rather infrequent occurrence and only
four species namely S. luteus v.d. Goot, S. viridis v.d. Goot, S.
bougainvillaceae Theo. and S. formosanus Tak. are known to exist.
All of them are from the old world and the first one is the type species.
The genus is characterized by the presence of a pair of long setae
on the abdomen, media cnce branched, and the short cornicles. We
have been informed by the Director, Commonwealth Institute of
Entomology, London, that Setaphis v.d. Goot is preoccupied and.
hence the genus Cerciaphis Theobald, which had been sunk as a
synonym of Setaphis, should be restored. Accordingly a new species
of this genus which has come to our notice, is herein described as.
Cerciaphis emblica sp. nov.
Description: Alate viwiparous female: Average length
¥.367 +.022 mm. Head: (Plate I, Fig. 1) citrine drab, flat between
the bases of antennae as in genus Aphis, with a median ocellus, the
other two situated by the inner aspect, of the compound eyes. Distance
between the bases of antennae 0.164 mm. Rostrum: length 0.380
mm. reaching the third coxae, dark apically. Antennae: five seg-
mented, average length 0.883-t 0.061 mm., shorter than the body,
first, second, and the last segment dark distally, rest citrine drab;
third segment longer than fourth, with 14-16 circular, double walled
sensoria which are evenly distributed; fourth segment shorter than
fifth with 1 or 2 circular double walled sensoria, the primary one
situated apically; fifth segment long, flagellum shorter than base with
a compound sensorium situated at the apex of the base.
Table 1.—Average lengths of antennal segments of alate forms in mm.
|
i
|
0543 + °006 eotseo | oosa-019 °0635 + °019
Vv
II
1II
Bagel
pre
|
“ ——S
0°345 +°0322 = 147 | 0° 13 020 | osess-o0 0°0819 +: 010
436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
Eyes: Compound eyes prominent and dark. ‘Thorax: In fresh
specimens prothorax dark at anterior dorsal border, rest of the dorsum
citrine drab but little lighter than the head, sternum pale. Meso
and metathorax and dorsum darker than the prothorax, sternum like the
dorsum except the posterior border of the metasternum which is paler.
Legs: femur, apices of tibia and tarsae dark, average lengths
of first, second and third tibia 0,509 + 0.093, 0.478 = 0.049 and
0.599 = -152 mm. respectively. Forewings: (Plate 1, Fig. 4 smoky,
average length 2.006 + 0.110 mm., stigma dark, cubitus (or modia
of American authors) once branched as in genus Toxoptera and
Phloeomyzus, with bands along the veins giving smoky appearance
to wings. Hind-wings: (Plate I, Fig. 5) reduced as in Microparsus,
and Pentalonia; average length 0.4300.052 mm. Anterior margin
with a dark band along a feeble vein—the band widening at the apex
of the wing. Abdomen; Malachite green, slightly elongated or oval,
lacking hairs.—Cornicles: very short, cone-shaped, of iachnid appear-
ance, slightly striate, provided with one or two very small bristles,
Abdomen just above the cauda provided with a pair of long setae
(Plate I, Fig. 3) measuring 0.186 = 0.036 mm. projecting horizontally
beyond the caudal apex, slightly curved, sharply pointed broad based
striate, and provided with a short bristle at the apex. Cauda: (Plate
I, ‘Fig. 2) not distinct, slightly dark, rounded uniformly, with some
rather long bristles. |
‘\Apterous viviparous female: Average length 1.514-b 0.374 mm.
Fresh specimens pale green, with abdomen, head, thorax, legs and
cornicles olive buff coloured. Head: (Plate 1, Fi 12h a) almost. flat
between the baises of antennae, distance between the bases of antennae
0.171 0.027 mm. frontal tubercles, almost absent. Eyes: very small,
composed of three facets only. Rostrum: dark apically, reaching
the third coxae, somewhat stout and 0.3882: .o41 mm. long. An-
tennae :. short, five segmented imbricate ota three or four very smali
hairs. Average length o.890.+ .o7 mm.; first two segments, basal
half of third and fifth dark, rest pale. Third segment with no sen-
soria, longer than fourth segment, which has one apical normal sen-
sorium, fifth segment with a compound sensoria situated at the apex
of the ‘base.
Table 2.—Average lengths of antennal segements of
apterous forms in mm.
Pay i
IN, 0 ae
060007 | “051 =:°009 | 0°357 4-023 | | | 9.187 4-022 | 0-165 £018 | 083402
Base : | Flagellum
Legs: pale, except tarsae which are darker, provided with a few
short. bristles,, tarsae rather short, roughly imbricate. with very: long
bristles at the apex. Average measurements of fore, mid and hind
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist Soc.
Pirate I Cerciaphis emblica sp. nov.
Fig. 1 Head alate viviparous female.
ice Caudanr,.nte me
Fig. 3 Cerci (setae) alate viviparous female.
Fig. 4 Fore wing female.
Fig. 5 Hind wing female.
Fig. 6 End of abdomen, apterous viviparous female.
Fig. 7 Head, apterous viviparous female,
; at
ete ig mi)
; Wi we 7
pan
wAnyy'
A iY
he
| | ’
eee eee 2 ee
Noite aes Oi
;
1 fvte diss iy WA oy
i 7 i "ys :
CERCIAPHIS EMBLICA SP. NOV. (FAM. APHIDIDAE) 437
tibiae are 0.357 xk .045 (0.419 cb .0o41 and 0.451 =e or mm. respec-
tively. Abdomen: malacrite green uniformly oval, but ‘slightly
swollen in the region of the cornicles with a pair of long setae 0.213)
0.029 mm. long as in alate. Cornicles: (Plate 1, Fig. 6) very. short,
cone shaped of lachnid appearance, slightly striate provided with one
or two very small bristles. Cuda: as in alate.
Holotypes: Alate viviparous female. Measurements in mm:
body length 1.38, distance between bases of antennae 0.113, antennal
segments—first 0.05, second’ 0.059, third 0.334, f@urth 0.175,
fifth base 0.156, flagellum, 0.078. Fore tibia 0.446, mid tibia 0.444
and hind tibia 0.552. Fore wings length 1.813, hind wing 0.378. Setae
0.156. Apterous viviparous female: Measurements in mm: body
length 1.38, distance between antennal bases 0.181, rostrum 0.385,
antennal segments—first and second 0.57, third 0.368, fourth 0.209,
fifth base 0.175 and flagellum 0.092. Fore tibia 0.368, mid tibia 0.46,
and hind tibia 0.552. Setae 0.281. To be deposited in the Common-
wealth Institute of Entomology, London.
Distribution and host. plants: The specimens were collected at
Poona and Anand (Bombay State) on Emblica officinalis. This is an
agriculturally important fruit tree cultivated for its vitamin C rich
fruits. The observed infestation in 1949 has been so very heavy as
to make us regard this aphid as an important economic species. No
other host plant has been recorded.
DISCUSSION
The descriptions of both alate and apterous forms indicate
that the species is closely allied to S. wiridis v.d. Goot, {1917).
An attempt was made to find its type specimens. However, Dr.
D. W. Roepke of Lab-F. Entomologie Wageningen, Holland, a
co-worker of Dr. van der Goot informs us in a personal communica-
tion that the latter described his species of Javanese aphids from
chloralphenol mounts, without any further protection and were soon
lost due to tropical climate and hence the type specimens of S. viridis
are not available. Further Dr. Takahashi (1922) who has also contri-
buted on the subject, having lost his collection, does not possess any
slide of this species; consequently we have to depend on the published
description alone. Alate forms of S$. viridis as described are longer
than the species described here. ‘The character of banded wing is
also found in S. viridis and the general body colour and the ratios
of antennal segments are also nearly similar.
However, the new species described here differs from S. viridis in
two important characters of specific rank; those of sensoria on the
third and fourth antennal segments of the alate forms. S. viridis
as described has 25-32 and 4-5 sensoria on third and fourth antennal
segments respectively, while the species described here has only 14-19
and 1-2 sensoria on the corresponding segments. These facts lead us to
believe that the species described here is a new one and unless a fresh
collection of S. viridis from its original habitat indicates the number
of sensoria lesser than those stated in the original description there
are few chances that the species described here may be a synonym
7
438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
of S. viridis. As we have been informed that Setaphis v.d. Goot is
preoccupied, Cerciaphis Theobald, which had been sunk as a synonym
may be restored, the new. species described here is referred to as
Cerciaphis emblica.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are greatly indebted to the Director, Commonwealth Institute
of Entomology, London, for his valuable criticisms and _ advice.
Thanks are also due to Dr. R. C. Dixon of Citrus Experiment Station,
Riverside, California, for his suggestions. We also desire to express
our gratitude to Dr. D. W. Roepke and Dr. R. Takahashi for the
information supplied.
REFERENCES
Takahashi, R. (1922): Philippine Journal of Science, 24: 422.
Takahashi, R. (1927): Aphididae of Formosa: MS.
van der Goot, P. (1917): Contributions 4 la Fauna des Indes, Neérlandaises, 1 (3):
158-160.
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’
BY
Suni~t Kumar MUKHERJEE, D.SC.
Botany Department, Delhi University
INTRODUCTION
Floristic and vegetational studies have been much neglected in
India since the publication of Hooker’s Flora of British India and
other provincial floras in the later part of the nineteenth and early
twentieth century. During the last decade some interest has been
revived in the subject and attempts have been made to study the
local vegetations (Biswas, 1941, 1950; Biswas & Rao, 1951; Jain &
Bhardwaja, 1949; Kadambi, 1950; Mooney, 1942, 1944; Mukerjee,
1947; Raizada, 1939, 1950; Razi & Govindu, 1949; Santapau, 1951;
Thirumalachar, Razi & Swami, 1949; Venkatesh, 1948; etc.). This
will help ultimately in a revision of the Flora of India, if such interest
is taken by all the Universities and other scientific organisations and
proper facilities are made available for this purpose. The present
paper is an outcome of the collections and observations made during
excursions to the Delhi ‘Ridge’, where our students are regularly ~
taken out for field studies.
Whatever previous records are available on the vegetation of Delhi
are included in the Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain by Duthie
(1903-20). But the collections from Delhi district do not appear to
be well represented in this Flora. Singh (1945) has made some
collections from this area and published a list of useful plants. But
he has not studied the plants from the floristic aspect.
THE RIDGE AND ITS ECOLOGY |
The low, narrow range of sandstone ‘hills passing west of New
Delhi and again through the notified area, and finally terminating
on the right bank of Jumna is known as the ‘Ridge’. It is a pro-
longation of the Aravalli Hill ranges and enters Delhi from Gurgaon
on the southern border. The range is very narrow near Delhi and
about 2-300 ft. high from the base. It consists of the outliers of
Alwar quartzite belonging to the Delhi system of transition group.
The surface contains big and small stones and gravel mixed with sand.
The humus content of the soil is low due to poor sparse vegetation.
There are some depressions in the lower portion, where water
accumulates during rains and washes down the upper layers. making
the soil slightly richer and higher in humus content due to the rotting of
leaves and other parts of plants.
The climate of the area is quite rigorous and unfavourable for
the growth of luxuriant vegetation. The temperature shows great
fluctuations between the summer and winter beth of which are severe.’
440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
The maximum temperature usually registers 114-116°F. in shade,
whereas the minimum goes down as low as 34-40°F. During the
summer hot winds blow at a high speed from the adjoining Thar
deserts of Rajputana and make the atmosphere very dry. The
average annual rainfall is about 26 inches, of which the major quantity
is received during the summer in June-September, and the remaining
amount during the winter in November-January. But the rainfall
at Delhi has slightly increased during recent years, possibly due to
the planting of a number of trees in the city, as is apparent from the
record of Hooker and Thompson giving the rainfall figure at Delhi
as 21% inches in 1855. The monthly normals of the different climatic
factors are given below :—
Temperature | a n Bi Pty leosant |oek ae a “4 9 |
| a }a| < | S gelgt le HI | Pl Qual ahead
Max.°F. ... |70°S (74:7
Min. °F. . 13:3 49:2
Humidity % my
08°30 Hrs, ... 68 68 (52 137
er eae | |
35°18 (13 16 SY ESS) #01! ba 2525") [3 33
Rainfall
17°30 Hrs. ... /38
| See ty
_jiteag| a) ni |
| |
85:0 |96°6 | 104°S | 102°4 95:3 93 0
57*1 |67°7 | 783 | 825 80° 9 |78'4 |75°5 (64:3 |51°8
36 53
| |
Cee) «. | 0°99)
|
GENERAL ASPECT OF THE VEGETATION
The natural vegetation of Delhi may be broadly grouped under
four categories (1) vegetation of the ‘Ridge’, (2) the weed flora of
cultivated fields and the vegetation of waste lands, (3) the vegetation
of the riverine tracts adjoining Jamuna, and (4) the hydro-phytes of
the ponds and lakes.
The Ridge, however, maintains the characteristic natural vegeta-
tion of the area, which may be classified under two categories (1) the
permanent vegetation, occurring throughout the year; and (2) the
ephemeral vegetation, consisting of the annuals growing mainly during
the short rainy season when abundant moisture is available in the soil
and in the atmosphere. The permanent vegetation is xerophytic in
ecological peculiarities due to the rigorous climatic and edaphic
conditions and gives an appearance somewhat like a thorn scrub or
bush jungle. But the number of plants is somewhat fewer than in
other scrub jungles of India.
The trees are very few and mainly represented by Azadirachta indica
A. Juss., Salvadora persica Linn., S. oleoides Dene., Prosopis spicigera
Linn., Acacia modesta Wall., A. senegal Willd., A. leucophloea
Willd., Cassia fistula Linn., Tecomella undulata Seem., Ehretia laevis
Roxb., Balanites Roxburghii Planch. and Butea monosperma (Lam.)
Kuntze. Among these Salvadora, Acacia, Prosopis and Balanites have
xeromorphic features, whereas Azadirchta, although introduced, appears
93°5 |92°5 |83°2 fae 88°8
ae 64°5
74 (77 #j71, {85.. 150 164 58
|
a 0°51) 0°33} 0°52} 3:08 7:03 7-23 4°84) 0°40] 0°10} 0°43) 26°24
}
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’ 441
to be well adapted to this climate and poor soil. This plant
has definitely some adaptation for poor soil as is apparent from above
and from its successful growth in the black-cotton soils of the Kurnool
district (Madras), where other trees seldom flourish. Its ecological
peculiarities deserve further studies.
The thorny shrubs occupy a good amount of the area and are more
successful than the trees. The common types are Zizyphus nummularia
Lamk., Capparis aphylla Roth., C. sepiaria Linn., Celastrus sene-
galensis Lamk., Grewia betulaefolia Vahl., Calotropis procera R. Br.,
Carissa spinarum Linn. The common cactus of India, Opuntia
dillent Haw., is also present in this area. Among the climbers, the
most common are Maerua arenaria Hk.f. & T. with thick xeromorphiec
leaves, and Daemia extensa R. Br., an Asclepiad, with densely hairy
leaves. Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br. is found commonly in the
depressions where the soil is richer. Among undershrubs, Adhatoda
vasica Nees is very common and covers most of the area; it is spreading
successfully.
There are a few undershrubs which remain almost dormant during
most part of the year and come into vigour and growth after the
rains, viz. Tephrosia purpurea Peers., Ocimum americanum Linn.,
Hibiscus micranthus Linn. f. etc.
The Ephemeral Vegetation consists mainly of herbaceous annuals,
the seeds of which remain dormant during the winter and summer
and germinate after the first rains, covering the ground for a period
of 3-4 months during July to December. They complete their growth
during this period and then produce seed, which on _ dispersal
cover open barren areas, if properly protected. They ultimately help
in increasing the humus content of the soi] and extending the vegeta-
tion to barren areas. The commonest and most successful annuals
belong to the Amarantaceae, Chenopodiaceae. Tiliaceae, Pedaliaceae,
Compositae, Capparidaceae, Leguminosae, Convolvulaceae, Cucurbita-
ceae, Acanthaceae, Gramineae, Cyperaceae, and Commelinaceae.
Among them Achyranthes aspera Linn., Pupalia lappacea Juss., Boer-
havia diffusa Linn., Trianthema portulacastrum Linn., Tribulus
terrestris. Linn., Rhynchosia minima DC., Euphorbia hirta Linn.,
Corchorus aestuans Linn., Ipomoea peis-tigridis Linn., I. pilosa Sweet,
Heliotropium ‘strigosum Willd., Sesamum indicum Linn., Martynia
diandra Glox., Coccinia indica W. & A., Cleome viscosa Linn., Xan-
thium strumarium Linn., Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees, several
species of Eragrostis, Cenchrus ciliaris Linn., Chrysopogon mon-
tanus Trin., Oropetium thomaeum Trin., Heteropogon contortus,
Cyperus votundus Linn. and Kyllinga triceps Rottb. are common.
These plants are more dense at the margin and bottom of the pits
and depressions, and on the flat lands near the base than on the sloping
hill sides.
VEGETATIONAL COMPLEX AND THE DOMINANT PLANTS
oF THIS ARID REGION
A study of the ‘Introductory Essay’ to the Flora of India by Hooker
& Thomson (1855), and an Outline of the Vegetation of India by Hooker
(1904) and by Calder (1938) suggests that the natural vegetation of
A442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Delhi, as represented by the plants on the ‘Ridge’, has common
features with the flora of Rajputana, the Punjab plains, and the drier
part of the Upper Gangetic plain, as Delhi is situated at the common
border of the three regions.
Among the different types of vegetation found in India, the ‘dry
forests’ are situated in Rajputana and the Punjab, and are represented
by the families Leguminosae, Capparidaceae, Salvadoraceae, Tamarica-
ceae and Rhamnaceae. The most characteristic trees are Prosopis
spicigera Linn. and various species of Tamarix, Salvadora and Capparis.
The flora of the western extreme of the Gangetic Plain is continuous
with the dry districts of the Indus plain as suggested by the presence
of ‘Peganum Hamala Linn., Pluchea lanceolata C. B. Clarke,
Tecomella undulata Seem.’ and such other species. The principal
forest in this region is that of Ajmer, ‘characterised by Anogeissus
pendula Edgew., Acacia Senegal Willd., Prosopis spicigera ‘Linn., and
species of Boswellia, Balsamodendron, Moringa, and Rhus. Salvadora
is characteristic of the so-called ‘‘Reh-lands’’ of this region impregnated
with alkalies’ (Hooker 1904, Calder, 1938). The extensive tracts of
low and scattered tree jungle, found near Lahore and further to the
north and east, ‘consist chiefly of Capparis aphylla Roth, Acacia arabica
Willd., A. leucophloea Willd., Prosopis spicigera Linn., Zizyphus
Lotus Lamk., Salvadora oleoides Dene. and Cocculus Leoeba DC.’ etc.
(Hooker & Thomson, 1885).
Among the types mentioned above, the Ridge vegetation is repre-
sented by Prosopis spicigera Linn., Salvadora persica Linn., S. oleoides
Dene., Capparis aphylla Roth., C. sepiaria Linn., Acacia senegal
Willd., A. arabica Willd., A. leucophloea Willd., Balanites Roxburghii
Planch., Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze, Carissa spinarum Linn..,
Zizyphus nummularia Lamk., Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels, Pluchea
lanceolata C. B. Clarke and scattered individuals of Tecomella undulata
Seem. This supports the view stated above, that the Ridge vegetation
represents a mixture of the floral elements of three regions—Rajputana,
the Punjab and the drier parts of the Upper Gangetic Plain.
The Ridge therefore maintains a representative natural vegetation
for Delhi, which is situated at the border of Rajputana deserts. The
permanent vegetation has such xeromorphic features and physiological
peculiarities, which enable them to withstand great fluctuations between
the summer and winter temperatures, as also to pass over the long
drought period of about 6 months, especially during the summer, when
there is little moisture in the soil and in the atmosphere. Under
such trying conditions, the more _ successful plants, which
form the dominant feature of the vegetation, are Prosopis
spicigera, Acacia leucophloea, A. modesta, A. senegal, Capparis
sepiaria, C. aphylla, Ehretia laevis, Butea monosperma, Balanites
Roxburgh, Celastrus senegalensis, Carissa spinarum, Maerua arenaria,
Grewia betulaefolia, Zizyphus nummularia, Adhatoda vasica and
Tephrosia purpurea. If properly protected, these types will be able
to cover successfully quite a good amount of the barren areas of this
arid region, and will also help in increasing the humus content of the
soil by the growth of the ephemeral vegetation during the rains. ,
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI] ‘RIDGE’ 443
LIST OF SPECIES
A list of the plants collected from the ‘Ridge’ along with a very
brief description is given below. The names are arranged according
to Bentham & Hooker’s system as in Duthie’s Flora and comprise
178 species under 44 families. Those which have not been recorded
previously by Duthie are marked with an asterisk. According to the
number of species the following six families are predominant :—
Leguminosae (31), Gramineae (25), Compositae (14), Amaranta-
ceae (9), Acanthaceae (8) and Capparideae (6). :
Class I, Dicotyledons
Division I. POLYPETALAE
Sub-division I. Thalamiflorae
MENISPERMACEAE
1. Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Dielsin Engl. Pflanzer. Menisperm. 236:
Syn. C. villosus DC., Syst. 1: 525; F.B.I. 1: 101; F.U.G.P.
1: 28%,
A climber with unisexual flowers; 4. in Feb.-March. Common.
PAPAVERACEAE. |
2. Argemone mexicana Linn., Sp. Pl. 508; F.B.I. 1: 117; F.U.G.P.
1: 36.
An American species naturalised in India: fl. in Dec.-March,
Common in waste lands, but not so on Ridge.
CAPPARIDEAE
3. Cleome viscosa Linn., Sp. Pl. 672; F.B.I. 1: 170; F.U.G.P. 1: 150,
An annual herb; fl. July-Sept. Quite common.
4, Gynandropsis gynandra (Linn.) Merr.: Syn. G. pentaphylla DC.
Prod. 1 :. 238; FP: Bsbyled172 1. BUiGyP. 1: Sik
_ Anannual herb; fl. in July-Aug. Common in the area but not on
Ridge.
5. Maerua arenaria Hk. f. and T. in F.B.I.1: 171; F.U.G.P.1: 51.
Perennial woody climber; fl. in March-April.
6. Crataeva religiosa Forst.; DC., Prod. 1: 243; F.B.I. 1: 172;
HeUtGabalesyoc.
A spreading tree with trifoliate leaves and pale yellow flowers; fil.
in April. Rather rare.
* In the text F.B.I. stands for Hooker’s Flora of British India and F,U,G.P. for
Duthie’s Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plains,
Aid JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 51
7. Capparis aphylla Roth, Nov. Sp. Pl. 238; F.B.I. 1: 174; F.U.G.P.
Li 58,
A thorny leafless shrub with zygomorphic reddish flowers; fi, in
April-July.. Fruits used for pickle. Very common in barren areas.
8. ©. sepiaria Linn., Syst. (ed. 10) 1071; F.B.I..1:.177; F.U.G.P.
1.2153;
A spiny shrub with round black berries; fl. in May as also in July
after rains. Very common.
POLYGALACEAE
9. Polygala chinensis Linn., Sp. Pl. 704; ‘F.B.I. 1: 204; F.U.G.P.
1:62. A winter annual.
CARYOPHYLLACEKAE
10. Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk,, Ill. 2: 129; F.BI. 1: 245;
F.U.G.P. 1: 68. Herb 6-12 inch long with silvery flowers closely
aggregated. FI. in winter.
PORTULACACEAE
11. Portulaca quadrifida Linn., Mant. 1: 73; F.B.I. 1: 247; F.U.G.P.
1: 70 A prostrate annual with yellow flowers.
MALVACEAE
12. Sida veronicaefolia Lamk., Encycl. 1:5; F.U.G.P. 1): 80: Syn. S.
humilis Wiild. ; F.B.I. 1: 322.
A perennial trailing herb with yellow flowers without epicalyx. Fl.
after rains.
13. Abutilon indicum G. Don., Gen. Syst. 1: 504; F.B.I. 1: 326;
PU Gse, 1383:
A perennial herb with yellow flowers without any epicalyx. Fruit
prominent, carcerulus. Fl. most part of the year.
14. Hibiscus micranthus Linn. f. Suppl. 308, 310; F.B.I. 1: 335:
F.U.G.P. 1: 89.
An undershrub with 3-4 ft. long stem, and pink or white flowers.
Fl. commonly after rains. Quite common.
J5. H. solandra L’Herit., Stirp. Nov. 1: 103, t. 49; F.B.I. 1: 336;
PU. Gees:
An erect annual, 1-24 ft. high, with yellow flowers. Fl. after rains.
16. Malvastrum coromandelianum Garcke; Gamble, Fl. Madras
1: 88; Syn. WZ. tricuspidatum A. Gray, Pl. Wright 1: 16; F.B.I.
e321. s FUNG SP lsee7,9%
- A herb, 2-3 ft. tall with yellow flowers, Fl. in Sept.-Oct.
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’ 44.5
TILIACEAE
17, Grewia betulaefolia Juss.; Gamble, Fl. Madras 1: 117: Syn.
G. pobultfolia Vahl., Symb. 1: 33; F.B.I. 1: 385; F.U.G.P.
iL etal ,
A shrub, 3-5 ft. tall with obovate leaves with crenate-serrate margins
and 2 to 4 lobed orange-red drupes of the size of a pea. Very common.
FJ. in July-August.
18. Triumfetta bartramia Linn.: Roxb., FI, Ind. 2: 463; Syn.
T. rhomboidea Jacq., Enum, Pl. Carib. 22; F.B.I. 1: 395; F.U.G.P.
Ms:
An annual herb with fruits having hooked spines. FI. after rains.
Common in the area.
19. Corchorus trilocularis Linn., Mant. 77; F.B.I. 1: 397; F.U.G.P,
1120!
An annual herb, with 2-3 in. long cylindrical capsules having entire,
erect and short beak. Rather rare. Fl. after rains in July-Sept.
20. ©. tridens Linn., Mant. 566; F.B.I. 1: 398; F.U.G.P.1: 121.
An annual herb with 1-2 in. long cylindrical capsules without wings
and terminated by 3 spreading points. Rather rare. Fl. July-Sept.
21. C.aestuans Linn.; Syn. C. acutangulus Lamk., Encycl. 2: 104;
BEB 73985) .U Giles i212
An annual herb with short (1 in.), stout, winged and cylindrical
capsules with 3-fid beak. Fl. in July-Sept. Common in depressions
and flat lands.
Sub-division 2. Dzsczflorae
ZYGOPHYLLEAE
22, Tribulus terrestris Linn., Sp, Pl. 387; F.B.I. 1: 423; F.U.G.P.
ee Oy
A prostrate herb with yellow flowers, occurring commonly in dry
sandy soil. Fi. almost throughout the year.
23. Fagonia cretica Linn., Sp. Pl. 386; F.U.G.P. 1: 127.
A small green spiny undershrub with pale rose coloured flowers.
Fl. Nov.-Dec. Rare on ridge.
SIMARUBACRAE
24. Balanites Roxburghii Planch. in Ann. Sc. Nat., (Ser. 4.) 23258;
F.B.I. 1; 522; Syn. B. aegyptiaca Delile, Fl. Egypt. t. 28, f. 1;
F.U.G.P. 1; 145.
A small tree with strong, sharp thorns, common in New Delhi
Ridge. Fl. April-May.
446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
MELIACEAE
25. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. in Mem. Mus., XIX, t. 13, f. 4; Syn.
Melia Azadirachta Linn., Sp. P!, 385; F.B.I. 1: 544; F.U.G.P.
a) 150;
An introduced plant. Quite successful on Ridge. Fl]. in May.
CELASTRACEAE
26. Celastrus spinosa Royle; F.U.G.P. 1 ; 159. Syn. Gymmnosporia
Royleana Wall. in F.B.I. 1: 620.
Erect spinous shrub with turbinate capsules.
27. ©. senegalensis Lamk., Encycl. 1: 661; F.U.G.P. 1: 159. Syn.
Gymnosporta montaxa Benth. in F.B.I, 1: 621.
Erect spinous shrubs with globose capsules. Fl. after rains,
Common.
RHAMNACRAE
28. Zizyphus nummularia W. et A,, Prod. 162; F.B.I. 1 : 633;
Gamble, Fl. Madras 1: 220: Syn. Z. rotundifolia Lamk., Encycl.
313319 BPLU-G.P, 1/3164:
A small thorny bush with ovate to orbicular serrate leaves and
globose drupes of 4-2 in. diam. Fl. June; fr. Oct.-Nov
SAPINDACEAE
29. Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn., Sp. Pl. 366; F.B.I. 1 : 670;
F’U.G.P..1y: 178.
A climbing herb with tendrils and pinnately compound leaves; fl.
after rains. Rather rare, found in depressions in moist areas.
Sub-division 3. Calycitlorae
LEGUMINOSAE
30. Melilotus indica All., Fl. Pedem. 1: 308; F.U.G.P. 1: 208 Syn:
M. parvitlora Desf.; F.B.1. 2 : 89.
A small herb with pinnately trifoliate leaves and yellow flowers in
long racemose inflorescence and straight pods. Fl. in winter. Abun-
dant within the area but rare on the Ridge.
31. M. alba Desr. in Lamk., Encycl. 4:63; F.B.I. 2 : 89; F.U.G.P.
1: 208.
Similar to the preceding type but flowers white. Fl. in winter.
Rare on Ridge.
*32, Atylosia elongata Benth. in Pl. Jungh. 243; F.B.I. 2 : 215,
A herbaceous twiner. Fl. after rains. Rare,
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’ 447
33. Rhynchosia minima DC., Prod, 2 :; 385; F.B.I. 2: 223; F.U.G.P.
lep222. |
A twining climber with tri-foliate leaves and usually 2-seeded pods
about 4 inch long. Fl. after rains. Common.
34. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze; Syn. &. frondosa Koen.
ExmRoxbs AConwelmders 2: ty cues HB ee POaty thu). GaP:
1: 240.
Tree with beautiful flowers. Fl. in March to April. Common in
New Delhi Ridge.
35. Tephrosia purpurea Pers., Syn. 2: 330; F.B.I.2:112 ; F.U.G.P.
1; 245.
Perennial undershrub with pink flowers. Very common. Fl. more
after rains.
36. T. villosa Pers.; F.B.I. 2: 112; F.U.G.P.1 : 245.
A small diffuse undershrub, with 2—3 in. long leaves. Inflorescence
about 6 in. long with flowers in distant fascicles. Pods densely clothed
with white silky hairs, Fl. after rains. Rare.
37. Indigofera linifolia Retz,, Obs. 4: 29; F.B.I. 2: 92; F.U.G.P.
1: 249.
A procumbent perennial herb with simple linear leaves and globose
1-seeded pods. Fl. after rains. Common.
38. I. cordifolia Heyne ex Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 357; F.B.I. 2 : 93;
F.U.G.P. 1: 250.
Differs from the previous in oblong 2-seeded pods, and ovate-
cordate leaves. Fl. after rains. Not so common.
39, I. enneaphylla Linn,, Mant. 2: 272; F.B.I. 2: 94; F.U.GP.
Wy eo0s
Very small prostrate herb with 5-9 foliate imparipinnate leaves,
bright red corolla and 2-seeded cylindrical pods. Fl. throughout the
year. Very common.
40. 1. hirsuta Linn., Sp. Pl. 751; F.B.I. 2:98; F.U.G.P. 1: 254.
Sub-erect herb, 2—4 ft. tall with 5-11 foliate leaves and flowers in
axillary racemes. Pod quadrangular, densely pubescent, 6-8 seeded.
41. Lathyrus aphaca Linn., Sp. Pl. 729; F.B.I. 2: 179: F.U.G.P.
eee ZOU.
An annual herb with no leaves and foliaceous stipules, and yellow
corolla. Fl. during winter. Abundant in this area, but not so common
on Ridge.
42. CREME AP ota Perso oyne 2 310; Peble 2 elas BUG. P.
1: 268.
‘A diffuse herb with monadelphous stamens and jointed pods,
448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. §1
43, Vicia sativa Linn. var. angustifolia Linn.; F.B.1. 2: 178; F.U.G.P.
eee oS.
A smail diffuse herb. Fl. pinkish. Fl. during winter. Common in the
area, rare on Ridge.
44, Alysicarpus bupleurifolius DC., Prod. 2: 352; F.B.I. 2 : 158;
E.U GiP. 1: 277,
A diffuse herb with simple leaves, pink flowers and 4-6 jointed
cylindric pods, about 4 inch long. Common.
45, Alhagl camelorum Fisch., Ind. Hort. Gorenk., ed. ?,72: Syn.
A. maurorum Desv.; F.B.1. 2145; F.U.G.P. 1: 279.
An erect spinous herb with simple leaves, reddish corolla and 1-inch
long pods irregularly constricted.
46, Desmodium pseudo-triquetrum DC., Prod.2: 326; F.U.G.P.
1: 286; Syn. D. triguetrum F.B.J. 2 : 163 (in part).
A diffuse undershrub with unifoliate leaves and 6-8 jointed flat pods,
1-2 inch Jong.
47. Cassia fistula Linn., Sp. Pl. 377. F.B.I. 2: 261; F.U.G.P. 1: 291.
Medium-sized tree with bright yellow flowers in long axillary
racemes, having 10 fertile stamens. Pod cylindric, 1-2 ft. long, divided
into 1-seeded cells by transverse walls. FI. April to July. Common.
48. C. occidentalis Linn., Sp. P). 377; F.B.I. 2: 262; F.U.G.P, 1: 292.
An undershrub, 2-5 ft. high with 3-5 pairs of leaflets. Flowers
yellow with 7 fertile stamens and 3 upper reduced to staminodes. Pod
4-5 inch long, compressed with 28-30 seeds. FI. after rains. Common.
49, C. pumila Lamk., Encycl. 1: 651; F.B.I. 2: 266; F.U.G.P. 1: 295,
A diffuse procumbent shrub with 1-2 in. Jong leaves having 20-40
leaflets. Flowers usually solitary with 5 stamens. Pod 1-14 in. flat,
6-12 seeded. Fl. after rains. Rare.
50. Parkinsonia aculeata Linn., Sp. Pl. 375; F.B.I. 2: 260; F.U.G.P.
1b-8 SOR}
A small tree with woody spines and bipinnate leaves having minute
leaflets. Flowers yellow. Pods moniliform, 3-4 in. long. Rather rare;
might be an escape from cultivation.
51. Prosopis spicigera Linn., Mant. 1: 68; F.B.I.2: 288; F.U.G.P.
13309:
Thorny trees with flowers in 2-3 inch long spikes. Very common in
the area and most successful on the Ridge. Fl. March-May.
52. P. juliflora DC.; F.U.G.P. 1: 309.
A plant introduced from America. Rather rare in the Ridge, Can
be distinguished from the preceding by bigger leaves and flowers. FI,
March-April.
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’ 449
53. Acacia Farnesiana Willd., Sp. Pl. 4: 1084; F.B.I. 2: 292;
NO Geleols Silsy
A small tree with 4-4 in, long straight, stipular spines. Leaflets 10-20
pairs. Flowers in axillary fascicled heads. Pods 2-3 in. long, thick,
cylindrical ; seeds in double row. Fl. March-April. Rather rare.
54. A. arabica Willd., Sp. Pl. 4: 1085; F.B.I. 1, 2:293; F.U.G.P.
1; 314.
A tree with long (4-2”) straight spines. Leaflets 10=20 pairs. Flowers
in axillary, fascicled globose heads. Pods 3-6 in. long, flat, moniliform
with seeds 8-12 in one row. FI. during rains. Common.
55. -A.eburnea Willd., Sp. Pl. 4: 1081; F.B.I. 2: 293; F.U.G.P.
1: 314.
A tree with long (4-2”) straight.spines. Leaflets 6-12 pairs. Flowers
in axillary, fascicled heads. Pods 3-6 in. long, flat, not moniliform,
narrowly ligulate with 6-10 seeds in one row. FI. during winter. Rare.
56. <A. leucophloea Willd., Sp. Pi. 4: 1083; F.B.1. 2: 294; F.U.G.P.
OS)
A tree with 4-lin. long straight spines. Leaflets 15-30 pairs. Flowers
in heads arranged in terminal panicles. Pod 4-6 in. long, flat, ligulate-
faleate. Fl. MarcheJuly. Quite common.
57. A. senegal Willd., Sp. Pl. 4: 1077; F.B.I. 2: 295; F.U.G.P.
LAS17.
A small tree about 12-15 ft. tall. Leaves with hooked stipular
spines in threes and 3-5 pairs of pinnae. Pod indehiscent, ligulate,
4-6 seeded. FI. Oct.-Nov. Common.
58. A. modesta Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 2: 27, t. 130; F.B.I, 2: 296;
F.U.G.P. 1: 317. ;
Differs from previous in grey bark, stipular spines in pairs and
leaves with 2-3 pairs of pinnae. Common.
59. Mimosa hamata Willd., Sp. Pl. 4: 1033; F.B.I. 2: 291: F.U.G.P.
if 1: 312.
A large straggling shrub with prickly stem. Flowers red. Pod
jointed, armed with large hooked prickles.
60. Albizzia lebbek Benth. in Hook. Journ. Bot. 87 (1844); F.B.I.
2) 2980 BAWG LP: /s)320:
A large tree with evenly bipinnate leaves. Stamens indefinite,
united at base. Pod large (4-12’x 1-2”), flat. Fl. April-May. Possibly
an escape from cultivation.
COMBRETACEAE
61. Terminalia arjuna Bedd., FI. Sylv. t. 28; F.B.I. 2: 447; Fi.
Madras 1: 465. Syn. 7. glabra W. and A., Prod. 314; F.U.G.P.
1: 336.
A large tree with 1-2 in. long winged fruits. Fl. AprileMay. Very
rare, possibly escape from road-side avenue trees, | :
450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
LYTHRACEAE
62, Lawsonia inermis Linn.; Fl. Madras 1: 514: Syn. Z. alba Lamk.
in, W wand WA... pErod. 507. BBs coo hens bs lism aie.
A spiny shrub, about 6 ft. tall, An escape from cultivation. Rare,
CUCURBITACEAE
63. Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn.; Roxb., Fl. Ind, 3: 702;
F.B.1. 2: 609; F.U.G.P. 1: 364,
Annual climbers with 2-3 fid tendrils and suborbicular leaves. Petals
fimbriate. Stamens in 3 groups. Anther cells straight. Fl. after rains.
Common.
64. Coccinia indica W. et A., Prod. 347; F.U.G.P. 1: 376; Syn.
Cephalandra indica Naud.; F.B.I. 2: 621.
An annual climber with simple tendrils. Flowers white. Fruit bright
scarlet; seeds embedded in red pulp. Fl. after rains. Quite common.
CACTACEAE
*65. Opuntia Dillenii Haw.; F.B.1. 2 : 657.
The common cactus. An American plant naturalised in India. Fl.
after rains. Common,
FICOIDEAE
66. Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. ; Syn. Bo monogyna thin in
EBT, .2°2'660" RU -GsPy 1: 385:
A diffuse prostrate herb with a apt Wace flowers. Stamens
about 15, inserted on the perianth. Ovary with thick solitary style.
Fruit with circumsessile dehiscence. Fl. after rains. Very common.
67. T. crystallina Vahl.; Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2: 444; F.B.I. 2: 660;
F.U.G.P8 1%: (385.
Differs from above in very small, narrow leaves and flowers with
5 stamens. FI. after rains. @omimon
68. Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. ; W. et A., Prod. 43; F.B.I. 2: 664;
F.U.G.P. 1: 388.
A small herb with radical leaves. Flowers in terminal cymes. Sta»
mens 3. Rather rare on ridge.
Division 2. GAMOPETALAE
_ RUBIACEAE
69.. Mitragyna parvifolia Korth, Obs. Naucl. Irid. 19; F.U.G.P.
1: 408; Syn. Stepbhegyne parvifolia Korth; F.B.I. 3: 25.
A large tree with fragrant flowers in globose heads. Calyx absent.
Stigma thick and prominent. Fl. after rains. Very rare, Sh
VEGETATION OF THE DELH] ‘RIDGE’ ABL
COMPOSITAE
70. Vernonia cinerea Less. in Linnaea 4: 291; F.B.I. 3: 233; F.U.G.P.
1; 441.
An erect herb, 6-18 in. high. Heads homogamous with all tubular
flowers, 4” in diam., bluish pink in colour. Fruits with many pappus
hairs. Fl. during winter. Common.
71. Pluchea lanceolata C. B. Clarke, Comp. Ind. 94; F.BI.3: 272;
F.U.G.P. 1: 458.
_ A-small undershrub with coriaceous, oblong, sessile 1-2 in. long
leaves. Heads in corymbs, heterogamous, lilac in colour. Flowers all
tubular. Fl. during winter.
72. Xanthium strumarium Linn., Sp. Pl. 987; F.B.I. 3: 303;
F.U.G.P. 1: 467.
A coarse annual. Heads unisexual and bisexual. Female heads
2-flowered. Pappus absent. Fruits covered with hooked prickies. FI.
after rains. Although abundant in the area, not so common on the
Ridge.
73, Blainvillea latifolia (Linn. f) DC.; F.B.I. 3: 305; Syn. B. rhom-
boidea Cass. in Dict. Sc. Nat. 29 ; 493; F.U.G.P. 1: 469.
An annual herb, 1-3 ft. high, with opposite leaves. Heads heteroga-
mous, 4-4” diam., arranged in dichotomous cymes, yellow ray flowers
fertile. Pappus of 2-5 bristles. Fl. during winter. Rare.
74, Glossocardia bosvallea DC. Fi, Madras 1: 709 : Syn. G. lineart-
folta Cass. in Dict Sc. Nat. 19:62; F.B.I. 3: 308; F.U.G.P.
1: 471.
A small, usually prostrate annual; branches 3-10 in. long. with
alternate pinnatisect leaves. Heads heterogamous and rayed,4 inch
long; ray flowers female. Pappus of 2 stiff-awns. FJ. during winter.
Rare,
75, Bidens pilosa Linn., Sp. Pl, 832; F.B.I. 3: 309; F.U.G.P. 1: 472,
An erect annual, 1:3 ft. high, with variable opposite leaves. Heads
heterogamous and rayed; ray flowers sterile. Pappus of 2-4 bristles,
Rare.
76, Artemisia vulgaris Linn., Sp. Pl. 848; F.B.1. 3:.325; F.U.G.P.
1: 477. .
A tall aromatic herb, 2-8{ft. high, with alternate leaves. Heads
small, in panicled racemes, brownish yellow, heterogamous, Fl. during
winter. Rare.
77. Echinops echinatus DC; Roxb., Fl. Ind. 3; 447; F.B.I. 3: 358;
F.U.G.P. : 1 : 480. |
A spiny spreading herb, 1-3 ft. tall, with alternate pinnatifid, 3-5 in,
long leaves. Heads 1-flowered, homogamous, arranged in globose
inflorescence 1-14 inch in diameter. Flowers all tubular, FJ. Jan.-Feb.
Rare. Sarre 7
452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 51
78. Cmicus arvensis Hoffm., Deutschl. Fl. (ed, 2)1: 130; F.B.I. 3: 362;
F.U.G.P. 1: 481.
An erect herb, 2-3 ft. high, with alternate, 3-5 inch long; spinescent
leaves. Heads unisexual, dicecious, solitary ; many-flowered, 4-1 in. in
diam. Corolla dull purple. Fl. Feb.-March. Rare on ridge.
79. C. Wallichii Hook.f. in. F.B.I. 3: 336; F.U.G.P. 1: 481.
Differs in taller pliant (4-10 ft.) and bisexual flowers with yellow
corolla. Fl. Feb.-March. Very Rare.
80. Volutarella divaricata Benth. et Hook, f., Gen. Pl. 2: 476 (in
part); “E-Bils 3: 3635 FUGlBY ase.
A straggling herb with alternate leaves. Heads heterogamous ; outer
flowers sterile, inner bisexual. Involucre spiny. Fl]. during winter
Rare.
81, Launaea nudicaulis Hook. f. in F.B.I. 3.416; F.U.G.P. 1: 494.
A perennial herb with yellow latex and radical rosette of leaves.
Heads homogamous, yellow; flowers all ligulate. Fl. during winter.
Common.
82. Vicoa indica DC. in Wight, Contrib. 10; Fl. Madras 1: 701; Syn.
V. auriculata Cass.; F.B.I. 3: 297.
Rare on ridge. A small herb.
83. Tridax procumbens Linn., Sp. Pl. 900; F.B.I. 3: 311; F.U.G.P.
ea OF
A herb. Common.
PLUMBAGINACEAE
84. Plumbago zeylanica Linn., Sp, Pl. 151; F.B.I. 3: 480; F.U.G.P:
1g? Uo
A perennial herb. Flowers white, hypogynous with calyx bearing
many sticky glands. Fl. April-May. Very rare, possibly introduced. |
EBENACEAE
85. Diospyros montana Roxb., Cor. PI. 1:37, t. 48; F.B.I. 3: 555;
FLU, GB. :2%' 78: ar
A small tree with alternate 24-4 in, long ovate leaves. Male flowers
in ftew-flowered panicles. Fruit globose, reddish-brown, 1 in. diam.,
supported by enlarged calyx lobes. FJ. April-May. Common in New
Delhi Ridge.
SALVADORACEAE
86. Salvadora persica Linn., Sp. Fl. 122; F.B.1. 3: 619; F.U.G.P.
CHA OF
An evergreen tree with 1-2” long fleshy ovate leaves. Flowers pedi-
celled. Drupes red when ripe. Fl. Jan.-April. Quite common.
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’ 453
87. S,oleoides Dene. in Jacq., Voy. Bot. 140, t. 144; F.B.I, 3: 620;
EVUW.G. Pi 2's 29% |
Differs from the previous in narrower and longer near lanceolate
leaves, sessile flowers, and fruits yellow when ripe. FI. same time.
Rare.
APOCYNACEAE
88. Carrissa spinarum Linn., Mantiss App. 559; F.B.I, 3: 631;
BOG yea 32.
A small evergreen shrub with prominent thorns, and milky latex:
Flowers pinkish white. Fruit subglobose, 4” in diameter, red chang-
ing to dark purple when ripe.. April-June. Common specially in New
Delhi Ridge. é
89. Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall., Cat. 1627; F.B.I. 3: 644.
A small deciduous tree, 19-15 ft. tall. Corolla white. Fruit a pair of
follicles, very narrow and 8-15 inch iong, 4-4 inch indiam. Seeds with
a tuft of hairs, Fl. in May. Quite common.
90. Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. in Mem. Wern. Soc. 1: 74; FBI.
3:653; F.U.G.P, 2: 38.
A small deciduous tree with opposite leaves. Flowers in lax dicho-
tomous cymes. Corolla with a corona of scales. Fl. March—-May. Rare.
ASCLEFIADACEAE
91, Calotropis procera R. Br. in Ait., Hort. Kew., ed. 2,2: 78;
F.B.1. 4:18; F.U.G.P. 2: 48. ;
A large shrub, 6-8 ft. high with sessile leaves and pink flowers with
erect corollalobes. Fl. March to May. ‘Common.
92. Perguilaria extensa N.E. Br. in Fl. Cap. 4: 758; Fl. Madras
1: 837: Syn. Daemia extensa R. Br. in Mem. Wern. Soc. 1: 50 ;
ELBUI 47205 F.U.G:i Py 23/52;
A twining perennial herb with cordate leaves. Flowers in
corymbiform peduncled cymes, with double staminal corona. Fruit a
pair of beaked follicles, covered with spines. Fl. Feb.-April.
Very common.
93. Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br. in Bot. Reg. t. 435; F.B.I.
Ai Gaba Galzerc) 4 OO!
A climber, with evergreen elliptic obtuse leaves, 3-4 by 14-2”.
Flowers big, pinkish purple. Fl. after rains. Common; an exotic
jntroduced plant, almost naturalised.
94. Leptadenia reticulata W. et A. in Wight, Contrib. 47; F.B.1.
G63 9 WEG. PZ): 56.
A climber with yellow latex. Common in the area but rare on
ridge. Fl. after rains.
8
454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 41
BORAGINACEAE
95. Cordia myxa Linn., Sp. Pl. 190; F.B.I. 4: 136; F.U.G.P. 2: 82.
A deciduous tree, 30-40 ft. high, with alternate 3-6 in. long
leaves. Flowers in lax peduncled cymes. Fruits ovoid, 1/2-1 in. long.
Fi. March-April, Rare.
96. C. Rothii Roem. et Sch., Syst. 4: 798; F.B.I. 4: 138; F.U.G.P.
) 2°: 185,
Differs from above in smaller tree, opposite or subopposite
cuneate-oblong leaves, 24-4 in. long. Fl. April-June. Common in
New Delhi Ridge.
97, Ehretia laevis Koxb. Cor. Pl. 1: 42, t. 55; F.BI. 4: 141;
BLO-GiP. 22186:
A small tree, 30-40 ft. high, with elliptic or obovate entire leaves.
Flowers white. Style terminal, bifid. Fl. Feb.-March. Very
common.
98. Heliotropium Eichwaldi Steud. ex DC., Prod. 9: 535; F.B.I.
4 AGE Ee URG SP 2202,
An erect herb with 1-12 in. long, elliptic-oblong or obovate
leaves, Flowers small, white, in dichotomous cymes, ebracteate.
Calyx not enveloping the fruit. Fl. March-April. Common in the
area but rare on Ridge.
99. H. strigosum Willd., Sp, Pi. 1: 743,; F.B.I. 4: 151; F.U.G.P.
2°98;
Very small, much-branched, strigose herb. Leaves linear $-1 in,
long. Flowers white, very smaJl. Fl. after rains. Common.
100. Trichodesma indicum. R. Br., Prod. 496; F.B.I, 4: 153;
EY URG Ps 298.
Erect hispid herb, with ovate oblong stiffly hairy leaves. Flowers
solitary, pale blue, Stamens 5, anthers connate. Fl. Oct.-Nov.
Common.
CONVOLVULACEAE
101. Porana paniculata Roxb., Cor. Pl. 3: 31, t. 235; F.B.L 4: 222;
PeWRG Ae, o2ienl OZ, |
A large climber, with 2-4 in. long ovate-cozdate leaves with grey
tomentum below. Flowers small in drooping panicles. Capsule
1/5 in., l-seeded. Fl. Oct. to Jan. Rare.
*102, Cuscuta hyalina Roth.; F.B.1. 4: 226,
Stem thin and smaller flowers. Common. FI. after rains.
103. Evolvulus alsinoides Linn.; Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2:.105; F.B.I.
A 220) RW Gakeere lO.
A much branched prostrate perennial herb. Flowers blue, in 1-3
flowered cymes. Fl. July-Nov. Very common.
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’ 455
104. Ipomoea pilosa Sweet, Hort. Brit., ed. 2,372; F.B.I1. 4: 213;
F.U.G.P. 2: 1]4.
An annual twining herb with pilose stem. Flowers purple, hae
#in. long. Fl. after rains. Common.
105. I. hederacea Jacq., Collect. 1: 124; F.B.I.4: 199; F.U.G.P.
2: 116.
An annual with twining, sparsely hairy stem. Leaves deeply
3-lobed, 1-4 in. long. Flowers bluish pink, 1§-2” long. Fl. after
rains. Common.
106. J. pes-tigridis Linn, Sp. Pl. 162; F.B.I. 4: 204; F.U.G.P.
© WG,
A twining pubescent herb. Leaves fulvous hairy on both sides
5-9 lobed ; 1-5 in. long and broed. Capsule enclosed in densely hairy
calyx. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Very common
SOLANACEAE
107. Lycium europaeum Linn., Sp. Pl. 192; F.B.I. 4: 240; F WEG:
be Qeeali29,
A thorny shrub with 4-lin. long, linear-obiong leaves. Flowers
white. Calyx not enlarging in fruit. Fl. Oct-.March. Rare.
BIGNONIACEAE
108. Tecomella undulata Seem. in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 3.
1O3) 30) FeWsGsPs 2): Wile Syn, Zecona undulata G. Don ;
F.B.1. 4: 378.
A tree about 20 ft. tall with drooping branches. Leaves 2-5 in. long
narrowly oblong with undulate margins. Flowers big, about 2-24”
long, orange yellow with 4 fertile stamens. Fl. March-April. Common
in the area but rare on Ridge. 7
{09 Kigelia pinnata DC.; F.U.G.P. 2:: 175.
An ornamental tree oe pinnately compound leaves, large hand-
some deep maroon flowers and big hanging cucumber-like fruits. An
exotic introduced plant; in the Ridge an escape from cultivation.
PEDALIACERAE
110. Sesamum indicum Linn., Sp. Pl. 634; F.B.I. 4; 387; F U.G.P.
252 WED:
An erect annual herb, 1-2 ft. tall. Flowers big, about 14” long with
bilabiate, pinkish purple spotted yellowish corolla. Fruit characters
istic. An escape from cultivation but turned a naturalised weed. FI.
after rains. Very common.
111. Martynia diandra Glox. ; F.B.I. 4: 386; F.U.G.P. 2: 176.
An erect annual herb with Leautiful rose=coloured flowers and
characteristic fruit with 2 hard curved spines at top. Fl, after rains.
‘A native of Mexico, but naturalised here, common. FI. after rains,
456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
ACANTHACEAE
112. Elytraria crenata Vahl, 1:106; F.B.I. 4: 394; Syn.
Tubitlora acaulis O. Kuntze Rev. Gen. 1: 500; F.U.G,P. 1: 180.
A small herb with compressed stem and rosette of radical, obovate,
3-8 in. long leaves with crenate margins, flat on the ground. Flowers
on a short, 4-4” long narrow spike, covered with spirally imbricate,
stiff bracts; whitish in colour. FJ. after rains. Quite common.
113. Biepharis molluginifolia Pers., Syn. 2: 180; F.B.I. 4: 479;
B.U.G. Ba 2e3183:
A prostrate herb; leaves subsessile, 4 in each node, 1/3-1 in. long.
Capsule 2 seeded. FI. after rains. Common.
*114, B.asperrima Nees in DC., Prod. 11: 267; F.B.I. 4: 478.
A small herb. Leaves in opposite pairs in each node, ovate, bigger
and broader than previous. FI. Dec.-Jan. Rare.
115. Barleria prionitis Linn., Sp. Pl. 636; F.B.I. 4: 482; F.U.G.P.
2: 200.
A spiny undershrub. Flowers yellow. Capsule 2-seeded. Fi.
after rains. are.
*116. Lepidagathis cristata Willd; F.B.I. 4: 516.
A small undershrub. Spikes aggregated at base of stem in globose
cushions. Bracts and calyx lobes spinous-mucronate. Leaves linear
oblong, up to 1°75 in. long. FJ. Oct.-Nov. Rare.
117. Adhatoda vasica Nees in Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 3; 103; F.B.I.
4: 540 Syn. Justicia Adhatoda Linn. Pl. 15; F.U.G.P. 2: 207.
An undershrub 4-8 ft. high. Flowers big, white, in spikes with
prominent bracts, strongly bilabiate. Stamens 2. Fl. in Oct.-Nov. and
again in March. Very common.
118. Justicia simplex D. Don, Prod. 118; F.B.I. 4: 539; F.U.G.P.
23 PANO :
A small prostrate herb, 6-20 in. long. Flowers in dense spikes, 1-4
ins long. Corolla pale purple, deeply bilabiate. FJ. during winter.
Very common.
119. Peristrophe bicaiyculata Nees in Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 3; 113;
F.B.1. 4: 554; F.U.G.P. 22 210.
A 3-4 ft. high herb. Flowers in branched panicles. Corolla pink,
4-5 in. long, Cilobed. Stamens 2. Capsule 4-seeded. FI. after rains.
Very common.
VERBENACEAE
‘120. Clerodendron phlomidis Linn. f., Supp]. 292; F.U.G.P. 2: 125;
C. phlomoides, F.B.1. 4: 590.
A large shrub. Flowers white; corolla hypocrateriform, 3 in. long.
Rare. Fl. April-May.
121. Lantana indica Roxb; F.B.I. 4: 562; F.U.G.P. 2: 216. Rare in
ridge.
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI] ‘RIDGE’ 457
LABIATAE
122, Ocimum sanctum Linn., Mant. 1: 85; F.B.I. 4: 609; F.U.G.P.
2: 233.
A perennial undershrub with pinkish flowers with pedicels as long
as or longer than calyx. Flowers about 1/6 in. long, F1. Jan. -March,
Very rare in Ridge, possibly an escape from cultivation.
123. Ocimum americanum Linn; Syn. O. canum Sims. in Bot. Mag.
2452: F.B.L 4: 607; F.U.G.P. 2: 234.
An erect undershrub, with whitish flowers, 1/6-!/5 in. long and
pedicels shorter than calyx. Very common.
124, Leucas Biecges Spreng., Syst. 2: 743; F.BI. 4: 689;
F.U.G aol.
A apa it 1-3 ft. high. Leaves 2-4 in. ovate. Flowers in
dense globose terminal whorls, 1-2 in. in diam. Calyx 6-10 toothed.
Corolla white, lower lip much longer (3/4 in.) than upper lip.
Common.
*125. L. diffusa Benth. in DC., Prod. 12: 531; F.B.I. 4: 689.
An annual, diffusely branched. Leaves 3-lin. long, jinear oblong or
linear. Floral whorls solitary, few- dewered: terminal. Fl. after rains.
Rare. .
126. Salvia aegyptiaca Linn. var. pumila Hook. in F.BI. 4: 656;
F.U.G.P. 2: 256. |
A small herb about 4-8 in. long with crenate, rinkled leaves, up to
lin. long, Corolla about 1/5 in. long. Stamens 2-perfect. Fl]. Nov.—
March. Common.
127. Anisomeles indica O, Kze; Fl. Madras 2: 1140. Syn. 4. ovata.
Rehr bie saley een (Oia By Oi Gareeon neo. :
A shrub. Common, FI. after rains.
Division 3. MONOCHLAMY DEAE
NycTAGINACHAE
128. Boerhavia diffusa Linn., Sp. Pl. 3; F.U.G.P. 3: 2; Syn. 2.
vepens Linn. in F.B.I. 4: 709.
A trailing herb with long internodes, often tinged purple. Leaves
1/2-14 in. long, ovate-oblong in unequal pairs. Perianth red, funnel-
shaped. FJ. commonly after rains. Very common.
AMARANTACEAE
129, Digera arvensis Forsk., F). Aegypt-Arab. 65; F\B.I. 4: 717;
BUG Pa oS:
A smail herb with 1/2-3 in. long, ovate or elliptic, alternate leaves.
Fiowers sessile forming axillary spikes, 1-5 in. long, pink in colour,
Fl, after rains, Common,
458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
130. Amarantus spinosus Linn., Sp. Pl. 991; F.BI1., 4: 718;
F.U;G.Ps3% 0;
An erect spiny herb. Flowers in densely aggregated terminal spikes.
Perianth lobes greenish, 5; stamens 5. FJ. after rains. Common.
131. A. viridis Linn., Sp., Pl., ed. 2,1405; F.B.I. 4: 720; F.U.G.P. 3:
13. Differs from previous in absence Of Spines, and flowers yeu 3
perianth lobes and 3 stamens. FI]. after rains. Rare.
132,. Aerua tomentosa Forsk., Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 122 and 727;
F.U.G.P. 3: 153 Syn. Ae. javanica Juss; F.B.1. 4: 727.
A tomentose erect undershrub, 2-3 ft. high, with alternate, sessile,
linear oblong, 1-23 in. long, leaves. Flowers unisexual, dioeceous, in
densely wooly spikes, 1-6 in. long. FJ. after rains. Common.
103. _.Ae,lanata Juss.:; F.B.1..4;.,7285,,.8.0,.G.P..3; 016.
An erect or prostrate undershrub with alternate, petiolate, elliptic-
obovate or sub-orbicular leaves, 3/4-lin. long. Flowers uni- and
bisexual, in small dense axillary heads or spikes. Fl. after rains.
Ccmmon.
134, Achyranthes aspera Linn., Sp. Pl. 204: F.BiI., 4: 730;F.U.GP.
Sens}
A herb with slender simple spikes up to 20 in. long and sticky fruits
with persistent calyx. Fl. after rains. Common.
135. Pupalia lappacea Moq; F.B.I. 4: 724; F.U.G.P. 3: 19.
A large straggling undershrub. Leaves 14-4 in., ovate or elliptic.
Flowers in terminal spikes, 4-10 in. long. Fruits ih hooked spines.
Fl. after rains. Very common.
136. Alternanthera triandra JLamk.: Syn. J. sessilis R. Br., Prod.
417; F.B.I. 4<¢,,731; 4.U-G.P.3 : 20,
A prostrate herb with opposite leaves. Flowers in sessile, white,
axillary heads. Fl. after rains. Common.
137. Gomphrena globosa Linn.; F.B.I. 4: 732; F.U.G.P.3; 21.
_. An annual heb with globose etriiste purple heads. FI. after rains.
An escape from cultivation.
CHENOPODIACEAE
138. . Chenopedium album Linn., Sp. PI. 219; F.B.I. 5: 3; F.U.G.P.
Situwaice
An erect herb, 5-6 ft. tall with flat leaves. Flowers in compact
spikes. Fl. after rains, Very abundant in the area but not socommon
on ridge. PY
VEGETATION OF THE DELH] ‘RIDGE’ 459
139. Suaeda fruticosa Forsk., FJ. Aegypt-Arab. 70, t.9; F.B.I. 5:
13 SR UiG, Pes) 24.
A rauel branched perennial herb. Leaves fleshy, variable 1/5- 5/8
in. long. Fl. during winter. Common in saline waste lands but very
rare on Ridge.
140. Salsola foetida Del., Fl. Aegypt.,; 111, 1812, n. 310; F.B.I.
SlCr WG a 420.
A shrub, about 4 ft. high, Fruit membranous. Fl. during winter.
Common in the area but rare on the Ridge.
LORANTHACEAE
141. Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsh.; Danser in Bull. Jard.
Bot. Buitenzorg, Ser. 3, 10: 308 (1929): Syn. Lovanthus long7-
tlorus Desr.; F.B.I. 5: 214.
A pattial parasite, on Acacia, Ehretia and other trees. Flowers
orange-red, FJ. in Feb.-April. Common. }
EUPHORBIACERAE
142. Euphorbia hirta Linn., Sp. Pl.,; ed. i, 454; F.U.G.P. 3: 80.
A small prostrate herb with erect branches and opposite leaves.
Flowers in cyathium. Very common.
143. E. clarkeana Hook. f. in F.B.I. 5: 253; F.U.G.P. 3: 82.
A glabrous annual with very small opposite leaves. Common.
144. Acalypha indica Linn., Sp. Pl. 1003; F.B.J. 5: 416; F.U.G.P.
3 LOS!
An erect annual, 1-24 ft. high, with alternate leaves. Flowers uni-
sexual, monoecious, apetalous; male small, without bracts ; females at
the axil of big leafy bracts. Fl. commonly after rains. Abundant in
the area, but not so common on the Ridge.
*145. Jatropha gossypifolia Linn., Sp. Pl. 1006; F.B.I, 5: 383. Rare.
Fl. in March and after rains.
Monocotyledons
LILIACEAE
146. Asphodelus tenuifolius Cay, in Anal. Cienc. Nat. 3: 46. t. 27;
F.B.1. 6; 332; F.U.G.P..3:: 265,
An annual plant locking like onion. Stem compressed, not bulbous.
Inflorescence branched, spicate. Perianth white with orange yellow
streaks. F1. during winter. Common in the area but rare on Ridge.
147. Urginea indica Kunth, Enum. 4: 333; F.B.1. 6: 347; F.U.G.P.
3: 264.
A herb with tunicate bulbs. Leaves radical, flat. 6-18 in. long.
- Flowers racemose on 12-18 in. long scape. Perianth petaloid campanu-
late. Fl. March-April. Grows among stones, Very rare, |
460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
COMMELINACEAE
148. Commelina nudiflora Linn., Sp. Pl. 41; F.B.I., 6: 369: F.U.G.P.
3272.
A diffuse, glabrous herb, with 2-3 ft. long, branches. Leaves sessile,
13-3 in. long, lanceolate. Flowers blue. FI. during rains. Common.
149, C. benghalensis Linn., Sp. PJ. 41; F.B.I. 6: 370; F.U.G.P. 3:
274.
Differs from the preceding in broader and bigger leaves. Fl]. during
rains. Rare.
150. C. obliqua Buch.-Ham.; F.B.1.6: 372; F.U.G.P. 3: 274,
A tall herb with 4-7 in. long lanceolate leaves. Ovary 3 celled with
1 ovulein.each. Rare.
* CYPERACEAE
151. Cyperus rotundus Linn. Sp. Pl. 67; F.B.I. 6: 614, Fl. Madras 2:
1641: Syn. C. Fenzelianus Steud., C. subcapitatus C. B. Clarke
C. tubcrosus Rottb. in. F.B.1., 6: 615-16.
A common plant with underground stem and branched fascicled
inflorescence. Spikelets with one glume. FI. after rains. Common.
152. C.iria Linn; F.B.I. 6: 606; Fl, Madras 2:.1640.
Rare. Fl. after rains.
153. . Kyllinga triceps Rottb.; F.B.I. 6: 587.
Very small plant terminated by 3 sessile, cylindric-ovoid, whitish
heads (up to 4 in. long). Fl. after rains. Very common.
* GRAMINEAE
-. Most of the grasses are annuals and found in the shallow depressions
or pits on or at the base of the Ridge; mostly flowering after rains.
154. Amphilophis pertusa Stapf; Fl. Madras 1731 Syn. Adropogon
pertusus Willd. in F.B.I. 7: 173.
A dwarf grass. Leaves mostly aggregated near the base, 1-6 in.
long and .1-.15 in. wide, Inflorescence of 1-10 digitate branches arising
from nearly one point. Spikelets in pairs, 1-flowered, about .1 in. Jong,
awned. Not so common.
155. Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers., Synops. Pl. 1: 101; Fl. Assam
5: 352. Syn. Andropogon halepensis Brot., Fl. Lusit. 1: 80;
B.B.kaZio1 82:
Culms erect, tall. Inflorescence a branched panicle, 9-17 in. long.
Spikelets in pair, awned, °4-. in. long. Rare.
156.. Chrysopogon montanus Trin. ; Fl. Madras 2: 1739 : Syn.
Andropogon monticola Schult ; F.B.I. 7: 192.
Culms about 1-3 ft. tall. Leaves 1:8-8 in, long and °5-1 in. wide.
- Inflorescence a lax panicle about 1:5-3 in. long. Spikelets, :1-:2 in, long
with very long awns (:9-1 in.). Common,
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’ 461
157. Heteropogon contortus Beauv. ex Roem et Schult., Syst. Veg.
2: 830; Fl. Assam 5: 402. Syn. Andropogon contortus Linn.,
Sp. Pl. 1045; F.B.1..7 : 199.
Culms about 1-4 ft. tall. Inflorescence 1-2°5 in. long. Spikelets
*2~3 in. with very long awns twisted around one another. Very
common.
158. Digitaria marginata Link.; F]. Madras 1763; Syn. Paspalum
sanguinale Lamk, in F.B.I. 7 : 13.
Inflorescence of 2-3 digitate spikes. Common.
159. Brachiaria ramosa Stapfin F]. Trop. Afr. 9: 542; Fl. Assam
5: 277 Syn. Panicum ramosum Linn., Mant. 1: 29; F.B.I.
fine weolor
A dwarf grass having lanceolate leaves with sub-cordate base, about
2-6 in. long and °15-"7 in. wide. Glumes dissimilar, the lower much
smaller.. Common.
160. Setaria verticillata Beauv., Ess. Agros. 51; F.B.I. 7: 80.
A dwarf grass with leaves 3-14 in. by -3-4 in. Inflorescence ter-
minal, continuous, cylindric, 1-8 in. long. Spikelets borne on branches
ending in bristles with barbellate, descending teeth. Common.
161. Cenchrus ciliaris Linn.; Fl. Madras. 1794; Syn. Pennisetum
cenchroides Rich., F.B.I. 7 : 88.
A dwarf grass. Inflorescence a spike of 2-3 spikelets enclosed in a
cuplike involucre having hairy outgrowths, which are cream or pinkish
in colour, Very common.
162.. ©. setigerus Vahl,; Fl. Madras 1764; Syn. C. ézflorus Roxb ;
F.B.1. 7 : 89.
Involucral bristles stiff and not hairy ; bristles all erect up to ‘16 in.
long. Rare.
163, C. barbatus Schum; FI. Madras 1794; Syn. C. catharticus Del. ;
3 ESB HB ON
Differs from previous in turbinate involucre with stouter and longer
(up to °*3 in.) bristles which are spreading or recurved. Rare.
164. Aristida hystrix Linn. f , Suppl. 113; F.B.[. 7: 225; Fl. Madras
1809.
A dwarf grass with effuse panicles 3-9 in. long with spreading
flexuose branches. Spikelets with long conspicuous awns with 3 setae.
Common.
165. A.setacea Retz; I.B.I. 7; 225 ; Fl. Madras 2 : 1809.
Similar as the preceding but with contracted panicle. Common.
166. Tragus biflorus Schult., Mant, 2: 205; Fl. Assam 5 : 162 : Syn.
_ TL. racemosus Scop,, Introd. Hist. Nat. 73: F.BI. 7: 97.
,_ .. A. small grass with 2-8 in. long culms. Inflorescence Spicate, Upper
glume armed with hooked spinules. Rare.
462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
167. Perotis indica O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl, 787; Fl. Assam 5: 161;
Syn. . latifolia Ait., Hort. Kew. 1:85; F.B.I: 7 : 98.
A tufted dwarf grass. Inflorescence spiciform. Spikelets 1-fowered.
Glumes very narrow, subequal, tapering into long capillary awns,
pinkish in colour. Not so common.
168. Eragrostis ciliaris Link. var. brachystachya Boiss.; F.B,I.
7: 315; Fl. Madras 1825. :
A small grass, 5-10 in. high. Panicle spiciform, cylindric, about
1-14 in. long. with densely aggregated spikelets. Not so common,
169. EE: tenella Roem. et Schult., Syst. 2:576; F.B.I. 7: 315; FI.
Assam 5 : 96. |
A small grass with numerous lax, inflorescences, -5-2 in. long.
Common.
170. E. nutans Nees. ex Steud., Nom. (ed. 2,) 1: 563 ;,Fl. Assam
Sie Siam vialeeees stenophylla Hochst. ex Miq,, Anal. Bot. Ind.
7a Pof {Swell tie BY beers 01 or
A taller grass, 3-36 in. high. Inflorescence a branched panicle,
effuse, 3-10 in. long. Ultimate groups of spikelets bigger than the two
previous. Common.
7 Ee Oropetium Thomaeum Trin., Fund. Agrost. 98, t. 3; F.B.I.
7: 366; Fl. Madras 1830.
Very small (upto 4 in. ) densely tufted grass, forming hard tussocks.
Spikes solitary, terminal, 2-ranked, ‘4-1 in. long. Very common.
172. Melanocenchris Royleana Nees in Proc, Linn. Soc. 1:95; Fl.
Madras 1832 ; Syn. Gracilea Royleana Wook. f. in F.B.1.
Ti paSa.
A small grass, 2-7 in. high. Spikelets sessile with aristate glumes.
Common.
173. Chloris eos SWeanstla.tnd. cdr 205" P.B.I. ZL? 29)55E 1,
Assam 5: 123. :
Inflorescence of 4-7 erates diverging from one point above a long
stalk. Spikelets awned. Common. ©
174, Chloris tenella Roxb.; F.B.I. 7: 290, Fl. Madras 2: 1838.
Common.
175. Eleusine verticilflata Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1: 346; F.B.I. 7: 295;
Fl. Assam, 5: 109.
Erect herb with 4-30 spikes in several whorls. Spikes 2-5 in. long.
Common.
176. Dactyloctenium aegyptium Beauv., Ess. Agrost 72; Fl. Assam.
5: 110: Syn. Eleusine aegyptiaca Desf; PB 295.
Erect herb with 1-7 spikes in terminal ‘umbel, digitately radiating,
3-1°5 in. long. Spikelet sessile, laterally compressed, stele) Hens
in 2 rows. Common,
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’ 463
177. Dichanthium annulatum Stapf., Fl. Trop. Afr. 9: 178; FI.
Assam, 5: 571; Syn. Andropogon annulatus Forsk; F.B.1,
6: 196.
178. Eremopogon foveolatus Stapf; Fl. Madras 2: 1751: Syn,
Andropogon toveolatus Del.; F.B,I. 7: 168,
SUMMARY
Although some advancement in researches in several branches of
botany has been made in India during recent years, floristic and vegeta-
tional studies are much neglected since the publication of Hooker’s
Flora of British India and other provincial floras in the later part of
nineteenth and early twentieth century. During the last decade some
interest has been revived in the subject and attempts have been
made to study local vegetations. Concerted action on the part of bota-
nists in all the Universities and other scientific institutions is required
to make fresh collections for floristic studies and thereby help in the
revision of the Flora of India.
The present paper deals with the vegetation of the Delhi Ridge,
which consists of a narrcw range of sandstone hills passing west of
New Delhi and again through the Notified area terminating on the right
bank of Jumna. It is a prolongation of the Aravalli Ranges and
enters Delhi from the south. ‘The temperature shows great fluctuations
during the summer (max. temp. 114-116°F.) and winter (min. temp.
34-40°F.). The soil is poor and sandy and the average annual rainfall
is about 26 inches, with some years showing unusually drought condi-
tions.
The ridge maintains a representative natural vegetation of the Delhi
area and contains common features with the flora of the three adjoining
areas, the Rajputana, the Punjab Plains and the dry western region of
the Upper Gangetic Plain. The characteristic species of the Ridge,
some of which are common to the above three areas, are Prosopis
spicigera, Acacia senegal, A. arabica, and A. leucophloea.. Zizyphus
nummularia, Capparis aphylla and C. sepiaria, Coccutus hirsutus.
Maerua arenaria, Daemia extensa. Salvadora persica and S. oleoides,
Ehretia laevis, Pluchea lanceolata and scattered individuals of Zecomella
undulata.
The vegetation may be grouped into two categories (1) the erma-
nent vegetation, which is xerophytic, and (2) the ephemeral vegetation,
consisting mainly of annuals coming up after the rains. ‘The dominant
types of the permanent vegetation, which are growing successfully and
spreading on the Azdge and when properly protected may be able to
cover a good amount of area of such arid zones, are Prosopis spicigera,
Acacia leucophioca, A. modesta, A. senegal, Capparis sepiaria, C. aphylla,
Ehretia laevis, Butea monosperma, Balanites Roxburghit, Celastrus sene-
galensis, Carissa spinarum, Maerua arenaria, Grewia betulaefolia,
Zizyphus nummularia, Adhatoda vasica and Tephrosia purpurea.
The list of plants includes 178 species under 44 families of which
the more common are Leguminosae (31 sp.), Gramineae (25 sp.) Com-
4.64. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
positae (14), Amarantaceae (9), Acanthaceae (8) and Capparideae (6).
The following species are not recorded in Duthie’s Flora :—
: Vicoa indica (Compositae), Lepidagathis cristata and Blepharis
asperrima (Acantnaceae), Atylosta elongata (Leguminosae), Opuntia
Ditleniz (Cactaceae), Cuscuta hyalina (Convolvulaceae), Leucas diffusa
(Labiatae), Jatropha gossypitolia (Euphorbiaceae),.ard 3 species of
Cyperaceae and 25 species of Gramineae.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks are due to Prof. Pp. Maheshwari for his keen interest in
building up a local Herbarium in ‘the University which led to the
preparation of his paper, and for helpful criticism, and to some of my
colleagues and students in the University for contributing to the collec-
tion. Thanks are also due to Mr. M. B. Raizada of F.R.I., Dehra Dun,
for kindly helping in identification of some of the specimens, and to
the Director, Regional Meteorological Centre, New Delhi, for supplying
the climatic records. Finally I am grateful to Father Santapau for
kindly going through the manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Biswas, K. 1941.—Flora of the Aka Hills. Ind. Forest Rec. (V.S.)
Bot., 32 Now lh
—— 1950.—Study of the Flora: of South Calcutta etc., Bot:
See. Bengal, Special Publication Na. 1, 1-40.
& Rao, R. S. 1951.—Observations on the vegetation and
the. new records of the Vindhya ranges and the Pachmarhi plateau. ‘Proc.
38th Ind. Sc. Cangress, 148-159.
Calder, C. C. 1938.—An outline of the vegetation of India. Jud. Scz.
Congr. Silver Jubilee Session, 71-89.
Hooker, J. D. 1904—A sketch of the Flora of British India, I- 55;
& Tompson, T. 1855—Introductory essay to the Flora Indica,
159-162.
Jain, S. K. and Bhardwaja, R. C. 1949.—On a botanical trip to the
Parbatti Valley. Ind. Forester, 1-14.
Kadambi, K. 1950.—Evergreen, Montane forests of the Western
Ghats of Hassan district, Mysore State. Jd. Forester, 76: 18-30,
69-82, 121-132.
Mooney, H. F. 1942.— A sketch of the Flora of the Bailadila Range
in Bastar State. lad. Forest Rec. (V.S.), Bot. 3: 197-253.
1944.—A list of plants recorded from the Bats OE
Ranchi and Palamau districts, and the States of Jashpur and eee
Journ. As. Soc. Beng., Science, 10% 59-113..
Mukherjee, S° K. 1947.—A Botanical Tour in Chota Nagpur. Bull.
Bot. Soc..Bengal, 1: 27-28.
— aaa — 1951.—The Orchids of Ukhrul. Proc. Ind. Soc.
Congr. 159.
Raizada, M.B. 1939. —New or Noteworthy plants from the! Weyer
puineeHo Plain. ind. Forest Rec. (W.S:); L3\223-236! :
a 19507— «),; | dnd. Forester, 76: 489- 497,
fens eet oe
VEGETATION OF THE DELHI ‘RIDGE’ 465
Razi, B. A. and Govindu, H. C. 1949.—Some aspects of the Flora of
Sreerangapatna. Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc., 28: 221+227.
Santapau, H. 1951.—A contribution to the Flora of Simhagadh Hill,
Poona District. Poona Agr. Coll. Mag., 41: 1-15.
Singh, H. 1945.—Some useful wild plants of the Delhi Province.
Ind. Journ. Agrt. Sci., 15: 297-307.
Thirumalachar, M. J., Razi, B. A. and Swamy, B. G. L. 1949.— Con-
tributions to the Flora of Nandi Hills, /ourvn. Mysore Univ., Sec. B., 9:
73-83. .
Venkatesh, C.S. 1948.—Key to the Compositae of Bangalore. J/6zd.
8: 1-8.
SOME INTERESTING METHODS OF FISHING IN THE
BACKWATERS OF TRAVANCORE
BY
K. GOPINATH
Department of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Trivandrum
(With two text figures)
The common fishing methods of India have already been described
in detail by many authors. Nevertheless, some interesting and noyel
methods seem to have escaped their attention. A few such interesting
methods practised in certain regions along the Travancore coast are
described below. These methods are not generally known from other
parts of India, but have their parallels in the Malay Archipelago and
other Indonesian countries, where they are extensively employed in
commercial] fishing.
FISHING BY ‘LISTENING IN’
In this method, fish are first located by ‘listening in’ to the sound
produced by them. It is well-known that many species of fish, especially
ine Ey a, ee Le 2 ee
Fic. I. FISHING BY LISTENING IN (Diagrammatic)
The fisherman hanging from the gunwale of the boat immerses his head in water
to listen for sounds produced by shoals,
FISHING IN THE BACKWATERS OF TRAVANCORE 467
those belonging to the families Sciaenidae and Carangidae produce a
characteristic sound. The sciaenids are known as drummers since |
they make a drumming sound which could be heard sometimes even
above water, and Caranx hippos is said to grunt like a pig. The
squeaking perch, Therapon spp., and the silver belly Leiognathus sp.
also produce sound, the former a squeaking and the latter a grating
sound. Leather-jacket (Balistis) and the porcupine fish (Diadon) too
are sound producing species.
Usually two fishermen in a canoe take part in this fishing which
is carried on in the backwaters of Travancore-Cochin, especially in the
Ashtamudi lake at Quilon. Briefly, the method is as follows:
The fishermen first row to a secluded part of the lake not much
disturbed by wind. The man at the bow, who is the more experienced
of the two, gets into the water and holding on to the gunwale of
the canoe immerses his head in water and ‘listens in’ for the sound
produced by the fish, while the other man at the helm, usually the
former’s apprentice, sits balancing the canoe without making the
slightest movement (Fig. 1). Aifter locating the direction of the
shoal, the fishermen row to the indicated spot and lay their net in
a circle. The net employed is a smal] gill net of 3” mesh, 100-120
yards long and having floats along the cork line and weights along
the ground rope. One end of the cork line is kept afloat by a wooden
float and the other end is held in the canoe. After surrounding the shoal,
the fishermen begin to tap the sides of the canoe and slowly move in a
circle round it gradually making the circle smaller and . smaller.
F rightened by the tapping: noise the fish rush into the net and get
entangled in the meshes. “E he net) is then hauled into ‘the canoe’ and
the fish shaken out.
Once a few practical denn cehasions were given to the author,
and in all instances the prediction of the fishermen as to the type
of fish present turned out to be surprisingly accurate. On one occasion
the species netted was Leiognathus, while on two others it was young
Cavanx. Expert fishermen can distinguish whether a particular shoal
is at rest, feeding or moving by the characteristic. sound produced
during these actions. It is even said that the men can approximately
determine the extent of the shoal present.
Fishing by. ‘listening in’ in Lake Inle has been described by Annandale
(1922), but in Travancore only fishermen from the villages of Kanjrode
and Kallada near Quilon, are adepts in this method, which is however,
now dying out.
During a recent visit to the Malay Archipelago to study fishing
methods in the Malayan and Siamese seas, the author noted that
fishing by ‘listening in’ was one of the commonest methods followed
by the Malays in commercial fishing. This method, locally known
as Payang fishing is more commonly followed by the east coast Malays,
who during the heavy north-east monsoon migrate with their nets
and craft to the west coast, where the sea is comparatively calm. »
The net called Payang is really a Danish seine varying in length
from 500 to 600 feet including the wings. It is operated from peculiar
looking boats called Parahu varying in length from 35 to 45 feet (Firth,
1946). These are shallow boats with full buttocks, straight keel and steep
uprising ends, and are fitted with large rectangular sails. A small
auxiliary canoe is also used fot thé use of the fishing leader. The
468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol) $i
fishing unit consisting of 18 fishermen including the leader, proceeds
to the fishing grounds usually either early in the morning or at dusk.
On reaching the grounds the leader rows to a distant spot in a small
canoe and listens in for shoals, the procedure being the same as that
followed by the Travancore men, viz. holding on to the gunwhale of the
canoe and immersing the head in water. After thus locating the
shoal the leader issues directions to the fishermen who row to the
spot indicated and lay their nets around the shoal. The fishes commonly
caught by this method are sciaenids and carangids.
The feasibility of exploiting this method on a scientific basis by
using submarine sound detecting instruments like the Asdic was being
considered by the Malayan authorities at the time of the author’s visit.
The Asdic is an ultra-short-wave instrument evolved by the Allied Navy
during World War II to detect the presence, direction and probable
distance of submarines. It is reported that even whales have been
detected by this instrument from the ‘mushy’ sound they produce.
A fishing boat fitted with this instrument can easily spot shoals and
shoot its net, thus saving a good deal of time and labour.
WOOL ay
FISHING BY ‘VIRALI’ OR SCARE LINE
Three or four fishermen usually take part in this method of fishing
which is generally carried on in the shallower regions of backwaters,
especially Kayamkulam lake. Two persons wade abreast in 4-5 feet
depth of water at a distance of about too feet from each other and
drag between them a long rope on which, at close intervals, are at-
tached yellow coloured tender fronds of the coconut palm, in streamer
fashion (Fig. 2). The rope owing to its length sags behind them and
Fic. I]. FISHING BY SCARE LINE (Diagrammatic)
The scare line being drawn by two fishermen while a third one dives
at the apex to grab fish by hand.
FISHING IN THE BACKWATERS OF TRAVANCORE | A469
roughly takes the shape of a ‘V’. At the apex of this V formed by
the rope walks a third person, usually an expert diver, with a sort
of ‘live box’ made of palm ‘leaves attached to his waist. Disturbed
by the trampling men anid. probably frightened by the vibrating rope
the fish cower and crowd at the apex. At frequent intervals the diver
divés down and actually grabs the fish by hand and puts them into the
live box. The speciés commonly caught this way are the Pearl Spot
(Etroplus suratensis) one of the choicest food fishes of this state, and
also species of Gerres.
The quantity of fish obtained in a dive depends on the capacity of
the diver to remain submerged. Only experts can seize live fish under
water. To enable the diver to stay longer in water another man weighs
him down by standing on his shoulders. This method of fishing though
simple, is highly remunerative.
This method is probably an aberrant form of the Oikomi or Moro
Amu (Le Mare, 1947) of the Japanese fishermen. Moro Ami has recently
been copied by the Chinese, and during the author’s visit to the Malayan
waters there were three or four Chinese fishing units operating near
some of the small coral] islands off Singapore.
One or two motor or sailing boats, four smal] fishing dinghies and
a crew of about 50-60 men participate in this method. The net used
is virtually a seine with a bag and two wings, one of which is excep-
tionally long measuring 150 feet and the other only about 30 feet.
The short end of the net is attached to a stone or coral on the shore
and the net is laid in a semicircle with the long wing stretched
across the tidal current. The fishermen in their dinghies then move
towards the mouth of the net formed by the wing and the shore line.
About a dozen men get into the water with short ropes on which are
attached pieces of cloth in streamer fashion. They. slowly move
towards the centre of the net, and with these ropes frighten and drive
the fish to the cod-end. At the final stage when the cod-end is almost
reached the fishermen substitute the ropes with small sticks with which
they poke at every crevice and pit on the coral sea bed and drive out
the fish. All fish are thus driven to the cod-end of the net which is
then hauled into the boat. The fish commonly obtained by this method
are species of Caesio known as the Coral Bream,
PRAWN JUNKHAR OR ‘PACHIL’
This is a_ peculiar contrivance used in the shallow regions. of
Kayamkulam and Vembanad lakes. It consists of two long and narrow
‘canoes braced together by cross bars, with their sterns closer and
bows wider apart. The canoes lie almost on their sides and face each
other. Attached to the bows of the canoes by its two ends is a long
chain which drags along the bottom of the lake when the canoes move
along. Panikkar (1937) gave a detailed description of this implement
but mentioned that a net is tied across the canoes whereas in actual
practice only a chain is hung between them.
During calm periods, especially at dusk and dawn, this contrivance
is poled along the shallow regions of the lake by a man standing at
its narrow end. The chain drags along the bottom and disturbs the
prawns and shrimps living closé to the bottom. Thus disturbed they
jump out of water and fall into the canoes, in which they are trapped
9
470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
and retained by means of a criss-cross arrangement of bushes or coco-
nut bracts. Only prawns and shrimps are caught by this method, and
individual catches during a night amount to many pounds.
The method is exactly similar in principle to the prawn Seriat of
the Malay Archipelago, Burmah and East Bengal, and also to the
Rua kread (Swarng Charernphol, 1951) of Thailand. A Seriat is a
small canoe fitted with a bamboo platform on one side and an upwardly
slanting net on the other side. This canoe when rowed along the
banks of rivers and canals causes the prawns and shrimps. inhabiting
the mud slopes to jump. These jumping prawns and shrimps fall
into the slanting net and then slide into the canoe from which they
are prevented from escaping by covering its longitudinal half with
wooden planks.
The author happened to see many modifications of this Senat
used in the Malay Archipelago. The commonest modification is a small
canoe with a short thin pole sticking out from one side with coconut
fronds attached in streamer fashion. When this canoe is rowed along
the banks of rivers or near mudflats during low tide the leaves drag .
along the mud causing the prawns to jump out of water. These
jumping prawns are caught in the canoe and trapped by means of
small branches. and bushes arranged inside.
LURE FISHING
Extensively used in almost all the backwaters of the State, this
method makes use of the peculiar habit of fish of gathering round any
decaying vegetable mass, A large lure, commonly made up of small
branches of trees or bunches of coconut leaves, is lowered into the
water and anchored by means of stone weights. This is allowed to
decompose in the water for sometime. When the ‘lure’ has sufficiently
matured, fishes gather around and underneath it, probably to feed
on the organic detritus formed on the leaves or to seek protection
from the sun and enemies.
When the fishermen fee] that the lure has fully matured and a
sufficient number of fish has gathered, a net, usually a sort of drag
net or a small gill net or even a cast net, is shot around the lure.
The net is then gradually brought closer to the lure and finally hauled
into the canoe with the whole lure inside it. All the fish which had
gathered round the lure is thus lifted into the canoe. The fish ordinarily
obtained in this are Etroplus suratensis and various species of carangid
fishes.
_ Lure fishing is a common method used in the capture of flying fish
in the Gulf of Mannar and is also adopted in the commercial fisheries
of the Malay Archipelago where the annual landings by this method
vary from 50,000 to 60,000 tons (Hardenburg, 1949). This lure is
termed Tuas by the Malay and Rumpon by the Javanese fishermen, »
and no visitor to these parts could miss such lures distributed all over
the Strait of Malacca, China Sea and the Java Seas. There are two.
types of lures; one in which coconut leaves are tied in bunches and
anchored by a weight, and the other in which coconut leaves in bundles
are entwined at intervals along a rope and this vertically moored with .
a weight at the bottom and a float above, — . | 1c. Chetan
FISHING IN THE BACKWATERS OF TRAVANCORE Ai7k
In the Indo-Malayan region two methods are followed in using
this lure. In one method, after shooting the net a little distance
away from the lure the fishing leader slowly drags the lure towards
the net without disturbing the fish. When the lure is brought across
to the centre of the net, it is hauled in along with the lure. In the
second method a small auxiliary tuas is lowered near the original
large lure and the former dragged towards the net. Curiously, the
fishes leave the original tuas and follow the second one towards the net.
Species of Decapterus, Caranx and Stromateus are commonly
obtained by this method.
REFERENCES
Annandale, N. (1922): Fish and Fishing in the Inle lake. Journ. Bombay ‘Nat.
Hist. Society 28: 1038-1044,
Firth, R. (1946): Malay Fishermen, their Peasant Economy, London.
Hardenburg, J. D. F. (1949): Development of Pelagic Fisheries. IPFC—Pro-
ceedings, Singapore, 1949, pp. 138-143.
Le: Mare, D. W. (1947) : Monthly Economic Bulletin issued by special Com-
missioner in South-East Asia, Singapore.
Panikkar, N. K. (1937): The prawn industry of the Malabar Coast. Journ.
Bombay Nat. Hist. Society 39: 343-353.
Swarng Charernphol (1951): Indigenous Marine Fishing Gears of Thailand.
_ IPFC—Proceedings, Cronula, 1950, pp. 99-125.
UA PRE E ELST OF FISHES. OCCURRING IN THE FRESH
WATERS OF BARODA
BY
M. R. RANADE, M.Sc.,
Taraporevala Marine Biological Station, Bombay
The need for a comprehensive checklist of fishes occurring in sheets
of fresh water in Baroda has long been felt, particularly in view of the
recent emphasis on the development of freshwater fisheries in that area.
A number of specimens have been recorded by Moses, but these
records are scattered in different bulletins 1, and reports 3, *, > of
the erstwhile Baroda Fisheries Department. , They are also mixed up
with the list of marine fishes. A complete list of freshwater forms
including those previously recorded is, therefore, furnished. Twelve
species belonging to four different families have been recorded by me
for the first time from this area.
Another reason for publication of this list is the confusion caused
by incorrect identification and wrong usage of local vernacular names
in the ‘ Statistical Account of Fish Supply of Baroda City’ by Moses?.
In this bulletin Moses identified « Nagari’as Labveo calbasu and ‘ Bhagna’
as Cirrhina mrigala and has shown‘a total catch of each as 27,998 lb.
and 340 Ib., respectively. In reality Civrhina mrigala is found in
abundance in Baroda and is the third best fish in quantity and value,
whereas Ladeo calbasu occurs in negligible quantities. Moses records
“Nagri’ (Labeo calbasu) as the third best fish and ‘ Bhagna’ (Czrrhina
mrigala) as negligible. This difference is obviously due to incorrect
identification. ‘This would imply that the quantity shown by him
against ‘Nagari’ actually pertains to Cirrhina mrigala and not to
Labeo calbasu. Other mistakes in regard to scientific and local names
have also been corrected in the following list.
A SYSTEMATIC LIST OF FISHES OF BARODA.
Scientific name Local name
Order: Isospondyli
Family: Notopteridae
*1. Notoplerus notopterus (Pallas) ... Patra
Order: Ostariophysi
Sub-order: Siluroidea
Family: Heteropneustidae
*2. Heteropneusteus fosstlis (Bloch) .. Shingi
Family: Siluridae
*3. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) ... Goongavaree
Te 4, Hf macropthalmus (Blyth) La
*5, Wallago attu (Bloch) . Padeen
' FRESH WATER FISHES OF BARODA
Scientitic name
Family: Bagridae
T* 6. Clupisoma garua (Ham.)
*7, Mystus bleekert (Day)
_ 8. » cavastus (Ham.)
*9, » seenghala (Sykes)
10. ~=,4, + gulio(Ham.)
Sub-order: Cyprinoidea
Family: Cyprinidae
Sub-family: Abramadinae
*11. Chela clupeoides (Bloch)
"12. » bacaila (Ham.)
Sub-family ; Rasborinae
"13. Barilius bendelists (Ham.)
T* 14. ae barna (Ham.)
*15. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.)
*16. i buchananz (Bleeker)
“17. Laubuca laubuca (Ham.)
*18. Hsomus danrica (Ham.)
T* 19. Brachydanio rerio (Ham.)
T* 20. Danto malabaricus (Jerdon)
T* 21. Rasbora labiosa (Mukerji)
Sub-family :—Cyprininae
T* 22. Garra mullya (Ham.)
$23. <Amblypharyngodon mola (Ham.)
#24. Barbus (Tor) sp. ?
*25, Pe DELS) sarana (Ham.)
26. a i chola (Ham.)
Zhe re ss parrah (Day) -
28. - 3 melanostigma (Day).
29. sf me puckelli (Day) es
30. iv iy amphibius (Cuv. and
Val.) sad
31. ‘ 5 conchonzus (Ham.) .
*32. Yt, 93 stigma (Cuv. and
Val.) ELI
33. 5 ss ticto (Ham.)
34. - vt chrysopterus (McClell. )
35. ik » .. Aexastichus (McClell.)
36. bovanicus (Day)
Ole Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch)
#38. », calbasu (Ham.)
#39. » boggut (Sykes)
40. », ontzus (Jerdon)
*41, », gontus (Hain.)
42. », Porcellus (Heckel)
¥43. », rohita (Ham.)
T* 44, » ariza (Ham.)
#45. Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.)
*46, » veba(Ham.)
*47, Rohtee cotto(Ham.) ©
#48, Catla catla (Cuv. and Val.)
473.
Local name
Katia
Tengani
Khaga
Chal
9)
Jurva
Ranjan
Rajni
Dindiya. |
Ranjan
Maria
Melwa
Kudna
Darayi
Dhebri
Belzi
Kavchi
Gauri
Karchi
Khurse
Malia
Rohu
Bhagna
Nagri
Raiya
Gurda
Bavoos.
ATA
Family :
T* 49.
TEN S50:
TFs).
ORE SD.
Order:
Sub-order:
Family
Sub-family ;
70S!
*54.,
Order :
Sub-order:
Family:
158,
*56.
Sub-order :
Scientific name
JOURNAL) \BOMBAY' NATURAL HIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Local name
Chippi
Cobitidae
Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) oe
5 thermalis (Cuv. and ©
Val.) ipa
Nemachilus botia
: » dayt (Hora)
Microcyprini (Cyprinodontes)
Poecilioidea
Cyprinodontidae
Fundulinae
A plochilus panchax (Ham.)
5 lineatus (Cuv. & Val.)
Percomorphi |
Percoidea
Ambassidae
Ambassis nama (Ham.)
52 ranga (Ham.)
Gobioidea
Gobiidea
Glossogobius giuris (Ham.)
Gobius striatus (Day)
phicephaloidea
Ophicephalidae
‘Ophicephalus punctatus (Bloch)
- ~ marulius (Ham.)
Opisthomi
Mastacembelidae
‘Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep.)
# pancalus (Ham.)
* These specimens were identified by the author.
T* These specimens are recorded for tne first time.
+ Bulletin No. III Dept. of Fisheries, Baroda State. 1939.
? Bulletin No. IV Dept. of Fisheries, Baroda State. 1943.
REFERENCES
bP)
Songujari
>”
Dindiya
3D
Chanbijwa
3 Annual report of the Dept. of Fisheries, Baroda State, 1937-38,
# Annual report of the Dept. of Fisheries, Baroda State, 1938-39.
5 Annual report of the Dept. of Fisheries, Baroda State,’1939-40-
| REVIEWS
1.1 A POCKET BOOK OF BRITISH MOTHS. By George
E. Hyde, F.R.E.s. Pp. 160 (6$” x 5”). 8 colour plates, 64 photographs.
London (Adam & Charles Black), 1951. Price 8s. 6d. net.
I have read this book with considerable interest as I have had
long experience with this subject, and I congratulate the author on
a very useful work. A large number of British moths including some
‘macros’ have been covered, but I feel that under the able pen of Mr.
Hyde this work would have been better if not restricted to one volume.
It is obvious that Mr. Hyde knows the subject thoroughly, and he
could -have expanded himself to cover all the ‘macros’ at least.
However, it is very interesting to see that some representatives of
that particularly interesting section ‘macros’ are not only described but
illustrated.
The colour illustrations are excellent, but unfortunately the size
of the volume has imposed reduction in size and reduced the beauty
somewhat, whereas the black and white plates are some of the finest
I have seen in this class of work and I congratulate the author on
these.
The introduction and text throughout are well written and give
very useful and interesting information on this group of insects which
should delight any reader, and the book itself will most: certainly be
of value to anyone who has the slightest interest in this subject.
Many of the species occur in India, therefore although this book
is declared to be for British moths, it actually covers any specimens
seen in this country.
I note that the two well-known methods of night ee hee ight?
and sugaring methods, are described. Both of these have , been
tried out by me here in India but without much success; in, fact
sugaring normally resolves itself into a free feed for the local ant colony
(that is my experience) and ‘light’ attracts unwelcome visitors. I
would also advise any reader of this book who may be prompted to
try sugaring in this country to memorise the actual sugaring circuits
in daylight so that a lot of minor difficulties and possible accidents
may be obviated, because it is very easy, in new areas, to stumble
in the dark when making circuit of sugar patches. I would also advise
the collector to use a light which is not too strong as many insects are
‘promptly scared off the sugar patch with a very bright light.
-I.can recommend this book as a useful addition to the Bnomedge
of this group of insects. _
y Sell _ALEREY
2. A COLOURED ATLAS OF SOME VERTEBRATES FROM
CEYLON, Vol. I, Fishes. By P. EH. P. Deraniyagala. Pp. 149+ 33
‘coloured plates (12" x92”)... Many ‘text. figures. Ceylon National
Museums Publication, 1952. Price not stated.
This is a very. welcome addition to the all too limited number
“of -beoks on fishes of the Indian; region. /A speciality of the book is
A76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
that it is an outcome of Dr. Deraniyagala’s personal observations.
and study of fishes of Ceylon, for a period extending over a quarter
of a century. His intimate knowledge of the subject and experience
of practical difficulties are reflected in his efforts to elucidate and
illustrate really intricate points which a novice has to encounter while
attempting to identify fishes with the help of the existing books on
taxonomy.
His keys for identification are not very: elaborate but furnish the
minimum and the most salient features required for the purpose. This.
concise nature of his writings makes the work handy and useful for
practical purposes. The descriptions, are somewhat brief, but the
brevity is in keeping with the spirit of the book. In some places,
however, more useful details than books.on taxonomy can offer, such
as notes on reproduction etc. are furnished in this volume. His
illustrations of scales of Clupeoid fishes are very useful for general
identification as well as for study of. stomach contents of larger
predatory fishes. ,
Dr. Deraniyagala has given a brief synonymy indicating original
nomenclature of the fishes dealt with, but his book would have been
more useful if Day’s nomenclature also was included therein. This
is of importance particularly because Day’s ‘Fishes of India’ and
the ‘Fauna’ volumes on Fishes are the only books at present available
on the taxonomy of Indian fishes.
On the whole the work has been very carefully executed and
the author has taken considerable pains on every detail of the work.
He has been particular even about the pronounciations of local names
and has furnished phonetic schemes for the purpose. In his list of
references he has not forgotten to mention Valmiki, the author of
Ramayana of 400 B.c.
One of the outstanding features of the book is that the illustrations
are drawn by the author himself. The proportions and other details
display exactitude, but there appears to be an exuberance of colour
in many of these drawings. Fishes which are ordinarily drab in
appearance, appear colourful and attractive in his plates. Some
illustrations appear to be over magnified. I may mention here the
drawings of P. nigrofaciatus and P. tittya. The actual lengths of
these fishes are about 50 and 30 mm., while the drawings are 200 mm.
long. This makes the coloration too vivid and gives an impression
of overdrawn figures. The black and white drawings appear very
exact' and effective. ;
In the present volume only one shark, viz. Rhyondon typus has
been described, omitting all other members of the selachian group.
It appears that there will be many other Ceylonese fishes which will
have to be dealt with in later volumes in order to complete the
list of fishes available around ‘the Ceylon coast. The propriety of
including only one member of the selachian group in this volume is not
understood. Probably it would have been better if all the sharks
had been included in one volume. —— | Sate
Lastly it may be mentioned that the size of the book is not handy.
The quality of the paper used and the binding though attractive and:
REVIEWS DAD ATT.
durable, would make the book expensive, resulting in lesser circula-
tion and sale. )
The book is undoubtedly very valuable as a reference book.
C.V.K.
3. NAME THIS INSECT. By Eric\Fitch Daglish. Pp. xxvi+
294 (7"x 44”). 16 pages coloured plates, 48 of black-and-white, and
text diagrams. London, (J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.) 1952. Price 15s.
net.
When I was handed a copy of this book for review my first re-
action was ‘this should fill a long felt want’ and secondly, the cover
with its excellent and faithful reproduction of various insects compels
one to look inside and learn. |
I have read this book with particular interest and must compliment
the author on a very useful work, which not only serves for guide
and ready identification of insects but also as a useful refresher on
entomology generally. I.use the word ‘generally’ because of ento-
mologists, young, old, beginners and experts alike having the naturai
tendency to specialisation in particular orders in this vast field of
study, sometimes to the exclusion of other orders.
The range of species covered and method of identification is
certainly a praiseworthy achievement and the condensed results are
well set out, considering that the book had to be limited to presentable
proportions. It is obvious that for a more comprehensive range many
volumes would be necessary. Considering the range covered, there
seems more than sufficient in this one to whet the appetite of any
reader to become interested in this vast and entertaining subject.
The Foreword is excellent and can be applied equally to India and
the tropics in general, where of course we have seasonal forms. of
some insects. However, a word of caution is advisable to the beginner
when ‘beating’ for specimens in bushes and trees. Remember the
story of ‘Ants in the pants’; they can be very uncomfortable as
several of my experiences confirm. | Likewise “sweeping’ among
herbage in India may produce specimens other than entomological.
I am glad to read that the author mentions ‘mere collecting’. In
fact it cannot be over emphasised that the study of the insect, parti-
cularly in the earlier stages, is often of much more interest and value
to science at large than just adding rows and rows of specimens to
the cabinet and/or store-box. I make the possible exceptions in
cases of known pests as totally distinct from purely local and often
rare insects whose mass destruction will only lead to total extinction of
the species. This point also raises that of collecting for monetary gain
which I condemn in the strongest terms, apart from those specimens
required and essential for purely research work by recognised scientists
and learned institutions.
A word of advice may not be out of place to any reader who
decides to start his own collection of specimens, and that is to con-
centrate on correct ‘setting’. A well set series of specimens makes
all the difference to ‘a display. and certainly for much easier classifica-
tion .and) later detailed study. The beginner would do wel! to
478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL“ HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
practise on those insects which are common and numerous before
attempting to set the rarer ones.
A slight misprint occurs on page 15: the letters A and B should
be transposed, and on page 4, under the heading Butterflies and Moths,
the illustration of the Silk Cocoon is interesting but is not correct
for the vast majority of this group of moths, where the insect on
emergence from the pupa ejects a special solvent liquid which de-
stroys the fibre adhesion of the cocoon and so permits emergence.
The colour plates and illustrations generally are of a very high
order and the few exceptions do not detract from the whole.
J.. I. ALFREY.
4. THE PALAEOBOTANIST, Vol..1. Birbal Sahni Memorial
Volume, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow, India.
533 pages (93”x7"), 80 plates, 1952. Price not, given, sold for
RS f5o.
When Prof. Sahni founded the Institute of Palaeobotany, one of
the aims laid down was to publish The Palaeobotanist as a journal
of the Institute. Unfortunately he could not personally see to it.
After his death, it was decided to publish the first number of the journal
in the form of a memorial volume. This has now been done by
an editorial committee.
The contents of this volume can be classified under three main
parts. The first part gives Sahni’s life-history, his activities and his
contributions to different sciences. The second part includes some
fifty original articles. by. scientists of various countries. In the last
part we find some tributes to Sahni by those who knew him.
The first article is a life-sketch of Birbal Sahni by his brother
M. R. Sahni, the well-known geologist. A glance through this will
convince one that from his childhood Sahni showed many signs which
go into the make-up of a great man. As he grew in years, his inde-
pendent outlook became wider and wider. Here it must be men-
tioned that his wife, who survives him and now nurses the Institute,
played a very important part in the execution of his plans for scientific
work. This article is followed by one on the activities of Sahni in
the University of Lucknow, written by one of his colleagues. The
conditions under which he had to work were in no way different from
what other Indian scientists faced at that time in different universities
in India, or are facing even now. But the point is that in spite
of those difficulties, he managed to carry out research work which
ultimately made a name for his department and for himself. After
these papers on personal contact, seven papers on Sahni’s contribution
to. sciences. are given. No doubt Sahni was primarily a palaecbo-
tanist but the background for his high standard of work was his
knowledge of the external and internal morphology of living plants.
This is well illustrated by the summary of his work on living plants
written by Prof. Maheshwari. It is befitting that Sahni’s palaeo-
botanical work has been summarized by no other person than Prof.
T. G. Halle, the world-renowned Swedish palaeobotanist. Halle
gives the summary under different headings, such as, anatomy and
REVIEWS 479
morphology of Palaeozoic ferns, revisions of Gondwana fossil plants,
fossil plants of Rajmahal Series. . Palaeozoic and Mesozoic plants,
flora of Deccan Intertrapean Series and relation of fossil floras. This
really is a masterly review of a great work by one who himself is a
great botanist. Of the remaining papers Sahni’s contribution to
Indian numismatics is very interesting. This, once again, reveals
his characteristic way of doing things. He traced the technique of
casting Indian coins from the 3rd Century B.c. to the rath Century
A.D. and published the results in a memoir of the Numismatic Society
of India. At the end of this part, a list of Sahni’s. publications is
given. It includes 123 papers published between 1915 and 1948.
The second part of the volume contains 50 original papers written,
at the request of the editorial committee, by palaeobotanists, botanists
and others. Of these 35 are on palaeobotany. There are 8 papers from
U.S.A. by Andrews and Mamay, Arnold, Berry, Chaney, Darrah,
Hoskins and Cross, Howell and Lightwardt; 4 from U. K. by Edwards,
Harris; Lang and Hamshaw Thomas; 3 from Japan by Endo, Miki
and Yaba; 2 from France by Boureau and Corsin; 2 from South
America by Frengnelli and Mendes; 2 from Germany by Gothan and
Krausel; one each from Holland, Norway and Sweden by Jongmans,
H6éeg and Florin respectively. From India there are 11 papers, most
of which are by Sahni’s old students and colleagues. These papers
deal with various aspects of fossil botany from the Palaeozoic to. the
Cenozoic era. The remaining papers have been written by botanists
and others, each dealing with his special subject of interest. On the
whole they make excellent reading.
Madame Bertrand, wife of late Prof. Paul Bertrand, sent four
reconstructions prepared by her husband just before his death. These
have ‘been included: immediately after the scientific papers and form
excellent plates. The last part of the volume is called ‘Pushpanjali’
or offering | of flowers in the memory of the late Prof. Sahni.’ It
contains tributes by 48 people including the Head of the Indian
Union, Ministers of the Union, Ministers of Indian States and many
internationally known personalities like Hadamard and Sven Hedin.
There is also a dozen of tributes from Sahni’s old students and collea-
gues. These tributes are very interesting, because they give the
impression these men and women have gathered of their ‘guru’ by their
frequent contact with him.
Finally, it must be said that the first issue of The Palaeobotanist
is an excellent publication. The get-up, the printing and the plates
taken .together have produced a very high standard for an Indian
journal. The editorial committee deserves our heartiest congratula-
tions for this, and especially Dr., Sitholey, “the Secretary. ‘Tt the
standard set in this volume is kept up, there is little doubt about its
popularity amongst the palaeobotanists, botanists and geologists.
The second part which contains original papers will be always in
demand for reference work. Some of the topmost palaeobotanists of
the present time have contributed to it. 1 hope the editorial com-
mittee will be able to obtain their active support for future issues of
The Palaeobotanist. :
K..A. CHOWDHURY
480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
5. BIG GAME OF MALAYA. | By E. C. Foenander. | Fore-
word by E. O. Shebbeare.. Pp. vili+199 (8% 52”). Frontispiece
and 20 photographs. Glossary, bibliography, index. End-paper map
of Malaya. London, (The Batchworth Press Ltd.) 1952. Price ars.
This well-arranged, indexed and illustrated book will be welcomed
and valued by all who have knowledge of the Big Game of Malaya
either first hand or through the writings of the late Theodore Hubback
and some others listed in the bibliography. It will also be of con-
siderable interest to those members of the Bombay Natural History
Society who have read and enjoyed Hubback’s several expert’ con-
tributions to the Journal concerning elephant, rhinoceros, wild life
photography and conservation.
The book is mainly divided into—General Information {with a
map of Penang), The Malayan Gaur, The Malayan Elephant, The
Malayan Tapir, The Sumatran Rhinoceros, and chapter xvii contain-
ing General Views. Tiger and leopard are omitted as affording ‘but
poor sporting chance in this country; and when chance meetings do
happen the hunter is surprised unarmed’. The pleasing and informa-
tive article in two parts, ‘Early Days in Malaya’ contributed by the
late H. E.\ Burgess (at instance of your reviewer) in 1935 to the
Society’s Journal Vol. 38: pp. 241-257 and 39: 856-861 may be ‘read
as supplementing this book in respect to carnivora and other animals,
also some birds and reptiles.
THe Maayan GAUR OR SELADANG. The author does not mention
the derivation of the word seladang. Hubback [J.B.N.H.S., Vol.
40: 10 (1938)] gives the probable derivation as from two native words,
satu meaning one, and ladang meaning a jungle clearing—satu ladang
abbreviated to sladang or seladang. Commenting on this at p. 733,
Vol. 40, Gimson suggests from Manipur that as the animal is sup-
posed to. have come into Malaya from the north it may be that the
name is derived from the Manipur: name of the mithun {Bibos fron-
talis)—sandang, and the Kuki (tribe in Manipur) word for the same
animal—sel.
The question of weight is discussed at pages 10 and 141. In
view of the ascertained weight of the largest-ever bull seen by. Morris
in. his. South. India area having been 2,071 lb. (J.B.N.H.S., 47: 153)
it would seem that the ‘weight—clean 2,700 lb.’ for a Cochin China
bull can be reasonably questioned ?
The main, difference (p. 13) between the Malayan gaur and those
occurring in India and Burma is that ‘the arch of the crown or elevated
ridge between the bases of the horns is less developed in the former
or may be absent’. Regarding this, the Journal 41: 657-659, and the
photograph with it of four Assam skulls may be seen. Six fine heads of
South India gaur adorn the walls of the Bangalore Club. Five of
these have more or less domed cranial ridges, but one—38” spread
and 20” horn girth—has a quite level cranial ridge similar to the
two. Ieft hand Assam photos. Photographs of skulls of Central
Frovinces gaur contributed by Inverarity [J.B.N.H.S., 4: 294 (1889)]
show one of the eight skulls to be level between the horns. So the
character which distinguishes the Malayan gaur is also present, though
to. a considerably less degree, in the gaur of India; and of Burma
too, vider]. Bb .NGHS., 38.2181:
REVIEWS ~ . 481
‘The. yellowish white or golden brown’ ‘colour of the ‘stockings’
constitutes one of the minor reasons why the Malayan gaur is not
classified with the Burmese or Indian types) (p: 12). | From a study
of all said on the question in this book, in the several contributions
to the Society’s journal, and in books by Forsyth, Jerdon, Sanderson,
Dunbar Brander, it can be concluded that the gaur, wherever found,
has no completely uniform colour for his ‘fully fashioned’ stockings:
In Madhya’ Pradesh the white stockings change with advancing age,
assuming a much dingier colour in the older bulls. (Forsyth, New
Edition, 1889: p. 112.)
In regard to the author’s remarks at p. 14, complete illustrated infor-
mation as to colour of the eye of the gaur is in Society’s Jowrnal
Vol. 31: 220-222. Habits—Hunting—Hunting Stories are full of
interest. In pages 26 to 32 the question of the ferocity or otherwise
of the seladang is discussed. ‘Unhurt or not unduly harassed; the
seladang is definitely not a ferocious beast.” That is quite right; but
in the Society’s journal are several instances of attack by unwounded
gaur in India, also some in Burma. It would seem there is usually some
sort of direct or indirect cause for such attacks. At p. 67 is recorded
the interesting observation. that) on one. occasion obvious reverence
was paid to the master bull of a herd. Wherever he went cows and
younger bulls licked his great body whilst he kept his nose up accept
ing the obeisance as a matter of course.
Under Conservation we read that rinderpest has not occurred in
so widespread a form in the past as to constitute a danger to the
seladang, and that it is rare that rinderpest or foot-and-mouth dis-
eases are started by domesticated water-buffaloes in Malaya.
| Supplementary to all the author writes in this book regarding
Legislation and Conservation, the valuable article by Theodore
Hubback, ‘Principles of Wild Life Conservation,’ [Bees Wake
40: 100-111 (1938), may be seen. iN
THE Maayan ELEPHANT can scarcely be distinguished from the
typical one in India says the author. Description and Distribution
Habits—Hunting—Hunting Stories—Photography—Legislation and
Conservation are dealt with in chapters ix to xiv in an adequate and
interesting manner. For more information the author refers the
reader to Sanderson, Fletcher and Peacock. Further. to these may
be mentioned Hubback’s contribution, ‘The Malayan Elephant’ in the
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Vol. 42: pp. 483-509
(1941) with which eight outstanding plates; and his ‘Wild Life Photo-
graphy in the Malayan Jungle’, Vol. 41: pp. 48-63 also with eight
plates (4 of elephants).
The author gives the record size for tusks of the Asiatic elephant
as 8’ 93” and 8’ 63”—the pair in the collection of his late Majesty
King George V—weighs 160 and 161 lb. In the Society’s journal
[21 : 335 (2897)] is recorded a pair of.tusks, in. the Royal Siamese
Museum, Bangkok, which were 9’x 152” and 9’ 103”x15%". The
weights were not ascertained. ‘This pair belonged to an elephant, said
to have been oo years old, which died in Bangkok some twenty years
ago, and I think, they must have been the record pair for Asia’ wrote
the officer at that time Scientific Adviser to the Siamese Government.
482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Readers in Malaya will be interested to know ‘that ‘there. are now
easily arranged \ devices for’ effective electrification of ‘wire fencés
against elephants and other crop-raiding ao (R.. C. Morris,
].B.N.H.S., 49: 783.) , o
THE SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS. Of this vanishing species we are
given much information. Here also the reader may be referred for
further information ‘to the authoritative illustrated contribution by
Hubback to the Society’s journal, ‘The Two-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros’
| Vol. 40: 594-618 (1939)| which includes Additional Notes by S. H.
Prater, the whole forming a most valuable monograph on the species.
In Vol. 38: 139-150 (1935), Thom gives a very full account of the
habits and hunting of this species in the jungles of Burma.
In various notes and articles the supposed high medicinal value
placed upon the products of this unfortunate animal’s carcase—especi-
ally by the Chinese—has been brought to notice of the world in a
general way. At p. 184 our author gives us in greater detail the
results of his enquiries as to the various uses, and observes, ‘Ancient
customs and beliefs are so strong that much risk, trouble and expense
are gladly undergone to obtain these bogus remedies. This only
goes to emphasize the terrific struggle that our vastly efficient and
efficacious modern medicines have yet to contend with in the East
before these ancient beliefs are finally abandoned by their credulous
supporters.’ The Great One-horned Rhinoceros is being conserved
in India: but these ancient beliefs are causing the final extermina-
tion of the species in other eastern countries.
THE Marayan Taprr. An excellent photograph of an adult female
is at p. 195 of ‘The Book of Indian Animals’ by S. H. Prater, but
the elongation of the nose and upper lip into a flexible snout is better
illustrated in Colonel Ferris’s picture. The animal affords no trophy
to the sportsman, but the tracking of it is exceedingly difficult and
a high test of skill and ability to move silently in its pursuit. The
author thinks the eyesight is poor: Thom says it is very acute, and
that when the animal makes off it utters squeaks and snorts. The
females are larger than the males and one shot by Thom under pecu-
liar (accidental) circumstances weighed 1,200 lb. ; so also one which died
in they Karachi; Zoo. (J) BuN. A. S..gn 2) 522).), . dihom Jsaysuithesniesh
is not unlike rhinoceros meat, and that the jungle people of Tavoy
and Mergui consider it a sin to kill a tapir, which is fortunate for
the continuance of the species; as also is the apparent refusal of the
tiger to make a meal of it either in Malaya, Mergui or Tavoy.
Much that is interesting and perhaps not elsewhere recorded is
related ‘by Colonel W. ‘B.’ Ferris [J.B.N.H.S.,_173,.°242-243 (1905) |
from observation of a pair in captivity. Gestation period 9 months;
weight at birth about 6 lb.; peculiar and persistent habit of carefully
and slowly covering up their dung by kicking leaves and earth over
ith remarkably fond of boiled rice.
In ‘General Views’ our author mentions the several unwritten laws
which guide the ‘pastime of hunting and shooting, and the need for
these principles. ‘No one should shoot an animal from a platform
that could be ‘driven or’ tracked. © Neither should one drive an animal
REVIEWS 483
which could be tracked. All. the larger game should be hunted in
the most sporting way possible.’
The book is well printed and produced. Of the 20 excelkent
photographs, twelve are by Hubback. There should be no ‘d’ in the
name Blanford. |
R.W.B.
6. WEST BENGAL COMMERCIAL TIMBERS, THEIR
IDENTIFICATION, PROPERTIES AND USES. By K. Ahmad
Chowdhury, B.A., D.Sc.., F.N.I., Indian Forest Records (N.S.), (Wood
Anatomy), Vol. I, No. 3, 1951.. Pp. vi+68, 13 plates (Govt. of
India Press, New Delhi), Price Rs. 3-6-0 or 5s. 6d.
It is not always realised that the correct identification and proper
utilisation of different woods is a more difficult task in this country
than elsewhere. Unlike many other countries, India has a large
number of timbers which if properly exploited will contribute towards
a more efficient and economic utilisation of country’s timber resources.
This is possible only. when, among other things, basic principles. of
timber identification are well-known. In the past only a few reput-
able timbers were used for most purposes, and, therefore, it was
rather easy to know them by constant handling. With the growing
industrialization of the country, uses of timber have multiplied con-
siderably with the result that more and more new timbers are in
demand. But only a few of these timbers are available in good
quantity, while others though in great demand are somewhat scarce.
Consequently there is a growing and regrettable tendency to pass off
superficially similar timbers of inferior quality for the reputable ones.
If this is to be checked and the timber wealth of the country is to be
properly utilised, a dissemination of the technical ‘Know-how’ seems
very necessary. Considering that not much literature is available
on the subject, and especially as previous books by the author publi-
shed by the Forest Research Institute are either out of print or not
easily available, Dr. Chowdhury’s latest book on ‘West Bengal Com-
mercial Timbers, their identification, properties and uses’ could not
have made its appearance at a better or more opportune moment.
This timely publication, while being useful to all handling timber,
is of special appeal to the trade, industries and forest officers of West
Bengal.
The general plan of the book is on the same lines as the author’s
earlier book ‘Punjab Commercial Timbers’. It has six sections
followed by three appendixes which have greatly enhanced the utility
of the book. The first chapter gives in simple and concise manner all
the basic information on the structure of wood so as to enable one
to have sufficient background to form a mental picture of the gross
structure of woods. Even those who are not acquainted with the
subject will find it easy to understand and recognise various anato-
mical features with the help of the text-figures provided for the
purpose. The figures have ‘been selected judiciously to depict im-’
portant cell-elements of non-porous, ring-porous and diffuse-porous
woods.
ABA JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
The second chapter deals briefly with the general properties of
wood like colour, odour, lustre, weight, grain and texture, and wher-
ever possible specific examples have been included for Clarification.
This is followed by the chapter on the procedure for the gross identi-
fication of timber which is very important from the practical point of
view. It has been pointed out that for gross identification of wood,
all that is necessary is a good steel knife and a hand lens magnifying
10-12 times. Here a few hints have been given to show how one
should cut his specimens with a sharp knife and then use his lens
for observing important characteristics of the wood.
The next chapter explains how to use the key, which follows
subsequently. In all twenty-six timbers of commercial value in the
State of West Bengal are included in the key. . The dichotomous key
is simple and is mainly based on gross anatomical features which are
either visible to the naked eye or under a hand lens, though physical
properties like weight, hardness and colour have also been taken into
consideration, when of diagnostic value. In constructing the key,
the author has drawn upon his wide experience, and the key is so
made that even a beginner can avoid the usual pitfalls while follow-
ing it. For instance, when timbers are on the borderline of two
alternative characters, it 1s quite likely that one may get confused,
and find it difficult to choose the right alternative. To ensure de-
finite identification, such timbers have been classified under both alter-
natives.
After the key, the author gives descriptions of all the twenty-six
commercial timbers of West Bengal. This should prove very useful
to all interested in timber because here information regarding trade
and local names, distribution, available size of logs, general proper-
ties, gross. structure, similar woods that are likely to get mixed up,
seasoning, natural’ durability, insect attack, preservative treatment,
working qualities and supply and uses have been included. In short,
all the latest information has been very well summarised and a refer-
ence to this chapter will always be helpful to have a comprehensive
and comparative knowledge of the different timbers. To help the
users and dealers further, three appendixes are also included classify-
ing the West Bengal timbers according to various uses, indicating
their main sources of supply, and lastly giving in a tabulated form
their strength data as compared to teak. It is unfortunate that
strength figures for five timbers were not available to make the book
-complete.
At the end twenty-six excellent photomicrographs of transverse
sections of commercial timbers of West Bengal have been added thus
enhancing the utility of the book. All photographs are magnified.
ten times, so that it is easy for anyone to examine his timber with
the help of an ordinary. magnifier and then compare it with these
photomicrographs to come to a correct identification. The book con-
tains all that is required on the subject and there is sure to be a great
demand for it; like tie auther: S previous books.
S:8:Ge;
REVIEWS © 485
7- WILD FLOWER STUDIES IN. COLOUR, AND, PENCIL.
By Bessie D.: Inglis, with descriptive notes. Pp: x+150, (26x 19.5
cms.); 44 colour plates, numerous) text figures. London, (Thomas
Nelson and Sons Ltd.) 1951. Price 18s.
This book represents a very beautiful effort to make the study of
wild flowers in Britain easy and interesting. The aim of the book
is plainly stated in the preface: “You may recognise persons whom
you meet for the first time if you have previously seen their portrait;
the same is true of flowers. The colour plates in this book form a
collection of portraits, faithful studies from the living plants, and
grouped according to colour. Familiarity with these will make it
easy to recognise the plants themselves on a first meeting. To
identify a new plant, however, and still more to trace its true relation-
ships, we must inquire more deeply than the surface appearance. T he
colour plates are therefore followed by a second section dealing with
the characteristics of each plant already portrayed in'colour. In this
section are given pencil drawings of details and brief notes of some
information that cannot be shown pictorially. The few essential
botanical terms used are explained with the aid of drawings in a
section on “The Structure of Plants’, and the ae section’ of the
book gives the family characteristics.’
The 44 colour plates are a delight not only to a Botanic! but also
to an artist; the plants and their parts have been selected with great
care and exhibited with judgment. Any one becoming familiar with
these charming fiower portraits cannot but recognise the originals
when seen in nature. ,
Part II gives a detailed description of ‘the various plants shown
in the colour plates, and the ‘accompanying line drawings make it
easy to understand even the minutest details of the plant. Part Il
contains a study of the families represented in the book; students of
botany will derive much profit from a careful study of this part.
Artistically and. botanically the book is. delightful. We wish it
every success, and may this soon be followed by further studies of
the high standard of the present.
H. SANTAPAU,. $j.
8., PLANT HUNTER IN MANIPUR... By F. Kingdon-Ward.
Pp. 254 (20x 13.5 cms.); with 12 photographs by the author and a
map of Assam and Burma. London (Jonathan Cape) 1952. Price
15S.
This 1s another book by the foremost plant explorer of our days;
and the present book is a fit companion to ‘Plant-Hunter’s Paradise’
and others.
The aim of the book is not to give a dry and heavy list of rare
plants; in the words of the author, he has ‘deliberately avoided men-
tion of the less conspicuous plants we saw or collected. Many. of
‘them would be just names to the non-botanist, even if he happened to
‘bea gardener. (Someone would be quite certain to call them ‘‘un-
pronounceable’’, and to ask) why ‘‘the common English name’’ had
‘not been preferred.) So I have confined myself to describing only
10 .
486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
those plants of which we collected seed for the’: New York Botanic
Garden, or which were definitely an important part of the landscape.’
The whole story of the author’s peregrinations in Assam makes
entertaining reading; as a botanist, I have enjoyed every page of the
book, and often have I been moved to envy by the glorious descrip-
tions of nature at its best found in the book. The excitement of
finding the Manipur Lily, the events of ‘the Glorious Fifth of June
after a fit of the deepest depression, and similar stories grip the adven-
turous reader. The author is not given to exaggeration in his story ;
how charmingly he writes after one of his most successful expeditons :
‘When next morning we opened the press, we found we had collected
twenty-eight species of plants on Sirhoi, including six perfect speci-
mens of the lily. It was a satisfactory result.’ Judging from my
memory of similar successful outings in Western India, if one be
allowed to compare one’s tame experiences with the glorious triumphs
of the author, to say that ‘it was a satisfactory result’ is the limit of
understatement.
The photographs have been selected with great care by the author,
and reproduced admirably by the printers. May the author prosper
for many years to come, and may many similar books come from
his inspired pen.
H. SANTAPAU, s.j.
g- MALAYAN WILD FLOWERS. By M.,R.,., Henderson.
Part I. Malayan Nature Journal, Vol. IV, Nos. 3 & 4, Dec. 1949.
Fp. 1+181 (24x 16.5 cms.), text figures 169.
This book has been in the hands of the reviewer for a long time,
and the delay in publishing this note is entirely the reviewer’s fault.
This is a publication that has caused me much envy; in. Bombay
State we do not have any book on our wild flowers that in any way
approaches the present -work. The book deals with the Polypetalae,
and other parts are in course of preparation. | ‘After a short illustrated
introduction on ‘Some Elementary Botany, describing parts of plants
and their functions’, the author gives a simple key to the families
dealt with in the book; the key is wholly artificial and aims at making
identification easy even for those not too well versed in the subject.
Each family has a brief introduction on its occurrence in Malaya and
its general characters; there follows then a description of each species.
For each species, the scientific, English and local names are first
given; the description of the plant is short and clear; a few notes are
added on the places where the plant is found in Malaya, and finally
there are some remarks on the affinities of the plant with neighbouring
species.
The drawings are all very clear, and show the outstanding charac-
-ters that will help in the identification of the species... The printing
both of the figures and of the text is very clear and pleasant.
On the negative side, I have only to remark that some of the
names’ (scientific Latin names) need adjusting; some of them have
been altered in recent years as a result of deeper knowledge of the
plants concerned, and this would have been a good opportunity to
REVIEWS 487
bring the nomenclature up, to modern standards. This is, however,
a minor blemish in most cases, that in no way detracts from the
value of .the work.
Successive parts of this imteresting work will be awaited with ‘great
interest in India and elsewhere; may the example of the author be soon
imitated in our country.
H. SANTAPAU, s.J.
10. ADVENTURES OF A BOTANIST’S WIFE. By Eleanor
Bor. Pp. 204 (21x 13.5 cms.). With 35 photographs and 6 drawings
by the author and two maps. London (Hurst & Blackett Ltd.) 1952.
18/- net.
This is a glorious book of adventure, illustrated with beautiful
photographs and drawings by the gifted authoress. The book was
selected on publication as deserving of a special recommendation by
the Book Society of Great Britain; after reading the book from cover
to cover, I agree with the selectors that this is a charming and most
interesting book.
The dust cover gives a good idea of the contents of the book, and
incidentally depicts one of the most exciting moments in the story.
The two maps on the inner side of the covers are beautifully designed
and show sufficient mystery to force the curious reader into the book
itself.
As the title suggests, this is a book of adventure; but one does
not find here such thrills as have more or less become the fashion in
books on the Indian jungle. The personality of the authoress appears
from the first lines of the book; she is a homely soul, whose aim in
life seems to be to make every one near her as happy as the circum-
stances will permit. She takes charge of a very forgetful botanist,
who for his part will take any risk to help and protect his partner;
her own servants become her family, and her tact and kindness wins
their loyalty for ever.
- The style is simple and very attractive, I would even say that it
is charming. When the book first came to my hands, through the
kindness of the authoress, I began reading it with the intention of
reading a few pages, so that I could tell Mrs. Bor how I enjoyed the
book; as it happened, however, having started from the first page
in the middle of the morning on a holiday, I felt I could not stop
until at about’ 2 a.m. of the following morning I came to the last page,
having read every word of the adventurous story. Then I understood
why. the book had been selected as ese ny Ins, of a special recom-
mendation by the Book Society.
The photographs and drawings are charming; at times the
authoress felt inspired and burst into poetry, which perhaps is not
very high by Shakespearean, standards, but which is none the less
delightful.
Without any hesitation this book can be recommended to our
members and readers, as one of the most beautiful books on life in
the Indian jungle published in the last” few years.
H. SANTDAPAU, s.jJ.
488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
11.’ USEFUL PLANTS OF INDIA & PAKISTAN. A’ Popular
Handbook of Trees and Plants of Industrial, Economic and Com-
mercial Utility. By, J. 'F. Dastur, F.N.1. Pp. vi+260 (19x 12.5
cms.); 66 illustrations. Second Indian edition. Bombay, (D. B.
Taraporevala Sons & Co., Ltd.).. Price Rs. 5-14-o.
12//-MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA & PAKISTAN. A
Concise Work describing Plants used for Drugs and Remedies accord-
ing to Ayurvedic, Unani, Tibbi Systems and mentioned in British
and American Pharmacopoeias. By J. F. Dastur, F.N.1. Pp. vi+
317 (19x 12.5 cms.). First Indian edition. Bombay, (D. B. Tara-
porevala Sons & Co., Ltd.). . Price Rs. 5-14-0.
These are two interesting popular handbooks on Indian plants.
Towards the end of the last and beginning of the present century,
there came out a number of important books on Indian plants of
economic importance, the last of which may be said to be Watts’s
Dictionary of the Economic Products of India; but such works are
either out of print and unobtainable, or, when still available, they
are so costly as to be out of reach of the ordinary reader. For these
reasons, the two handy books under review come to fill a real need in
the country.
Both books are built on a similar plan: after a short introduction,
the author deals with the various economic or medicinal plants in
alphabetical order of their scientific names. For each plant the
following data are given: scientific name of the species, of the family ;
local names;, English names; description of the plant and its distri-
bution in India; uses, medicinal or economic, of each part of the
plant. Occasionally, where the name adopted by the author differs
from that of, e.g., Cooke’s Flora, the synonymy is also given. In
the first book there are a number of line drawings; the second
book has no illustrations. The appendix in each book shows
a classification of the plants by subjects. The books have been priced
at Rs. 5-14, and: this brings them within the pocket of the ordinary
reader.. The volumes are handy, and the printing in general is good;
the paper, however, is at times too thin, or the ink too oily, so that
some of the pages are not sufficiently clear.
A number of scientific names are not correctly spelt, or the name
of the plant is not accredited to the correct author; but these are
minor blemishes, which can easily be corrected in subsequent editions.
A number of plants should bear a different specific or even generic
name; but this again is of small importance. In the following para-
graphs I have collected a number of remarks on the identity of some
of the plants; and this is a matter of more serious import.
(a) Userut PLants oF INpia & PAKISTAN.
No. 48. The author gives the name Bambusa arundinaceae Retz. ;
the spelling should be arundinacea; moreover, McClure in Blumea,
Suppl. 3: 108, 1946 has shown that the Indian plant is quite a different
plant from B. arundinacea, and should rightly be called Bambusa
bambos Voss. °
REVIEWS 489
No. 64. The name Buxus wallichiana Baill. seems to be the proper
one for the Indian plant, B. sempervirens Linn. is a valid name for
a European species, and is not a synonym of Baillon’s name; the
way of expressing this relationship is to write: ‘Buxus wallichiana
Baill., Syn. B. sempervirens auct. plur., non Linn.’
No. 80. The problem with this plant is not the name but. the
identity of the plant itself.. Carissa carandas Linn. is a valid name
of an Indian plant; but this species, at least in Bombay, is a re-
latively rare plant; our common plant is C. congesta Wt. (commonly
included under C. carandas Linn. in our floras, but the complex group
cannot be included rightly under the Linnean concept). _ See Haines
in Indian Forester 45: 375-388, 1919 and 47: 377-379, 1921.
No. 127. Our common plant is not Erythrina variegata Linn., but
E. variegata var. orientalis (Linn.) Merrill; a synonym of the iatter
plant is FE. indica Lamk.
No. 129. I am not sure which is the plant meant under this
number by the author. Euphorbia trigona Haw. is a valid name for
a central ‘African plant; E. trigona Roxhb., sometimes given as a
synonym of E. trigona Haw., is an illegitimate name for an Indian
plant, which Croizat has called E. barnhartii.
No. 143. Grewia subinaequalis DC. is the correct name for the
Indian plant, wrongly called in our Floras G. asiatica Linn.; our plant
is the same as Grewia asiatica Mast., non Linn.
No. 214. This name is correct, but the tdentity of the plant is
doubtful; Gamble has split the complex Randia. dumetorum Lamk.
into several distinct species, of which the commonest in Bombay
State is Randia brandisii Gamble.
No. 247. The common Indian plant is Tamarix troupu Hole, not
T. gallica Linn.; our plant is commonly called T. gallica by authors
of Indian floras, but the plant is different from the Linnean one; the
synonymy should be written Tamarix gallica auct., non Linn.
No. 250. Gaertner spelt the specific name as Myrobalanus bellirica
in Fruct. 2: 90; however, he based his name on that of Breyn in
Ic. 18, t. 4, who spelt the name as Myrobalanus bellerica; the accepted
spelling of the plant is Terminalia bellerica Roxb.
No. 254. The common name, Ain, covers more than one species
of Terminalia; in Bombay parts, T. crenulata Roth is by far the
commoner species; Cooke’s Flora, under T. tomentosa, includes both
T. tomentosa proper and T. crenulata, and possibly other species.
(b) MepicinAL PLANTS.
No. 37. The author lists Artemtsia vulgaris Linn. as one of the
medicinal plants of India, but in this he has been misled by our
lloras; our common Indian plant is not the A. vulgaris of the Linnean
herbarium, but A. nilagivica Pampanini, in Nuov. Giorn, Bot. Ital.
33.:. 452, 1926.
No. 138. The Common plant in the greater part of India, parti-
cularly in the west of the country, is Luffa acutangula var. amara
Clarke. If the varietal rank is not acceptable, then our plant should
be called Luffa amara Roxb. |
No. 218. Cooke in his Flora gives Tragia involucrata Linn. as
the name of our Bombay plant; but Cooke’s name covers a complex
490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
group of species and varieties, of which 7’, involucrata is one, but
the Jatter is a rare plant in Bombay. On this subject see Pax &
Hoffmann in Engler’s Pflanzenreich vol. 68.
In spite of these remarks, I feel no hesitation in recommending
these two books to the general public; the information’ contained in
them is solid and reliable and will help readers to understand and
appreciate the immense treasure of valuable plants in our country.
H. SANTAPAU, sis.
The following books have been added to the Society’s library
since October 1952:—
1. SOME GAME Birps oF West Arrica. By W. A. Fairbairn
(Oliver & Boyd, 1952). (A Review copy).
2. More Common WiLtp FLowers—Pelican Books. By J:
Hutchinson (Penguin Books, 1948). (Presented by Mr. Humayun
Abdulali).
. THE PALAEOBOTANIST—Volume I. Birbal Sahni Memorial
Volume (Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, 1952),.
4. ‘PampucaL’ (Tamil). By M. Ekambaranadhan ‘Amra Press
ma 1952). (A Review copy).
A CHECKLIST OF THE GENERA & SPECIES OF MALLOPHAGA. By
G. ii. E. Hopkins & Theresa Clay [The British Museum (Natural
History), 1952]. (Presented by the Trustees of the British Museum),
6. .A..CoLOURED ATLAS OF SOME VERTEBRATES FROM CEYLON—
Volume I, Fishes—Ceylon National Museums Publication. By P. E.
P. Deraniyagala (The Ceylon Government Press, 1952). (A Review
copy)... |
7, A PockET-Book oF British Motus. By, George E. Hyde
(Adam & Charles Black, 1950). (A Review copy).
- ..8.. Witp .FtowER STUDIES. IN CoLoUR AND PENcH., By Bessie
D. Inglis (Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd., 1951)... (A Review copy).
~g. Marayan Wixtp. FLlowers—Part I, (Malayan Nature Journal,
Volume IV, Numbers 3 and 4). (A Review copy).
10. UsEFuL PLants oF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (Second Saito. By
J. F: Dastur;}{D. B. Taraporevala. Sons & Co. Ltd.). (A Review,
copy).
11. MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN... By J. F. Dastur
{D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co. Ltd.). (A Review copy).
The following bound volumes of reprints of various papers pub-
lished in different periodicals by G. N. Rangaswami Ayyangar and
others, were presented to the Society’s Library by Mr, G. N. Ranga-
swam Ayyangar :— |
t. STUDIES IN DOLICHOS firnacgh., Indian Field and Garden
Bean. (Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, 1935-1941).
.- 2. PRELIMINARY: STUDIES OF MINOR) Mite LETS. Shiite Madras. Agri-
cultural Journal, - 1934;194T}o0) td ale vsdmotl uso Yo acren orl
REVIEWS 491
3. STUDIES IN THE PEARL MILLET (Pennisetum typhoides). (The
Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, Current Science, etc., 1931-
1941).
4. STUDIES IN SorGHUM—Part I, 1929-1937. :
5. STUDIES. IN SorcHUM—Part II, 1938-1942.
21 back numbers of periodicals which include among others, the
Journal of Mammalogy (a Quarterly published by the American
Society of Mammalogists) and The Auk (a Quarterly Journal of
the American Ornithologists’ Union) were presented by Dr. C. Brooke
Worth of Bangalore, about 80 back numbers of Field & Stream—
An American monthly. Sportman’s Magazine—by Mr. Jal N. D. Tata.
. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE SNUB-NOSED
MONKEY '(RHINOPITHECUS ROXELLANAE)
On p. 264 of Vol. 51 (1), December 1952, reference was made to
a description of a monkey, presumably the above species, seen by
Lt.-Col. H. S. Wood in Assam, Through the’ good offices of: the
Secretary, Fauna Preservation Society, we reproduce below Col. Wood’s
original notes and description which should assist observers in collecting
further information.
‘
. when I came across a beast very like the Himalayan
Langurs, only smaller, but of a vivid orange and yellow colour
on the breast and abdomen, I said to myself ‘‘This monkey is some-
what different’’. I started making enquiries but no European had
ever come across it in Assam or nearby provinces and the natives
could give me no information and called the animal Bandar, which
is the Indian name for monkey. I wrote to various zoos and
naturalists about my discovery but could get no information. At
last in perusing the last journal of our Society [Oryx] in the
article about Pere Abbe David’s Deer 1 recognized the animal I had
seen in the Assam forests. Its brilliant colouration struck me
very much. The colour harmonized exactly with the autumn and
fading leaves of the trees in which | found the monkey and was
a perfect camouflage. The first time I came across roxellanae was
at a place called Kanjupkut, a sanatorium of Manipur, lying about
5,000 ft. above the Manipur Valley, S.A. in the Aka Naga country.
The terrain was very rough: bare rocky mountains interspersed
with dense forests. The second occasion I came across roxellanae
was whilst fishing in the Hurry river in the Sylhet district lying
east of the province in the Cossya Hills [Khasia] frontier. I saw
a troop on the left bank of the Hurry where there was dense forest
mostly consisting of Jamun trees, the fruit of which the monkeys
were feeding. It has a plum’s appearance and the flesh is magenta
coloured. Besides monkeys, hornbills, green pigeon and bears are
very fond of the fruit. The troop was very shy and it was with
great difficulty that I got close to them. JI could not get myself
to shoot a specimen. Here I also saw a specimen of the Pig-tailed
Baboon which I had never seen before. One of my hunters shot
one and I had a close view. It was a disgusting looking animal with
the regular Baboon muzzle, and the tail was very short and stuck
out straight from the body. It was practically hairless and the
skin of a jaundiced tint; but the smell of that anima] was awful.
It reminded me of the smell of the Durian fruit of the Netherlands
[Indonesia ?] a mixture of a bad drain and ? (illegible). The smell
was perceptible too yds. away. In spite of the smell my hunters
made a tasty meal out of it.
Now the question arises: If this animal is found in Tibet, from
what direction did it get into Assam? My theory is that the
Kanjupkut troop probably found its way from China or perhaps the
Netherlands. The troop I saw on the Sylhet frontier probably came
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 493
into Assam, from Tibet. The Cossyah Hills [Khasia] are not, very
far from Tibet, only Bhutan intervening, and the Daphla and Aka
Hills. In this case the. monkeys must have swum the broad Brahma-
putra River as there are no bridges, This monkey had a greenish
_ black face with, hair all round of. a golden colour. I could not see
the nose. A long tail; long greyish hair with a golden lustre on
the back. |
But the most distinctive appearance was the lovely. rich red and
yellow colouration of the chest and belly. The palms and feet were
black.. The only sound they made was a, series of grunts and
wheezing noises. I should like to reassure |? | of this lovely creature
from other. hunters.
P.S.—J never came across this monkey in other parts of the
Naga Hills nor in the Chin and Lushai Hills and no
part of Burma.’
EDITORS
2. HOW DO THE LARGER FELINES
SECURE, NIMBLE PREY?
It is known that monkeys and langurs commonly fall victims to
panther; but it is not so generally known how the latter manage to
kill these primates. Their foes are few; but they recognise the
panther as being their enemy No. 1, with the tiger a good second;
hence their agitation and ‘swearing’, reserved for felines, How are
the. kills accomplished with the agile monkeys and langurs apparently
quite safe in the tree-tops? Nature provides a check to their numbers
by producing a form of mass hysteria among them when a panther,
or tiger, starts to stalk them on the forest floor. Instead of remaining
safe on the trees the primates lose their heads and behave in a ridiculous
way, jumping from tree to tree, branch to branch and, as the feline
adopts a pretence of imminent, tree climbing, it is never long’ before one
Or more. of the stupid animals actually jump to the ground to’ escape
from an imagined tree-top attack, and so play into the feline’s paws!
_ Again, how does the heavy ‘tiger manage to kill the fleet-footed
deer? More than often this is accomplished by the stupid behaviour
of the deer; obviously a provision of nature. We call it ‘curiosity’
on the part of deer; and so it appears to be. Deer will actually
deliberately strut towards a hidden tiger or panther—tail erect and
calling. The feline stalks through cover as noiselessly as possible.
If, however, its approach has attracted the attention of the deer, either
by sound or by its movements, then it plays on the deer’s inquisitive-
ness by lying low, leaving its intended victim to shorten the distance
between predator and prey by the latter’s suicidal slow approach. The
advantage lies with the tiger, crouching tensed for the spring or bound
forward, the deer losing time by turning, too late, to flee; the tiger
is on it before the poor creature is able to get up full speed.
HONNAMETTI: Estate, -
ATTIKAN, P.O., RANDOLPH C. MORRIS
viA Mysorg,.
SouTH Inpta,-
December 20, 1952.
494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY) NATURAL HIST. \SOCIETY, Vol, 51
|The late Maharao Vijayarajji of Kutch who was a kéen naturalist
ald experienced sportsman, once related what purported to be an eye-
witness account of a panther killing a full grown camel in Kutch—an
occurrence apparently not too uncommon in those parts. When near
a browsing camel, the panther lay down and commenced rolling on
the ground. ‘The rustling of the leaves attracted the camel’s attention
and it came closer to investigate the strange turmoil. The panther,
partly covered by the leaves, continued to roll about slowly till the
camel’s curiosity caused it to lower its head and bring it still closer.
When within range the panther sprang on it like lightning and held
it down. In the ensuing rough and tumble the camel was thrown to
the ground with the panther firmly astride its neck and ‘at its
throat.—Eps. |
3. UNRECORDED SOUNDS MADE BY
TIGER AND WILD DOG
While sitting up over a tiger kill, on the night of the 12th, two
tiger gave vent to a most unusual noise; a noise that I have, in fact, only
three times preyiously heard tiger make’: and that some twenty ‘years
ago. In those days J thought that one ‘tiger was responsible for the
noise; on each occasion. the tiger was obviously suspicious and did
not come to the kill, but made the noise ‘off stage’. The sound
commenced every time, with a perfect imitation of a locomotive
suddenly letting off steam, lasting only about 4 or 5 seconds followed
by a series of guttural ‘chuckles’ repeated from 60 to 80 times, not
unlike the chuckles emitted by a hyaena. At night this sounds most
eerie. In the recent case both tiger made the noise, one of them
twice, and the other three times. Neither came to the kill, which
had been moved a yard or two in order to secure it to a stump; and
some undergrowth had had to be removed'around it. This undoubtedly
made the two tiger very suspicious. But whether the sounds described
expressed their annoyance, or were in the nature of a warning to each
other, or intended to be threatening to those who had interfered with
their kill I could not say. Dunbar Brander, in his ‘Wild Animals in
Central India’, describes how tiger will express pleasure by blowing
air.on to. their lips: which vibrate not unlike the noise made by horses
through their snostrils, but this description in no way conveys the
noise I. heard. What Dunbar Brander thus describes is the tiger’s
‘purr’.
For the first time in. my experience I heard, on the 15th instant,
a lone wild dog make a noise which can best be described as similar
to the ‘Pheeow’ a jackal is. known to wmtter often when a tiger
approaches its kill the jackal is feeding on, so heralding the tiger’s
arrival. The noise was also not very unlike the shrill scream of the
‘Devil Bird’ heard at night in the forest. The wild dog (a large male)
repeated the call several times, the cries being heard fainter as the
dog went off along’ the jungle road. The first three or four
cries sounded somewhat like a high-pitched human call, ‘ow-0-0-0-0-oh’,
the final ‘oh’ on a lower note; but, later, the initial ‘ow’ appeared
to be dropped.
IMISCELLANBOUS 'NOTES \. \' 495
“My Sholaga shikaris told. me that a wild dog separated’ from: its
mate would occasionally make the noise described. This is possibly
correct, as there was evidence of a bitch (and cubs I think) some way
off. The dog had approached a live bait (a goat) tied up for a panther
at dusk, and had been driven off with stones flung from the machan !
HONNAMETTI ESTATE, | |
ATTIKAN,’ P.O, RANDOLPH C. MORRIS
viA Mysore, |
SouTtH INpIA4,
January 17, 1953.
4. WILD DOGS
The following is an extract from page 44 of the book ‘Out of the
Burma Night’ (Hukawng Valley trek, 1942), by Capt. R. H. Gribble
of the Burma Frontier Service, and it is quoted here as being likely
to have some bearing on the subject of possible varieties of evil dog’
existing in Burma; one cited as being ‘black and white’ by the writer
of ‘Jungle Memories’ in the Journal of December 1949—with reference
to.a ‘gray’ one seen by himself; another, ‘dark gray’ as’ seen by
myself in Burma, and about a dozen ‘piebald’ ones seen on the borders
of Nepal and discussed under ‘The Burma Wild Dog and Other Matters
Canine’ in the Journal of August 1950. The note that follows this
extract is from my own recent experience in the Nilgiris, pe ie
plateau..
‘I was Bad to halt again at Shaduzup’ (about 40 miles. west of
| Myitkyina, N. Burma)... ‘,.. . this. cheerful forest village, at the
foot of which was a deep pool into which I slipped at every oppor-
tunity. ... I happened to be sitting half in and half out of the water
“when I saw the head of an animal snarling at me from the opposite
- bank. As I watched I saw other creatures of the same kind moving in
the undergrowth. Brindled in colour with ‘long snout and _ tail
I recognized them as a pack of wild hunting dog. Presently the
dogs gathered in a bunch. They would raise their heads and bare
-'their teeth. I called to my Kachin bearer to bring my gun from
the rest-house just behind me, but by the time Ningu Nawng arrived
-- with the gun, the dogs were moving along the bank on the other
side and were out of range, and soon out of sight. Ningu told me
‘that these ferocious dogs were terribly destructive, so much so that
village livestock had to be carefully shut up each night under the
houses. Woe betide any domestic animal that happened to get locked
‘out at night.’
% % * %
2. One morning in last September I was sitting at the foot of
the northern escarpment of the Nilgiri plateau, just above an old
disused bridle-track that runs parallel with the lower contours and
which is sometimes walked by a tiger. None ‘had traversed it during
the previous night, but the morning was cool and breezy under large
White’ ‘clouds ; the- wind, though shifty, was blowing: for most of the
time across. the ‘track ‘towards mé and up the slopes behind. My
496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL ‘HIST.\ SOCIETY, Vol. 51
position gave me command of about 300 yards of track in one direction,
where it disappeared around an outcrop of rocks,
It was while I was looking directly across the track below, that
a strange reddish animal suddenly appeared from behind a bush
beyond—about 20 yards from me—and, instantly spotting me, quickly
turned about and vanished, without revealing its hindquarters and tail.
I believe I was actually looking at that bush when this red dog-like
‘animal appeared, or—it anything—only my eyes had moved at that
moment of mutual detection, and I clearly saw its head and forward
part of its body for perhaps three seconds. The impression received
was that of a ‘lean and leggy’ wild dog, about three quarters grown,
but I did not note the colour of its muzzle. That which particularly
caught my attention during those few moments was the genera] hyaena-
like appearance of the whole head (though not large), the high, but
not wide, forehead between the rounded tops of erect ears with their
alert forward cast and the comparatively short, slightly ‘upturned’
muzzle, the typically ‘stupid’ expression of the face with its seemingly
prominent eyes and their ‘short-sighted’ stare.
Perhaps five minutes later, this same animal—or one exactly like
it in colour, size and built—appeared on the track about 150 yards
away and, without glancing back towards me, trotted along it; followed
almost immediately, one after the other, by two large, ‘tawny’ animals
resembling Alsatian dogs, and which behaved precisely as the first
the three trotting away ‘tiredly’ in single-file, the red one leading
and now clearly dog-like in shape and gait. It was only when they
disappeared behind the outcrop of rocks that I remembered I had a
rifle on my lap, loaded and safety-catch off. Following up, a few
minutes later, I found footprints of only ‘dogs’—none as large as
those of hyaena or wolf—which, a short distance beyond the rocks,
disappeared on hard, gritty ground; nor could I discover where they
had turned off the path, for there were no prints on better tracking
ground further ahead.
While wild dogs are fairly common in that locality for practically
the whole year round, wolves—and even jackals—are unknown there ;
and I doubt that hard conditions elsewhere would cause wolves to pass
the natural barriers which border that strip of jungle on all sides;
and in my opinion, the two larger animals were too heavily built and
shaggy to be, wolves. Though I forgot my rifle till too late, I did
blow on an empty cartridge—and, later, on a blade of grass—as soon
as the last animal disappeared, but without causing’ any of these
strange-looking animals to re-appear. However, whatever might have
been the identity of the two larger animals, what was that of the
smaller, red one? If wild dog, why was it being so closely followed
by the other pair, and why had all three the appearance and gait
of weariness? (I did not notice lolling tongues, and at the first
appearance of the red one it was not panting). Domestic dogs or
village pariahs, never venture far into that jungle unaccompanied by
human beings.
x % % *
Postscript (30-12-1952): On Xmas Day after the above account had
been sent to you, a friend from. Kotagiri, who owns a couple of
Alsatians, happened to mention a ‘pack of Alsatians’ maintained on
an estate at (or near) Kil-Kotagiri as watch-dogs and for which
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 497
purpose they: were allowed to ‘run wild’ over the estate, hunting and
running down wild game for their food—presumably wild: deer, ete.
that raided into the property. It was on hearing this that I was
reminded of having heard, on several occasions during previous years,
of a similar version about this ‘pack of Alsatians’ inthe vicinity of
Kotagiri; and, though the spot in the jungle (open tree and bush)
where I saw the trio would be fifteen miles or more ina straight
line from Kil-Kotagiri; it now seems reasonable to: ‘assume that the
two larger animals were indeed Alsatian dogs (males) following a wi!d
dog bitch which was in season,
If such an assumption is correct, and that mating had occurred
and a litter of puppies will result’ therefrom, then what may the
behaviour of the offspring of such an union be towards human beings
encountered in the jungle when the cross-bred animals run with a
pack of wild dogs?
‘GLENCAIRN’, ‘ iO
Hopart Roap, K. BOSWELL,
OoTACAMUND, Capt., 1.4.M.c. (Retd.)
December 14, 1952. 7
5. REMARKABLE BEHAVIOUR OF A COW
_ A few days ago, in the midst of a busy Bombay locality (Magazine
Street, Darukhana) I witnessed one of the usual dog fights for the
possession of a bitch. The larger one, a strong black street dog, was
getting the upper hand over his rival. At this point, the two fighters
were joined by a cow, which appeared on the scene from nowhere and
began to separate the fighting dogs. The cow made a mild charge,
head down, pushing the dogs about with her nose and rolling them
over and over. She finally succeeded in separating the fighters. No
sooner was this done, the big fellow threatened to thrust himself upon
the small dog again. It was only then that the cow made a determined
charge against the big bully. There was no doubt that the cow meant
business: she attacked the dog with her horns and threw him clean
over, whereupon the bully quit, but not without being pursued, and
chased for another 100 yards or so by the infuriated cow, who took
up ‘a position in the middle of the road till the dog had disappeared
around the corner. This incident was watched by a large crowd.
‘BalTuL SURUR’,
WARDEN Roan, Fk. R. GOLDSCHMIDT, p.sc.
BomBay,
March 3, 1953.
6. RED PORCUPINES
With reference to Miscellaneous Note No. 9 in the Journal, Vol.
50 (4), earlier this month I came on two red-quilled porcupines on
a road on these Hills (the Billigirirangans ; Coimbatore District) while
driving in the evening——the first coloured porcupines’ I have seen.
498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL! HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
This was during the severe drought we experienced, before the
onset. of the SW. Monsoon.
HONNAMETTI. ESTATE,
ATTIKAN, P.O.,, aah RANDOLPH C. MORRIS
vIA Mysore,
SoutH INpIA,
October 11, 1952.
7- HOW LONG DO THE SMALL BATS |
(MICROCHIROPTERA). LIVE?
In his ‘Contributions to our Knowledge of the Duration of Life
in Vertebrate Animals—V. Mammals’ (P.Z.S., London, 1931), Major
S. S. Flower writes of the suborder Microchiroptera (pp. 160-61) as
follows :—
‘Owing to the difficulties of keeping Insectivorous Bats in
captivity, and to the very few cases so far recorded of marked, or
banded, Bats being recaught, little is known as to their duration of
life.
A Noctule Bat, Nyctalus noctula, from Hever, Kent, presented
by Mr. E. G. B. Meade-Waldo to the London Z.G. to-12-1914, died
on 18-4-1915 ; this, 4 months 8 days, is an exceptionally long time for any
insectivorous Bat to live in captivity.
A long-eared Bat, Plecotus auritus, lived in private ownership
in Germany, 26-11-1925 to 28-11-1927, 1 year 2 months 2. days
(H. Kummerléwe, 1929).
Two female American Brown Bats, Eptesicus fuscus fuscus,
captured in a loft near Covina, California, 20-7-1921, were taken to
Pasadena, some twenty miles away, banded and released the same
evening. On 16-6-1923 these two individuals were refound in- the
same loft where they had been caught nearly two years before; they
were again taken to Pasadena and once more liberated (A. B. Howell
and L. Little, 1924, Pp. 261).
British Bats ‘“‘must reach a minimum of at least four years’”’
(G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, ro11, p. 45). .
Roux’s Horseshoe- Bat, Rhinolophus vouxi, in india apparently
seldom lives over four years in a wild state, and is not known to
reach an age of five years {Knud Anderson, 1617).
In view of the above it is therefore useful to record that a specimen
of the Fulvous Leafnosed Bat (Hipposideros fulvus Gray) ringed by
Messrs. C. McCann, Mr. Humayun Abdulali and myself (Bombay Natu-
ral History Society’s No. 4688) on Elephanta Island, Bombay Harbour,
on toth May 1942, was recovered by me on 13th March 1953, that is
exactly 10 years, to months and 3 days later. This female along
with 5 other individuals of the same species had been captured and
ringed in the right-hand room (as one enters) of the main cave contain-
ing the magnificent Trimurthi, and it was also recovered in the identical
places Et Seemed adult at the time of ringing and was at least one
year old then, so that it ‘had clearly lived for at least 12. years.
That it was as yet far from advanced senility is proved by the fact
that it was gravid and contained a fairly developed foetus. i
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 499
Although there were over 30 fipposideros bats in this room when
the specimen was shot and a similar number or, more in the room
on the left-hand side of the Trimurthi,. this was the only one bearing
a ring.
33, Pati Hitt, BAnprRa,
BOMBAY-20, SALIM ALI
March 15, 1953.
[Charles E. Mohr in Audubon’s Bats (Audubon Magazine, May-
June 1952) p. 174, writes of bat-ringing in America ‘And in 1950
I found a Lieb’s Bat which I had banded in February 1941. It had
attained a venerable age of at least nine years, This is a remarkable
age for so small.a mammal. Bew shrews and moles, comparable. in
size, live more than a single year’
This is perhaps the longest age a small bat had been known to
attain prior to the case recorded above.—Ens. |
8. ON THE STRANDING OF A WHALE AT JAMBUDWIP
ON THE BENGAL COAST ABOUT 19 YEARS AGO |
Recently, I was interested to see in front of the post-office at
Namkhana in the 24 Parganas, West Bengal, a vertebra of a whale
mounted on a small pedestal, under a young banyan tree (Ficus ben-
ghalensis). The centrum has a width of 13.5 in. from side to. side
and a length of 12 in. The vertebra was ite: washed with lime
except the central portion and the neural arch, which were painted
blood-red with vermillion, such as is used for mole in most temples.
The bone was held in veneration, not worshipped, presumably on account
of its enormous size.
As there was no record of a stranded whale in the western region
of Bengal in the list compiled by Moses* (1), or in any of the subse-
quent notes (2 and 3), enquiries were made regarding the origin and
history of the vertebra. at Namkhana. The only information ayailable
was that it was installed there by a former postmaster of the place,
who had brought it from Jambudwip, a large uninhabited’ island,
otherwise known as Moor’s Island or New Island, lying between
Lacam’s Channel and Gasper Channel, south of Sagar Island.
The postmaster concerned, Mr. S. Singh, who is now: stationed
at Diamond Harbour, was approached for further particulars which are
as follows :—
Towards the end of January or the beginning of February 1934
Mr. Singh, who was then serving as telegraph master at Mud Point,
was informed by Mr. Shenton, the then lighthouse keeper of Sagar,
about the stranding of a whale in Jambudwip. He visited the island
with some friends to find the carcass already in a state of putrefaction
with the bones exposed. and oil covering the entire area. Villagers
? The Indian Pilot Whale, Globicephala macrorhyncha Gray = Globicephalus indica
Blyth, stranded in dozens near the Salt Lakes, Calcutta, in’ July 1950, is a kind
of Dolphin. BBW DORI
500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY) NATURAL HIST.) SOCIETY, Vol. $1
from the neighbouring islands removed the’smaller bones as mementos,
but the vertebral column had been left practically intact.» The two
lower jaw bones were so large that some people were discussing the
suitability of their being carved into dugout canoes. With the help
of an axe Mr. Singh was able to separate three of the vertebrate
to adorn three places, namely, the Sagar lighthouse, the Mud Point
telegraph office and the Namkhana post-office. While the first two
were subsequently removed by some visiting ‘officials, the’ one at
Namkhana, which appears to be one of the anterior caudal vertebrae
(probably the fourth or fifth), is still preserved as stated above.
It is difficult to identify the whale, except by © ‘circumstantial
evidence. The numerous black plates in the mouth of the whale seen
by Mr. Singh place it as a baleen whale. Large-sized whales hitherto
recorded as stranded on the Indian Coasts are usually baleen whales
which include the Great Biue Whale or Great Rorqual (Balaenoptera
musculus Linnaeus=Balaenoptera indica Blyth) and the Little Piked
Whale or Lesser Rorqual (B. acutorostrata Lacepede=B, edeni
Anderson). From the size of the bone and the genera] description
the whale, stranded at Jambudwip appears to be the former.
Mr. Singh stated that the whale was more than 4o ft. long, but
an old employee of the post-office at Namkhana who had also seen
it said that it was 64 ft. From the size of a third caudal vertebra
(14 in. long and 16.5 in. wide from side to side) of a Great Blue
Whale, 84 ft. in length (stranded on Amherst Island on the Arakan
Coast in 1851) exhibited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, it is
possible to confirm 64 ft. as a near estimate of length of the whale
stranded at Jambudwip, if the presumption regarding the species
is correct.
CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION,
BARRACKPORE, S. JONES
January 7, 1953.
REFERENCES
1. Moses, S. T. (1948): J. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc., 41 (2): 377-379.
2. Pillai, N. G. (1949): J. Bombay Nat. Hist, Soc., 48 (2): 358.
3. Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1950): J. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc., 49 (1): 14-19.
9. A NOTE ON THE DHOLPUR WILD LIFE SANCTUARY,
RAJASTHAN
(With a sketch map and two plates)
Bat fet Ih stot iy
The beginning of the Wild Life Sanctuary in Dholpur State dates
from the period of regency of Genera] Dennehy during the minority
of the Maharana Nihal Singh who succeeded in 1873.
At that time in the so-called Ban Bihar Forest there was a sacred
place known as: Satkarai ‘where seven sadhus stayed for 50 years’.
The place was used also as a spot for religious pilgrimage and’ remains
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 501
well-known in the area to this day.. The seven sadhus objected to killing
animals in the forest on religious grounds, and it is believed that the
idea of the first sanctuary (known at present as Satkarai Sanctuary)
originated thus.
Maharaj Nihal Singh and Col. Clageston (regent of the former’s
successor) made further improvements and another area was made
into a sanctuary after the creation of an artificial lake by building a
dam on the river Banganga in 1904. The present Maharaja Rana of
Dholpur developed the area round Kesarbagh Palace into a_ third
sanctuary and made many other improvements in the existing Ram
Sagar and Satakargi Sanctuaries by building walls, good _ roads,
blocking nullahs, etc.
Physical aspects
(a) Avea: The largest of three sanctuaries is the Ram Sagar
Sanctuary which, including the lake, occupies an area approximately
12 sq. miles. Second in size is the Satkarai Sanctuary of appro-
ximately 6 sq. miles. The smallest is the Kesarbagh Sanctuary of
approximately 2 sq. miles.
(b) Situation and access: All the three sanctuaries are within easy
reach of the town of Dholpur and from the Agra trunk road. The
distances are as follows:
Dholpur to Ram Sagar een? Omiailes
Dholpur to Satkarai Re Doeese
Dholpur to Kesarbagh sional VR)
_. There are good metalled and motorable roads leading to each of
the sanctuaries, Inside the boundaries of the sanctuaries there are
circular roads and cross vistas cut in the forest so that easy observation
of the animals is made possible.
(c) Sou: The soil for the most part is a mixture of sand and
clay, and is poor everywhere. Ram Sagar and Satkarai Sanctuaries are
partly situated on a range of hills which runs parallel to the Chambal
River and is elevated 1,000-1,100 ft. above sea level. This ridge is
mainly rocky, made of sandstone, with a depth of soi] nowhere exceed-
ing 4-6 in. The average rainfall is 28 in. in the year.
The soil inside the limits of the sanctuaries is not suitable for
cultivation and there is no human habitation for miles around.
The sanctuaries are of course not an exception, because most of
the surrounding area is barren and only 57% of the country is culti-
vated. The density of population is small only 249 per sq. mile,
including the population of towns.
(d) Water: The sanctuaries have been provided with water by
blocking the perennial streams and rivers. The largest lake is situated
in the Ram Sagar Sanctuary and occupies an area of approximately
3 sq. miles.
(e) Vegetation: The soil being poor, most of the forest grows
around the lakes in the valley. Many good trees have been artificially
planted and cared for. Most of the forest consists of small trees,
bushes and shrubs which do not give any timber for construction and
are suitable only as third grade firewood. |
11
502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
There is no forest outside the boundaries of the sanctuaries as most
of the trees have been indiscriminately cut. However, the existing
forest in the sanctuaries has a beneficial effect for the Cons evation of
soil and stops the spreading of the barren area north of the Chambal.
W.nld. A.njmatls’.S to ck
Prior to the abolition of the sanctuaries in 1947 there were plenty
of valuable species in the sanctuaries. The complete list is included
in the main report, but here a mention can be made of the following
animals :—
Tiger, panther, wolf, jackal, hyaena, wild cat, nigai, sambar,
chital, blackbuck, barking deer,: fox, hare, crocodile.
Many migrant birds come to winter on the lakes besides the usual
residents of these parts.
Botndarie's of the’ Sa'n'c't'U a FtHe's
In order to prevent the drifting of the animals into the surrounding
area those parts of the sanctuaries which had no natural barrier have
been enclosed by solid stone walls of 8 ft. high with barbed wire tops.
The rest of the limits are protected naturally by the lakes, the ridge
and deep ravines.
Aum in pt ie si tone laVnlSHathosras
Next to the Satkarai Sanctuary there is a very large abandoned
residence ‘Tglab-e-shahi Palace’ built on the lake by Shah Jahan.
Ram Sagar Sanctuary has a large house in good condition and a
boat house where motor boats and rowing boats are kept.
Thus there is ample accommodation which at a small expense could
be turned into rest-houses or hotels for visitors coming to see the
sanctuary as well as for the’use of forest or wild life officials, guards
and administrative staff.
Pitre Seinoth s tlatesrolfbnactia 1s
Continuous efforts of nature lovers for a period of almost a century
have borne good fruit, and the Dholpur Sanctuary could be considered
as a great achievement. Strict observance of the rules in the past
has given full protection to the animals and inspired them with a
great sense of security. Most animals, including even wolves, became
tame and could be fed from hand. The Dholpur Sanctuary became
well-known. abroad.and attracted many tourists and animal lovers,
After 1947 the gates of the sanctuaries have been thrown open and
mass extermination of animals by the most unsporting means has
begun. There are plenty of accounts of mass slaughter of sambar
and chital by the use of powerful flash-light torches and sten guns. It
is. said that the sanctuaries have become a happy hunting ground for
the neighbouring military units whose personnel come in jeeps shooting
indiscriminately.
Certain portions of the protecting walls have been demolished or
have collapsed for lack of maintenance.
ouRN., BompBay Nat. PLATE I
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hiteibphyypie
jj
Sambar Hinds.
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|| Dholpur Wild Life
Sanctuary.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 503
The present. administration have freely, issued fishing licences. to
contractors who by, the use of methods of mass destruction, have more
or less completely depleted the lakes, of fish. It may be mentioned
that most of these fish have been artificially introduced, in this part
of the country since the lakes were made. As the remaining fish
is rather difficult to catch now, I understand that arrangements have
been made to drain the water from Ram Sagar Lake in the near
future. If this is allowed to take place the effect on the whole R§jm
Sagar area will be disastrous.
The cutting of wood for fuel has been let on contract, and methodical
deforestation has begun, The effort of a century is going into ruin,
and unless drastic and speedy action is taken the forest will vanish
in no time and with it such animal life as still remains.
Conclusion
The Dholpur Sanctuary should be officially gazetted as soon as
possible on the following grounds :—
1. Soil is poor and not suitable for cultivation.
. There are no villages or any other habitation within the area
of Le Ny.
3.) Lhe existing forest and artificial lakes are extremely important
for the conservation of soil.
4. There is good access by road and amenities for visitors.
5. There are still some animals left who can multiply if protection
is given.
6. The area of existing sanctuaries is already enclosed by the
wall and natural barriers.
7. Great sums of money have been spent in the creation of the
sanctuaries, and it would be a wastage of national wealth if these are
now allowed to go to ruin.
c/o NATIONAL ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES LTD.,
LALBAUG, BoOMBAY-12, S. SZAFRANSKI
December 13, 1952.
10. THE ‘MIGHTY JEEP’ IS A ‘SHOCKING PREDATOR’
A correspondent who owns neither gun nor rifle writes to me from
Uttar Pradesh of having recently witnessed the running down and
shooting from the ‘Jeep’ motor vehicle of both blackbuck and chinkara
by a ‘sportsman’, and asks my opinion as to this form of ‘sport’.
Such ‘sport’ is rightly condemned by all right thinking sportsmen.
Among the Resolutions adopted by the Central Board for Wald
Life at its first session held in Mysore from 25th November to 1st
December 1952 for recommendation to the Government of India, is
No. 17, which declares that shooting from motor vehicles, with or
without blinding spot- or head-lights (among other matters mentioned)
requires to be discouraged in the interests of the preservation of wild
life, and that the attention of States Governments be invited to the
urgent need for devising ways and means, and of adopting. such
504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
measures, including enactment of legislation, to discourage if not to
prohibit these practices in the interests of wild life.
What is Sport? ‘It can be said that all sport is governed by
unwritten laws, and the general tendency is to give the animal a
sporting chance of escape, also to make the sport as great a test
as possible consistent with the object in view—the death of the quarry’:
The pitting of the powerful motor engine against the labouring
heart and muscles of antelope or any wild animal, even if only for
testing its speed, is surely wholly bad.
The Excise Law provides for the confiscation by convicting magi-
strates of motor (or other) vehicles used to contravene the Excise
Laws and Rules. Such a motor vehicle confiscation was upheld in
January 1952 in the Madras State on appeal to the High Court.
Confiscation of the ‘Jeep’ or other vehicle should be the penalty for
such ‘sport’ as brought to notice by my correspondent.
BANGALORE, R: W. BURTON,
February 28, 1953. Lt.-Col., 1.A. (Retd')
iz. ‘A HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA’—A’ CORRECTION
It was wrongly stated in Vol. 50 (4), August 1952, p. 856, that
there is no record of the Indian Wild Ass (Equus onager indicus)
having ever been ridden down by a single horseman.
The record of this having been done by H. H. the Thakor of
Morvi, an erstwhile Kathiawar State, bordering the Runn of Kutch,
is contained in the article by Lieutenant H. L. Harrington, Assistant
Political Agent, Kathiawar, in 1893 in the Society’s journal Vol. 8,
P2439. | 4
‘. . . the Thakor Sahib and his two riding boys separated; the
former succeeded in riding an onager down single-handed, and with-
out change of mount, while the two boys secured another. The
horses used in these rides were Walers, Arabs and country-breds,
and in one ride when a wild donkey was secured, a 13.3 Arab pony
was used .... The rides which ended in captures usually lasted
about three hours; speed varied from a walk to a spurting gallop;
the going was execrably bad, being chiefly ground covered at high
tide by the sea, and consisted for the most part of mud, in which the
horses sank fetlock deep, necessitating the greater part of the chase
being done at a walk. The distances covered in the various runs
varied from twenty to twenty-five miles; no horse ever died during
the chase or from the after effects . ... Some of the captures re-
mained excessively vicious, others became quite tame, and were ridden
and driven just like a tame donkey.’
Much of the above was contained in a letter which appeared in
the Field of 29th July, 1893.
BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,, |,
January 3, 1953. . Et.-Col., 1.4. (Retd.)
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 505.
12. THE JACKDAW (CORVUS MONEDULA) IN
UTTAR PRADESH
While camping at Sorho, a village due south of Pipri (the Rihand
dam site), in Dudhi tehsil, South Mirzapur District, U.P., at 9-15 a.m.
on December 12th, about 200 of these birds flew in from the north-
west, rested on a bamboo thicket for about ten minutes, broke into
voice and then flew away east-south-eastwards.
The length of each bird was 12 inches; the whole upper plumage,
wings and tail were a glossy black; the broad collar from the sides of
the head round the back of the neck was a dusky grey, becoming
so pale in parts as to be almost white. Chin, throat and fore neck
were black; the remainder of the lower plumage a dull slaty black;
iris whitish; legs and bill black.
Hugh Whistler in his ‘The Popular Handbook of Indian Birds’
says that these birds are normal residents of Europe, Algeria and’
parts of northern and western Asia, and winter visitors to India’s
north-west frontier, west of the Indus, and to some districts of the
Punjab and Kashmir.
c/o Dr. M, V. N. Murtny,
GEOLOGICAL SURVEy OF INDIA,
CALCUTTA-13, (MRS.) SYAMALA MURTHY
January 2, 1953.
[This is the southernmost as well as the most easterly record in
northern India, the co-ordinates of Dudhi. being ca. 24° 15’ N. x 83°
E. Ambala, mentioned in the Fauna (i, 36) as the eastern limit, is.
ca. 30° 30° N.x77° E. It is further of interest to learn that the flock
flew off in an east-south-easterly direction.—EDs. |
13. KOEL MIMICKING GOLDEN ORIOLE
On the morning of the 3rd April, 1952, at about 6 a.m. I heard
a call, pee-lo-lo, which I took to be the call of a Golden Oriole,
(Oriolus o. kundoo). I investigated, since this bird visits this area
only in the cold weather, and it was rather surprising to hear its call
in April. I could not, however, locate the bird or see any Golden
Oriole. The next morning I again heard the same call followed by
a low ku-hu. On investigation I found that a male Koel, (Eudy-
namys scolopacea), was mimicking a Golden Oriole to perfection. It
would first call pee-lo-lo, pee-lo-lo, then Rku-hu followed by pa-pe-lo-
ku-hu-ku-hu. Since then I heard it do so every morning till the
16th May, 1952. The mimicking was done only in the morning and
sometimes around 9 a.m: as well, though the later mimicking
was not so perfect as the earlier one; the call generally lasting 3 to
4 minutes but was occasionally even of longer duration. JI have
never heard the mimicking being done later in the day or in the
evening.
506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
I again came across such mimicking in a tea-garden at Namkum,
about 5 miles away from Doranda, on the 4th May, 1952 at about
6.30 a.m.
None of the books, in my possession mention this habit: of the
Koel; rather it is not. recorded anywhere that this bird mimics any
other. 1 would be.very thankful if any readers who have had a
similar experience will kindly let me know.
c/o Samr AHMAD. EsQ.,
FOREST. Rest HousgE,
P.O... HiNnoo, (MRS.) JAMAL ARA
RANCHI,
October 8, 1952.
m4 ‘THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
It is somewhat surprising to me to read in the note contributed
by Mr. Farid H. B. Tyabji (Vol. 51, p. 276) that’ as many as 200 to
300 bustard were seen by him on one day in 1923, and again as many as
400 in one day tn 1926 in the same Manmad country near Rotagaon
station on the narrow gauge line. When stationed at) Aurangabad in
i8g1-g2 the ‘Bobbery Pack’ and other excursions took me and brother
officers all over the country west of the Cantonment up to a distance
of 15 miles and more for some 18 months. We occasionally saw one
or two bustard. There was then no railway. We also used to travel
by tonga between Aurangabad and Ahmednagar, but saw no bustard
along that 75 miles of road.
In 1903 I was Railway Magistrate and Superintendent of Railway
Police, Hyderabad Railways, for six months and frequently travelled
up and down the Secunderabad—Manmad line. My shikari used to
scour the country for buck and bustard. He never reported more
than seven bustard on any one day, and I did not see more than that
number on any of the several occasions I roamed over the country
east of the line from Nagarsole and Ankai.
During 1893 to 1895 I once saw 17 bustard in one day, of which
13 were in one flock. This was east of Guntakal Junction and north
of the line towards Gazerpully. In all the other Hyderabad: country
known to us we never saw more than 2 or 3 bustard on any one day.
Stuart Baker’s volume is not now available to me, but I do not re-
collect there was known to him any such assembly of the Great Indian
Bustard as noted by Mr. Tyabji.
BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON,
February 28, 1953. Lt:-Col.,> 1.a:)(Retd:)
[In ‘Game Birds of India’, Vol. II, the largest gathering mentioned
by Stuart Baker is of 34 birds seen feeding in a jambha field Eruca
sativa Lam.—about 75 years:ago, in ?Sind—-by Mr. S. Doig. Flocks
of 10-12 are, or at least were, evidently not uncommon, but the birds
are of course oftener met with singly or in scattered twos ‘and
threes.—Eps. |
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 507
15., FEEDING HABIT OF THE INDIAN POND, HERON
(ARDEOLA GRAYII)
During a recent visit to Rapur, a small taluk headquarters. village,
some 22 miles due west of Gudur, I was walking along the thorn and
cactus covered outer bund of the moat surrounding the ruined Rapur
fort, when I noticed a Pond Heron feeding in a most unusual manner.
The bird would stalk along in the shallow water for a few feet
before suddenly launching into flight, thereby disturbing the frogs,
also. lying in the shallow water, to leap along into deeper water and
safety. As soon as the frogs moved the heron would immediately
try to pick them up in flight, jabbing at the frogs until it successfully
seized one, whereupon it would return to the bank and consume the
frog before continuing the operation.
The whole action was most un-heron like and the bird looked like
some awkward gull as it flew low over the scattering frogs, now jabbing
at one and then another, almost stalling in the process as it would
try to reach back for a frog it had just flown over. Whatever. its
methods, ungainly though they were, the bird was certainly ‘successful
for, during the course of twenty minutes’ observation, it landed no
fewer than six frogs, after which it sat in shapeless silence digesting
its dinner.
€/O POSTMASTER,
P.O. GupuR (NELLORE}, K. M. KIRKPATRICK
November 6, 1952.
{A note on herons, egrets and house crows fishing from the air is
published on p. 169 of Vol. 50 (1), August 1951.—EDs. |
16. REDNECKED PHALAROPE NEAR DELHI
On ist and 3rd June, 1951, I saw a Rednecked Phalarope (Phala-
ropus lobatus) on the Horseshoe jheel, some seven miles north of Delhi.
Both the place and the season seem to be exceptional.
It was in the late afternoon of rst June that I found the phalarope
and I watched it at a distance of perhaps twenty feet for nearly half
an hour. As is customary with the genus when on inland waters,
it was extremely tame. Ticehurst says it is very shy on the sea. It
constantly swam round and round picking insects off the surface of
the shallow, muddy water, its head bobbing to and fro as a waterhen’s
‘does. I did not attempt to make it fly. The surround of the much-
reduced jheel was very muddy, and there seemed to be no point in
‘disturbing it, as all essential details of plumage were visible.
The points I noted at the time were as follows: The side of the
neck was dull red; in front of this was a whitish patch; the chin and
throat were white, upper breast and sides grey, lower breast and
under tail-coverts white (the rest of the underparts were hidden by
the water). A long pale grey supercilium. The back and wings
were nearly black, with pale markings. The narrow black beak,
which differentiates P.lobatus from P. fulicarius even in winter
508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.:SOCIETY, Vol. 51
plumage, was a feature that I ‘specially noticed. Presumably. the
bird was a male in not quite full breeding plumage.
When I first saw it the bird was quite alone; but fortunately while
I was watching it a Greater Sand Plover (Charadrius leschenaulti)
in full breeding plumage walked close past it on the mud. The plover.
was decidedly the larger bird.
The only common Indian bird with which the Rednecked Phala-
rope in breeding plumage could conceivably be confused would be the
Pheasant-tailed Jacana in ‘off’? plumage. Curiously enough, a party
of over a dozen jacanas were on a pool not.:much more than a mile
away, and they included two at least that had not yet got into breed-
ing plumage. I had been watching them just before I found the
phalarope. The jacana is, of course, much larger than .a phalarope,
and would look a good deal bigger than a Greater Sand Plover.
In’ the early morning of the 3rd June, Mr. I. B. Groves and I
found the phalarope at precisely the same spot. Once again, we did
not see it fly.
Although the date of this occurrence may appear strange, it should
be remembered that the phalarope, which ‘is a Holarctic breeding
species, cannot begin to breed in northern Siberia till late June: so
an individual seen at Delhi in the first week of June may still have
been on passage to its breeding grounds.
Blanford (F.B.I., IV, p. 282) says: ‘Inland in India it only occurs
when migrating, but it has been several times shot in the Punjab
and Rajputana, as far east as the neighbourhood of Delhi about
September and May.’ Since Blanford wrote (1898) there seem to
be no records from India except a few from the coast near Madras.
On the Sind coast it is more regular.
24, RaypuR Roap,
DELHI, H. G. ALEXANDER
July 12, 1951.
[Stuart Baker in ‘The Waders and other Semi-sporting Birds of
the Indian Empire’, Journal volume 37, pages 251 to 254 says: ‘I think
it occurs inland on migration only but in many coastal districts it
is found all the Winter and on the great tidal rivers of Eastern
Bengal it may be constantly seen in flocks, often of some size, from
October to April’.—Eps.]
17. OCCURRENCE OF THE SMEW [MERGELLUS
ALBELLUS (LINN.)] IN WEST BENGAL
During my _ bird-collecting trip to Bhutan Ghat, Buxa Forest
Division, in November 1948, I made daily visits to the Raidak River
flowing close by and which divides the area from Bhutan. TI could
thus investigate long stretches of the river with field-glasses. In
the course of bird watching here both Mr., M. Sain who was with
me, and myself, independently observed on, several occasions stray
specimens of the Smew [Mergellus albellus ‘(Linn. )]—not more than
3 or 4 birds, flying silently and rapidly—low over the water’s surface.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 509
Although no. specimen was collected the colour and pattern
of the birds, particularly of the male, observed at close quarters,
left no doubt as regards the identity of the species. There is
no possibility of their having been the Goosander (Mergus m. orien-
talis) which Mr. Sain had previously also observed on the Raidak. No.
goosanders were present on the river this time.
CALCUTTA, S.C. LAW, pPh.p.
October 8, 1952.
[The breeding range of the Smew covers the entire N. Palaearctic
region, east to Kamtschatka. Small numbers regularly visit north
India in winter, especially the north-west. In eastern India it has.
been recorded in Assam on streams flowing through the Himalayan
foothills—where it is evidently uncommon—and as far south as
Cuttack (Orissa), Raniganj (Bengal) and Hazaribagh (Chota Nagpur),.
—Eps. | :
18. STRAY BIRD NOTES FROM MYSORE
1. ELECTROCUTION OF CROWS
The Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) is common in Bangalore, .
frequenting refuse heaps, bazaars and compounds. On May 29, 1951
several were electrocuted during a rainstorm while perched on electric
wires. I picked up one of these when it was still gasping. On pre-
paring a skin of the specimen later, I could not find evidence of burns.
or other injury.
2. A Munta Roost
In May, 1951, a large roost of Spotted Munias (Uroloncha punctu-
lata), Whitebacked Munias (Uroloncha striata), and Common Weaver
Birds was located in a dense lantana thicket in Sakleshpur just above
paddy fields bordering the Hemavati River. Every day flocks of
ten to forty birds arrived in rapid succession for about half an hour
preceding dusk. The several thousand birds carried on a _ noisy
twittering, with much shifting of positions, before settling down for
the night.
3. SHRIKE CAPTURING SPARROW
I saw a Greybacked Shrike [Lanius schach (caniceps Blyth)| kill
an adult female House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) at Sakleshpur.
The shrike pounced on the sparrow as it was feeding along a roadside,.
and proceeded to strike it repeatedly in the head. Subsequent dis-
section, of the sparrow proved it to be in breeding condition and
apparently able-bodied in all respects.
4. Two NEw Birps FoR THE Mysore List
Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin). The Chestnut Bittern.
Noted occasionally near Sakleshpur but no specimens collected.
Not previously recorded from Mysore State, though both this and the
next occur in Travancore and Coorg.
510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST:\SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Butorides striatus (Linn.).. The Little Green Heron.
_ One seen at Ulsoor Tank in Bangalore but not collected. Not
previously recorded from Mysore State.
3), ST. Marks Roan,
BANGALORE, Mysore, C. BROOKE WORTH
January 5, 1952.
19. ADDITIONAL MYSORE STATE BIRD RECORDS
‘Hirundo fluvicola (Blyth). The Clif Swallow.
February 15, 1952. A colony at Belur, Hassan District. A small
temple surrounded by water in a tank, had numerous nests of cliff
swallows. and house swifts.. The swallows were seen several times
previously, but had not been properly identified. At least thirty pairs
of swallows were present. Undoubtedly resident.
Phoenicopterus ruber (Linn.). The Flamingo.
February 15, 1952. Twenty-one seen at Lakshmipura Tank near
Arsikere, north of Belur. Not recorded from Mysore.
Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin). The Indian Courser.
April 26,.1952. Shot from a flock by Dr. Robert B. Watson and
brought to me in the flesh. Skin made. Site of shooting, 11 miles
SW. of Bangalore visited by me on May 15 and two birds seen.
‘Sypheotides indica (Miller), The Lesser Florican.
May 26, 1952. One seen at tor mile-post on Bangalore-Mangalore
Road, Hassan District.
Caprimulgus monticolus (Franklin). Franklin’s Nightjar.
May 29, 1952. Voice identified at Sakleshpur from written ‘des-
criptions. The sound had been heard previously at Bangalore Golf
Club in March, 1952—definitely not a golfer who missed the ball, for it
was at night and proceeded from the branches of a tree!
3, ST.’Marks ‘Roan,
BANGALORE, Mysore. C. BROOKE WORTE.
October 19, 1952.
20.. Avy PYTHON: CONTAINING: A FULL-GROWN,
UNDIGESTED LUNGOOR
This snake, exactly 12 ft. in length was found, last September,
asleep in a dry, shallow, overgrown and gloomy nullah which, because
of its ‘concealed’, inconspicuous character and affording access to a
river, was often used by an occasional tiger or panther when requiring
a drink, and in which it almost invariably lay up afterwards. The
adjacent river-belt of jungle—mostly dense bamboo—on both banks
usually harboured families of lungoors and common brown monkeys,
‘both of which used to give the well-known alarm cries at the appearance
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 511
of any of the carnivora. At the time in question, they had been’ not
only silent for many days but the lungoors seemed to’ have completely
abandoned that locality. For this reason [ visited the nullah to look
for pugs. Soon after entering its mouth and just as my head came
level with the higher floor further up, 1 saw, about a dozen yards
away and close beside one of its low banks, what I at first thought
was a very dark panther asleep in the dappled shade of a clump of
bamboos; but, a moment later, recognized it as a python—though I
could not see any part of it on either side of the prominent ‘hump’
in its body. On closer approach I realized that those invisible lengths
were thrust under the carpet of fallen dead leaves that strewed the floor
of the nullah, and more thickly against that part of its bank. How
should one kill a python without shooting its head off? By pinning
its head to the ground with a knife-thrust, or by bashing it with a
club? I found and laid handy a thick, dead branch and then proceeded
cautiously first to uncover what I assumed to be the end of its tail,
only to discover that it was the head. The snake still appeared to be
asleep. I decided to take it back alive and observe the progress of
digestion of the contained animal—presumed to be a young pig or
deer—and therefore returned to camp for assistance. On seeing the
snake, however, the men assured me that it would have to be killed
before its removal could be attempted; this they proceeded to do by
first so trimming a couple of bamboos that there remained a hook-
like twig at the end of each—to haul the snake away from the foot
of the bank and to control it—and one bamboo sharpened to a point
for thrusting at the head and pinning it down. The snake was first
hooked away from the bank to allow me to take photos of it (all
unsatisfactory owing to the gloom, and the colour and marking of the
snake blending with the leaves and bushes). With the first thrust
at its head—a bad shot—the snake gradually became very animated
and then aggressive, striking with wide-open jaws at the wielded
bamboos or the nearest person, but remained anchored to the ground
by the weight of the lump in its mid-body. Eventually, though with
head undamaged, its activities were reduced to gentle writhing after
the lower jaw was damaged by thrusting the sharp bamboo into the
throat and jabbing it about there. Then pliant lengths of a creeper
were tightly tied behind the head and around the tapering part of the
tail behind the vent, and the snake was thus hauled by tail (not head !)
by two men’ with Hifhenity 2 eHCh was its weight—to the village for
skinning. But, on being released from its bonds that snake came
to life, rapidly disgorged a seemingly intact and full-grown lungoor in
the attitude of simian slumber—with only a ‘bubble’ of gut protruding
from the navel as evidence of any pressure exerted upon it—and, thus
relieved, became so dangerously active that someone cut off its head.
The previously distended skin rapidly contracted to normal proportions
—even as the ape was being ejected, its fur only moist and not
smeared with slimy saliva. After skinning, the snake was slit open
from throat to vent. The gullet, or oesophagus, seemed to be simply
and entirely a long, membranous, elastic ‘gutter’ to within about 18 in.
of the vent; this latter portion containing a few coils of entrails
as narrow as the ‘small’ intestine of any small animal, and the whole
widely arched over by the ribs attached to the vertebrae like a low,
vaulted roof. Viewed thus, there appeared to be no other viscera or
512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
organs. Between vent and tip of tail was a deep gash in the skin,
about an inch long, as though inflicted by the fang of a lungoor.
if the presence of this python in that nullah was responsible for the
absence of monkeys there for nearly a week, how long had the ape
been inside it?
‘GLENCAIRN’,
Hopart Roap, K. BOSWELL,
OOTACAMUND, Capt. 1.A.M.c. (Retd.).
December 14, 1952.
21..§ SOME) MORE NOTES ON’ UROPELTIS “MACROLEPIS
(PETERS), WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
SPECIMENS FROM MAHABLESHWAR
(WESTERN GHATS, BOMBAY)
I recently (J.B.N.H.S., 50: 950) recorded a sepcimen of the Rough-
tailed Earth Snake—Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters)—from Mahableshwar
which appeared to differ from the others in our collection in the
presence of an unbroken brownish-yellow stripe along each flank
throughout the length of the body, as compared to a line of spots in
the others,
Both varieties have a broad yellow or orange Stripe on each side
of the tail, sometimes meeting on the under surface almost at the
tip of the tail. The anal scale is also yellow in some and concolorous
with the ventrals in others, but an examination of the material available
indicates that neither of these two colour differences is a sexual
characteristic.
Mr. D. J, Panday recently obtained two more specimens at
Mahableshwar and these (both males) also have an unbroken stripe
along the side.
Their lepidosis also corresponds with that of the previous specimen
including the sub-cauda] count of 13 scales instead of 7-10 (Malcolm
Smith’s Fauna, Vol. III: 79) or 7-12 (Wall’s Handlist of the Snakes
of the Indian Empire, /.B.N.Hi:S.,. Vol. xXxXIx:, 356,in those from
other places.
Dr. Malcolm Smith’s suggestion that the striped variety with 13
sub-caudals may be restricted to Mahableshwar appears to be sub-
stantiated.
Bombay, V. K. CHARI
December 23, 1952.
22.) THE: TADPOLE OF’ RANA LETT HiT BOULENGER
(With a plate)
On 17th September 1950, Mr. Humayun Abdulali brought in two
tadpoles and a frog from Suriamal, 2,500 ft. North Thana, Bombay.
The frog was picked up on a ghat road and the tadpoles obtained
on almost vertical rocks alongside, over which water was flowing into
the road-side gutter.
m., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
RANA LEITHII BOULENGER
‘pen Paper ase showing the serrated edges of the upper and the lower mandibles of the beak,
| x 22.
| pen mouth-disc showing the beak and dentition, x 22.
Wwo-legged stage of the tadpole, x 2. (a) Dorsal view. (6) Ventral view.
(c) Lateral view.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 513
On ist September 1952, Mr. Abdulali obtained some more tadpoles
and we made another attempt to identify them in Bombay. From
the published records they compared well with Rana beddomii (Gtnther)
but with several marked differences. |
The frog obtained on the first occasion, was also identified as
Rana leithti Boulenger and the circumstantial evidence points to the
tadpoles being of this species which do not appear to have been des-
cribed before.
All the specimens collected are far advanced in their development,
being of the two legged and later stages; within these, the series is
complete up to the juvenile.
Head and Body: Oval with the broader end towards the
anus; branchial region not very prominent. Snout bluntly pointed
and declivous; eyes dorsal, prominent, and rather large; nostrils very
inconspicuous and nearer to the eye than to the tip of the snout.
Spiracle slit-like and placed near the eye. Two small grooves, each
starting from the posterior outer edge of the eye, meet centrally on
the back and run as a median dorsal groove along the body to the
base of the dorsal fin. The back on either side of the median groove
has a ‘ribbed’ appearance.
Mouth: The mouth-disc is entirely ventral in position and
triangular in shape. The upper lip, deeply notched in the middle, is
without tubercles and has the first row of teethi fringing it. The dental
formula is 1+1:1:2+2/2+2:2. The beak appears oval, the mandibles
horny and black, their edges being strongly serrated. The “teeth’
look like spear blades. The tubercles of the mouth-dise are restricted
to the two corners of the mouth. The upper and lower lips are clearly
demarcated. |
Tail: Nearly twice the length of the head and body and slender
in build. The fin membranes are very poorly developed. The dorsal
fin is seen as a ridge. The ventral is equally vestigial though it
broadens out slightly towards the end. The muscular portion tapers
toa fine point.
Anus: The anus is prominently tubular and situated ventrally
at the junction of the tail and the body.
Colour: The colour of the body varies from a uniform slaty
to pale brown with tail and hind limbs pale brown and barred. The
ventral side is immaculate except for a few patches of minute black
spots behind the mouth. In some specimens the fully developed fore
limbs can be seen through the transparent skin.
The measurements of specimens in which the hind limbs alone have
ebpeaned are given below :—
Total length ba 35mm. 31mm. 35mm. 30 mm.
Length of head and body 12mm. 11mm. 12mm. 11 mm.
Breadth bs sl 7mm. 5°5 mm. Gimm:.. | Stim.
Depth git e 4mm. 4mm. 45 mm. 3.5 mm.
Depth of tail bbe 2 mm. 2 min. 2G +1): 2\ TBA «
514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST:\SOCIETY, Vol. 51
The tadpoles differ from those of Rana beddomii (Giinther) in the
following characters :—
Mouth-dise R. beddomii (Ginther) Ke, letthic
(Boulenger)
Beak ... Narrow and strongly hooked Oval and blunt.
like that of a parrot.
Edges of the upper and lower Both serrated.
mandibles smooth.
Lower lip... Has a marginal fringe of Tubercles re S-
minute tubercles. tricted to the sides
of the mouth.
Anus ... Does not form a tube. Anus tubular.
The larval habits of both the species appear to be very similar.
Mr. Humayun Abdulali informs us that the tadpoles were obtained on
almost vertical rocks on the roadside over which water was flowing
into the road-side gutter. The tadpoles were very agile, jumping
several inches on the slippery surfaces of the rocks to evade capture
and were quite numerous as four or five could be seen over an area
of a few square feet. Annandale (1918) has similar remarks on the
tadpole of R. beddomi (Giinther).
Boulenger (1920) in his ‘A Monograph of the South Asian, Papuan,
Melanesian and Australian Frogs of the Genus IRana’—Records of the
Indian Museum, Vol. xX, pp. 115-116, has included a paragraph in
parenthesis in his account on R. beddomi (Giinther) as under:
‘Capt. F.B.Seymour Sewell, 1.m.s., has recently found the
characteristic tadpoles of this species at Khandala in the Bombay Ghats.
They are remarkable not only for their long tail but also for the
fact that their front legs remain concealed beneath the skin for a
long period. In their two-legged stage they cling to the damp rocks,
both horizontal. and vertical and are extremely active out of water
leaping powerfully when disturbed. N.A.’
We are inclined to suggest that the tadpoles collected by Captain
Seymour Sewell from Khandala really belonged to this species and
not to ik. beddomii (Gtinther) which has not been recorded north of
Malabar, while R. leithii Boulenger has been collected northwards
from Gersoppa in N. Kanara to the hills near Bombay.
PRINCE OF WALES Museum (Natura History), V. K. CHARI
BomBay-1, J. C. DANIEL
November 15, 1952.
REFERENCES
1. Annandale, N. & Narayan Rao, C. R. (1918): Some undescribed Tadpoles from
the Hills of Southern India. Records of the Indian Museum XV: 17-24, p. 1.
2. — — — (1918): The Tadpoles of the families Ranidae and Bufonidae found
in the plains of India (op. cit, p. 25).
3. Boulenger, G. A. (1920): A Monograph of the South Asian, Papuan, Melanesian
and Australian Frogs of the Genus Rana (ibid. XX: 118.)
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 515:
23. NOTES ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF ASSAM
II—Some AppiTions To THE ASSAM LIST, AND OTHER NOTES
4. Plastingia margherita margherita Doherty.
One 9 was taken on 14-10-1951, andia 3 on 16-11-1952, in Sibsagar
District of Upper Assam. Evans (1949) lists three ¢ ¢ and one 9
the British Museum collection, from Manipur, Nagas, and Cachar,,
but not from Upper Assam.
5. Hidari bhawani de Niceville.
I took one @ at rest on a brick wall in June 1952. The only
other known specimens of this: exceedingly rare butterfly are another
iQ trom Upper Assam, a ¢ from Burma, and another ¢ from
Malaya.
6. Simiskina phalena harterti Doherty.
So far as Assam and Manipur are concerned there is only the
record of one ¢, caught by Doherty in Upper Assam over 60 years.
ago. However, in early October 1952 I found this species in fair
numbers at Moreh, the Indian frontier post on the Manipur-Burma
border. Both sexes were present, and were behaving similarly. Some
were basking with outstretched wings, sitting on leaves in the fitful
sunshine, while others were attending, in company with ants, a large
black aphid. Seven ¢ ¢ and three ,Q Q were taken, and many more
were seen.
7. Lycaenopsis ceyx cerima Corbet.
Lycaenopsis ceyx is represented by ceyx ceyx in Java, ceyx itanarata
from the Malay Peninsula, and ceyx cerima from S. Burma. The
latter has hitherto only been known from three specimens coilected
by Brigadier W. H. Evans and two collected by Mr. D. Saunders,
all five’ being odo. A o taken: by me on. 20-1-1952 :in Sibsagar
District of Upper Assam (plains level) represents a very considerable
north-westward extension of the known range, and I am giving a
detailed description since no full description of cerima exists, nor,
indeed, any description of L. ceyx that is readily available to collectors
in India.
3, Upperside, forewing. Black border a thread along the costa,
2mm. at apex and narrowing to 1 mm. at tornus. The rest of the
wing is bright iridescent blue, the iridescence showing when viewed
full face as well as slanting. When viewed full face no white areas
are apparent, but when viewed slantwise grey areas appear at the
bases of spaces 2 and 3. Hindwing.. White streaks in spaces 4, 5 and
6, a large submarginal black spot in space 6, and indistinct submarginal
black spots down to space 1. A marginal black line, . Underside,
forewing. Discal spots delicate and linear. Spot in space 1 present.
Spots in r and 2 vertical, spot in 3 pointing towards the spot in 6.
Hindwing. Spot in 7, spot at base of 2, and sub-basal spots are
black; the others are brown. Cilia white. The androconia, have
16-18 ribs, and are longer and narrower, with the ribs more closely
packed, than those of L. argiolus. :
516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL ‘HIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Bia et diden ti fication. Ata quick glance cerima looks very
like L. argiolus sikkima, but can readily be identified by the iridescent
blue of the forewing, and the ‘spot in space 1 b underfore.
.8. Amblypodia spp.
There is no doubt that many of the species of this genus from
Upper Assam and Manipur are less well known than they should be,
and that much stil] remains to be worked out in connection with their
‘classification. That this may in part be due to a failure to appreciate
their habits is shown by the huge numbers that have come to hand
in the past year, In the past I had considered myself lucky if in
the course of a walk down a forest bridle path I had taken two or
three specimens (mainly centawrus), and it was not till last spring
that I realised what I was missing. I started going into the dense
shade of the heart of the forest, up elephant paths and the narrower
streams, and the results have been quite spectacular. On many
occasions there have been perhaps a couple of dozen specimens, of
five or six different species, on the wing at the same time, disturbed
from the low foliage on which they usually sit inconspicuously with
folded wings. On the other hand, this distribution is distinetly patchy,
~and there are places where thirteen species can be obtained together
while the surrounding forest can produce none at all, or only the
ubiquitous centaurus. The species which may be found in these huge
numbers are silhetensis, centaurus, eumolphus, bazaloides, paramuta,
_perimuta, paraganesa, and abseus in Upper Assam (Sibsagar District),
and vama and asopia in Manipur (Morch).
The rarer species taken this year include the following :—
. (a) A. anarte Hewitson. Two dd from Nambar R.F., April.
Probably the first record from the Assam Valley. Brigadier Evans
took this species in Manipur (on the Irang River) and Mr. Antram
in Cachar. |
(b) A. dispar diluta Evans. Two ¢ ¢ from Nambar R.F., April.
«Corbet (1946) mentions ‘females from Upper Assam’, but I know of
no other reference to this species from Assam, nor can I learn the
whereabouts of the specimens to which Corbet refers.
(c) A. arvina ardea Evans. I took one Q in February ag in
mid-May, and a further eight (both sexes) in June, all from the Tiru Hills
R.F. in Sibsagar District. This purely Upper Assam sub-species has
“very rarely been taken in the past.
(d) A. ammonides elira Corbet.
A, ariel ariel Doherty.
Elira appears to have been taken previously only in the Khasi
Hills, though I suspect Tytler’s ‘ariel’ from Nagas and Manipur
((Peile, 1937) may, in fact, be eliva. Ariel ariel is known only from a 3
from Upper Assam, taken by Doherty, and now in the British Museum
collection. I have taken many many specimens of eliva (both sexes)
in Sibsagar District in May, June and July, also one in March}; and
with them four or five aviel all ¢ ¢. The specimens of ariel correspond
~with the type in the B.M. My specimens of eliva are most variable
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 51%
as regards the white costal spot underhind which varies from an
intense silvery white through all gradations to a specimen with so
few white scales as to be almost indistinguishable from ariel. In fact
it is not always, possible to distinguish the two species from the facies,
and. Corbet (1946) has already pointed out that the male genitalia
are ‘similar’. J am of opinion that the two forms will eventually be
classified as varieties of the same species.
Larva and Pupa of elira. I was fortunate to obtain one
full-grown larva of elira on 25th May 1952. This pupated on 27th
May, and the imago (a @) emerged on 4th June. The larva was on
the upper side of the remains of a leaf, very pale and almost invisible,
matching to perfection the silky new leaves, and partly hidden by
the fluffy residue from eaten leaves.
Colour: Dirty white, the only contrast being the dorsal heart,
showing through as an interrupted dark line. The head, normally
kept retracted, is the same colour as the body. Total length 14 mm.
The larva is much compressed dorso-ventrally and has a fringe of
hairs of the ground colour projecting all round, serving further to
camouflage its outline. There are no other hairs. A few small red
and ‘black ants were in half-hearted attendance. The pupa is 10 mm.
long x 4 mm. (thorax) or 2 mm. (head), pale green and. almost
transparent, with a well marked flat cremasteric pad. The food-
plant was the sapling of a dicotyledonous tree, on which I have also seen
A. arvina ardea ovipositing.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the indispensable help I have
received from Sir Keith Cantlie who has compared my specimens
with those in the B.M. collection; from Brigadier Eyans who confirmed
the identification of the two Hesperids; and from Mr. N. Bennett
of the British Museum who dissected and studied the genitalia of
Lycaenopsis ceyx cerima.
SELENG Tea Estates,
SELENG Har P.O., T, NORMAN
Upper ASSAM.
,
REFERENCES
Corbet, A. S. (1946): Trans. ent. Soc. Lond., 96: 78, 79.
Evans, W. H. (1949): Catalogue of the Hesperiidae from Europe, Asia and
Australia in the British Museum, London.
Peile, H. D. (1937): Guide to collecting Butterflies of India, London, p. 273.
24. A NOVEL METHOD OF ERADICATING HORNETS
An incident that should be interesting and perhaps useful is that I had
a swarm of hornets (species?) nesting in the double walling of my house
beside the front door. The outside walling was of timber and inside of
asbestos sheeting. The two walls were 6 in. apart and the nest finally
attained such proportions that the two walls bulged outwards. The
hornets also got angrier every day and finally no one could enter the
house by the front door. I tried fire and sulphur smoke but had no
success in driving away the insects.. An old Shan came to my house
one day and I mentioned the matter of these hornets and asked him
Z
£18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL’ HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
if he could do anything to get rid of them. He replied he could very
easily. I warned him against using fire but he replied he had his
own method that was perfectly safe. He turned up next day with
a bundle of dried twigs and leaves of bramble, (I) took this to be.
the wild Raspberry bramble). He tied this to a stick long enough
to reach the ceiling under the porch where the insects ‘had their
entrance hole which was about an inch in diameter, and in the corner.
He merely placed the stick against the wall so that the bundle of
sticks and leaves blocked up incompletely the entrance hole, and left.
He returned the next day by which t.me, there was not a mature
hornet left. He then proceeded to take apart the walling and extracted
an enormous hive full of young grubs which he took away with him
to eat. I asked him the reason for the hornets forsaking their nest and he
gave me a very amazing answer that the prickly thorns and_ hairs
of the bramble tore their wings to pieces on their alighting on the
bramble as they could no longer enter directly into their entrance hole.
I hope this Shan method will save a lot of people trouble in the
future when confronted with nesting bees and hornets in their houses.
Bawsainc, P.O. HEnOo,
S. SHAN STATES, BURMA, R. M: ALDWORTH
November 10, 1952.
25. OBSERVATIONS ON AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN
HORSE-FLIES' (DIPTERA ; TABANIDAE) AND
CICADAS (HOMOPTERA; CICADIDAE),
WITH A NOTE ON THE MATING
OF CICADAS
During April, 1952, I frequently ate lunch in my car under a smal]
acacia tree on the roadside near Mandya, Mandya District, Mysore
State, India. At this season cicadas were extremely noisy,
and since they seemed to be attracted to acacia trees, I found that
my sandwiches were agreeably masticated to the tune of a deafening
concert of luncheon music. _Some of the insects were so near that
[ could reach out of the car window and touch them as they rested
on the, trunk of the tree. It therefore transpired that I was able
to make notes of some of their activities.
Unfortunately I cannot state the specific identification of the cicadas,
or of the horse-flies that will soon be mentioned. However, the
following observations are related to behaviour that is more generic
or familial than ‘specific in character. In any event the story may
have some intrinsic merit outside of taxonomic considerations.
The acacia tree was just coming into bloom. This meant that
sap was probably flowing actively, despite drought conditions, and the
attractiveness of the tree to sap-sucking insects was thereby explained.
Usually some ten or twelve cicadas were present. Practically
all of these were distributed according to a courtship pattern, con-
sisting of pairs, trios or quartettes, members of each group resting
about six inches apart. Stridulation was intermittent so far as individual
males were concerned, but it was rare that all males were silent.
simultaneously. ; |
MISCELLANEOUS; NOTES 519.
. In any trio of cicadas, consisting of two males and a female, one
male seemed usually to be in command facing the female head-on but also
warily observing his rival. If the second male approached the female, the
first one would walk in a ‘threatening’ manner towards the intruder.
The’, threat, if such it was, expressed itself in a modified type of
locomotion in which jerky steps were taken and the wings. were
partially spread, disclosing a red and black mark at the base of the
hind pair.. When the intruding male had retreated, the dominant one
would resume his station near the female. No actual physical conflicts
between males, were seen.
Mating was observed once. A male in ‘possession’ of .a female
ceased stridulating and moved alongside his mate, both of them now
facing the same direction. He threw three legs of one side over her
body so that his own body partially overlapped hers. During the
occupation of this: stance, which lasted about ten seconds, the respective
abdominal tips must have achieved union, for the male then stepped
off and rotated himself through 180° with his tail as a focus,, The
pair then rested facing in opposite directions with their abdomens
joined but with their wings covering the copulatory parts... They
were now in a position commonly seen in many species of mating
moths. During the time that copulation continued they did not
move and the male was silent. On separating they moved apart to
the original distance. Mating occurred between 1.00 and 1.15 p.m.
on a hot day. The prolonged and intensive stridulating that took
place before mating was achieved suggested either that female cicadas
require considerable persuasion’ or that males are unusually timid.
A species of horse-fly of the genus Tabanus was also active on
the acacia tree. These flies, singly or’ in’ pairs, moved deliberately
along the trunk and branches. Their abdomens were marked with
black and cream designs. The dichoptic females had ‘prom‘nent
creamy markings on their legs, but the holoptic males had dark legs.
A peculiarity of their locomotion was that they progressed chiefly
by means of the meso- and metathoracic legs, using the fore pair
more as feelers. The two front legs were put forward simultaneously
in an outspread position and then adducted as testing the surface
encompassed by their spread.
When the flies encountered a cicada, which was too often to have
been only by chance, they approached as closely as possible. If they
advanced from the front of the cicada, the homopteran would raise a
fore leg in warning; if from the rear, the cicada, on becoming aware
of the flies, would suddenly raise its wings and bring them. down
sharply, whereupon the flies would jump or fly back an inch or two.
But again they would advance,, sweeping the bark with their, fore
legs until almost in contact. with cicada.
However, this was, not always the end of the show, despite the
fact that numerous cicadas could often be seen. with their attendant
flies in-a\ state resembling an equilibrium of tensions. Occasionally
a fly, seemingly warned by the cicada’s lifted fore leg. not. to come
closer, nevertheless passed beneath the leg and actually pushed itself
under the cicada’ s body. The cicada even had to elevate itself slightly
to permit the fly to crawl beneath it. . The fly remained there only a few
seconds and then emerged, to renew its station near the cicada.
520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST, SOCIELY, Vol. af
Since it is known that not all species of Tabanus suck animal
blood, but that some of them live on plant juices, it appears that in
this instance the horse-flies were imbibing sap of the acacia tree from
open lesions inflicted by cicadas. One exceptionally tame fly was
examined through a hand-lens so closely that its proboscis could be
seen inserted into one such traumatized spot. The sweeping action
of the flies’ legs as they traversed the bark of the tree must have been
a tactile search for oozing sap. Their direct attention to cicadas
must have resulted from the greater frequeney with which fresh sap
could be found near cicadas than on the general surface of the tree.
When a fly actually crawled under a cicada to drink from the currently
used wound, I could only think of a familiar sight in my native land
—two children at a drugstore counter, their heads touching, drinking
a milkshake out of the same glass with two straws.
' Since cicadas lay their eggs in wounds in the bark of trees inflicted
by their sharp ovipositors, it is possible that thirsty tabanids may
take double advantage of cicadas. However, no evidence for. this
type of opportunism was obtained.
It remains only to wonder how ‘real’ the association between these
cicadas and tabanids is, and to attempt a definition of the relationship.
Judging by the behaviour of cicadas in response to the flies, I feel that
cicadas are only mildly inconvenienced and scarcely ever annoyed.
They acconiplish their feeding, stridulating and mating as successfully
as if the flies wére not there.
The tabanids, however, had a definite dependence upon. cicadas.
Granted that any other mechanical force than traumatized tree bark
could accomplish the flies’ desired end, it so happened that cicadas
were the only agents on hand to perform that vital service... It must
be this circumstance that has led to present behaviour of tabanids in
congregating on cicada-inhabited trees and in sometimes actually ‘attend-
ing’ the cicadas.
One would like to know whether the tabanids can hear. cicadas
at a distance and are attracted to, and concentrated upon, trees where
unusual numbers of cicadas have assembled.
From the tabanids’ standpoint, their association with cicadas is
scarcely fortuitous. But since they neither benefit nor, harm their
benefactors, it would appear that the relationship is .a kind of one-
sided commensalism or symbiosis. It is likely that almost all forms of
intimate, association between living organisms, including parasitism,
have originated following the establishment of an innocent pattern of
behaviour such as the one just outlined. Since other kinds of taban‘ds
have learned to suck blood, perhaps this species, a million years
from now, may turn upon the cicadas and suck sustaining fluids
directly from their bodies or eggs. Or perhaps they will learn to make
their own incisions into the bark of trees. However unpredictable
the outcome, it is clear that this short tale of natural history can
by no means be viewed as a mere pretty recital of some events of
contemporary insect life; it is fraught with potentialities for future
evolutionary tragedy.
3, St. Marks Roap,
BANGALORE, Mysore. C. BROOKE WORTH
October 19, 1952. : : Rao
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MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 521
“26. ON THE HABITS OF INDIAN ERESID SPIDERS
STEGODYPHUS SARASINORUM KARSCH
(With a plate)
The untidy but prominent cob-webs of the Indian Eresidae—Stego-
dyphus sarasinorum—are a common feature along fences, over bushes
or attached to the terminal branches of trees. The Eresidean nest re-
sembles a shapeless mass of sponge and is made up of tough silk threads,
dry leaves and twigs and other foreign materials bound together in the
form of a closed box with several holes on the sides. The holes
are the entrances. S$. sarvasinorum is a social species and hundreds
of members both male and female live together in a single nest. From
one or both sides of the central nest, temporary extensions are often
made in the form of a loose expansive net spread obliquely or vertically
like the sail of a boat. The meshy sheet formed of white viscid
threads is intended not for residence but for trapping the prey. The
mesh is so sticky and elastic that an insect unfortunate enough to
‘come into contact with it can never escape.
The largest Eresidean web I saw was sometime in April last (1952).
It was constructed on a bamboo fence by the side of a paddy field
‘in Chettupuzha, a suburb of Trichur (Cochin State). The nest looked
like a pyramidal sac about 2 ft. long and the distal end 1 ft. square.
A tenacious sheet of about 4 sq. yds. extended obliquely from one of
its sides. As the nest was in our own, lands I could study something
interesting about the habits of these spiders... During daytime the
members used to remain inside the nest, but whenever any insect was
caught in the net they streamed out, encircled the prey and carried it
back to the nest. Bees, flies, earwigs, butterflies, grasshoppers and
even locusts were often caught in the trap. The juice of these insects
was sucked by the spiders and the remains, i.e. integuments, wings,
etc. were not thrown out but utilized as a building material along with
silk for the extension and reinforcement of the nest. Towards dusk
the spiders came out of the nest and were found inspecting and repairing
the meshy sheet,
During September (1952) while harvesting the crops in the field,
the above Eresidean nest was badly damaged by the farmers who
cleared that portion of the fence to carry the sheafs out. I, having
failed to trace the spiders among the torn and shattered cob-web that
lay strewn in the field, believed that they must have all been eaten
by the crows and egrets that flocked in the harvested field in search
of corn and insects. Later on, however, I came to know that my
conclusion was wrong. A few yards away from the original site of
the nest, there stood a cashewnut tree about 25 ft. high. On the
morning following the day on which the nest was destroyed, I was
passing by this tree and to my surprise I found a line of Eresids
climbing up it by a fairly strong silk thread which connected the fence
with its. topmost branch. Certainly these spiders were none other
than those which I believed to have been lost. When the original
abode was damaged they were shifting themselves to a new surround-
ing by means of their characteristic ‘rope trick’. In three days’ time
they had built a new nest on the tree top, of course, in dimensions
12-A
odd JOURNAL, BOMBAY\ NATURAL HIST.\SOCIETY, Vol. 51
very much smaller than the original one. , Although this shift was a
_forced one and. did cost the spiders their original shelter and other
possessions, the new premises were by no means less advantageous
to them as the tree had just commenced flowering and bees and flies
were hovering over the blossoms.
¢/o THE CEMENT MARKETING Co. oF Inpia LTD.,
No. 1, QUEENS ROAD, Fort, T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM, B.A.
BOMBAY-I,
October 20, 1952.
27) A NOTE ION THE ERE ECT OF TIGHT. AN Dairies
COLOUR, OF THE SUBSTRATUM, ON. THE SETTLEMENT
OF, BARNACLES!
(With a text figure and a plate)
The probable effect of light on the settlement of barnacles has
been a battlefield of conflicting theories. Studies on the effect of
the surface angle and of light on the attachment of Balanus eburneus
have revealed that the photic, character is of primary importance.
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TEXT PNG. 71
Showing the arrangement of the blocks in the sea
(1) While some workers (2, 3, 4 & 5) have found that barnacles ‘react
negatively to light at the time of attachment’, various others {6, 7 & 8)
1 Contribution, from the Marine Biological Station, Krusadai Island, Pamban,
Gulf of Manaar. Published with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries,
Madras. |
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 523
‘consider them to retain the positive character at the time of attach-
‘ment. Pyefinch (9) however, was not able to draw any definite con-
clusions on the ‘eitect of light on the settlement. Investigations’ at
Krusadat Island (10) have revealed that barnacles attach mainly on
surfaces deeply submerged and that those on a block near the surface
are confined to its under side away from abundant light. © Sunlight
illumination, it would appear, has an effect on the: settlement ‘of
barnacles.
The colour of the substratum also influences the settlement of
barnacles {2, 4, 11 & 12) as attachment takes place more readily on
dark colours. McDougall (7) has suggested that although the quality
and quantity of light and the ‘tone of the surface’ may have an
influence on the settlement, further investigations are necessary before
concluding their actions as definite.
To assess the reasonableness of the hypothesis tf the effect of the
colour of the substratum on the settlement of barnacles a series of 4
test panels (teakwood blocks with equal surface area) had been ex-
posed from the oyster ‘raft’ at Krusadai Island. Of these, three
blocks were coated with non toxic paints ‘of different colours—the
first block with red paint, the second with black paint.and the third
with white paint. The fourth block was without any coating of
paints. The blocks were hung in the sea in a row (text fig. 1) being
about 6 ft. below the water line. The approximate number of
Balanus attached on the different blocks is tabulated in Table I below.
A perusal of the table will make it evident that the attachment of
TABLE I
Showing the approximate number of Balanus attached on
the test panels during the 3 months.
‘No. of Balanus attached
a es
Year | Month . Red | Black | White | Without paint
Bottom Bottom
Top | Bottom’ Top | Bottom | Top Top
barnacles had not been uniform on all the exposed panels. Apart
from the difference in’ the colours of the pigments in the paints, all
the other factors influencing on the blocks were’ the same: Hence
it would be only reasonable to assume that the dissimilarity in the
amount of attachment is due to the colour of the substratum. Al-
though no far-reaching: conclusions can be drawn from: the’ limited
£24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL \HISDT,\SOCIETY, Vol. 51
evidence as yet available, it would be clear from the table that, there
exists a tendency for barnacles to attach on surfaces which present
under water dark shades of colour. Full details of these experiments
will be published elsewhere.
Krusapat ISLAND, :
GULF OF MANAAaAR, 3 G. K...KURIYAN
July 1952. S. MAHADEVAN
REFERENCES
. Pomerart, C. M. & Reciner, E. R. (1942) : Biol. , 82: 14-25,
Visscher, J, bs, (L928) SUI. (OS DUT HESIy, agl 193-252.
. Ibid., (1928): Biol. Bull., 54: 327-335.
. Visscher, J. P. & Luce, R. H., (1928): ibid., 54: 336-350,
Neu, W., (1933): Internt, Revue des ges. Hydrobiol. u. Hydorgraphie, 28
228- 246.
6. Weiss, C. M., (1947): Biol. Bull., 93: 240-249.
7. MacDougall, K. D., (1943): Ecol. Monog., 18: 321-374,
8. Barnes, H. et al., (1951): Journ. Ani. Ecol., 20: 227-241.
9. Pyefinch, K,.A. , (1948) : Jour. Mar. Biol. Assoc., 27: 464-03. |
10. Kuriyan, G. K., (1962): ‘Notes on the attachment of marine sedentary organism
on different surfaces’, (Unpublished records).
11. Gardener, H. A., (1922): Circular No. 157, Scientific ‘Section, Paint Manu-
facturers’ Association of the United States. !
12, Weiss, C. M., (1948). Biol. Bull., 94: 236-243.
ornwnr
28. A NEW SPECIES OF POLYGALA FROM BURMA AND
A NEW VARIETY .OF P. HYALINA. WALL. EX HASSK.
(With a plate)
In 1948 the writer went to the Manipur-Naga hills for collection
of plant specimens for the Botanical Survey of India. In _ his
wanderings in that area one day he discovered a tiny herb with yellow
flowers which attracted his attention by its symmetrical shape. The
specimen was collected and an examination of the flowers on the spot
revealed that it was a Polygala. Search for more specimens of the
same yielded nothing and the writer had to remain content with the
single specimen which he put into the press. Afterwards while
matching this specimen with sheets in the herbarium it was found
to match exactly with another specimen collected previously by A.
Rodger from Maymyo, Burma. This was named as Polygala., tri-
phylla Ham. var. glaucescens Wall. which was a synonym to P.
furcata Royle, a quite different species.
This plant, specimens of which were collected by Rodger and
the writer, agrees however with P. hyalina Wall. ex Hassk. in essen-
tial characters differing in much branched stem, smaller leaves which
are not membranous, leaf-apex obtuse, racemes. many and. dense
flowered. It is therefore described here as a’ new. variety of. that
species.
While examining the sheets of Polygala in. the herbarium, the
writer discovered 3 more sheets of a Polygala wrongly named as P.
‘Aou “Iva “Vofioynyy vjisnd *1eA vuyody “gq ‘aou ‘ds ‘aofioynyA, vsousv9 vjvsA]Og
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MISCELLANEOUS | NOTES, 525%
triphylla Ham. On examination these proved to belong to a hitherto
undescribed species which is also described below.
Polygala carnosa Mukerjee sp. nov. (Sec. Semeiocardium)—ab
affine P. Lacei Craib, foliis carnosis ellipticis, glabrosis, margine
revolutis, calyce pkrsistente, seminibus pilosis, (non tuberculatis
distinguenda.
Small herb of marshy places, 15 cms. high; stem terete, woody
below. Leaves simple, alternate, petiolate, exstipuijate, thick and
fleshy, elliptic, acute at both ends, with revolute margin, glabrous,
on both surfaces; veins indistinct, lamina 2-3.5 cm. long, o.8-1.2.cm.
broad, petiole 2-3 mm. long. Racemes terminal, 3-6 cm. long,
peduncled 2-3 cm. long, pedicels 1 mm. long. Flowers small 4-5 mm.
long, yellow, irregular, hermaphrodite, bracteate; bracts deltoid—
acuminate, 1 mm. long, caducuous. Calyx persistent; sepals 5,, un-
equal, free, much imbricate in bud, outer sepals 2 mm. long, the
inner pair larger, 4 mm. long obovate. Corolla of 3 unequal petals
united at the base with the staminal sheath; the inferior petal keeled
and crested, 4 mm. long. Stamens 8; filaments united for their
lower half into a split sheath which is united with the base of the
petals. Ovary 2 celled, suborbicular; ovule 1 in each cell, pendulus ;
style curved. Capsule 2 celled, quadratorotundate, subtruncate, re-
tuse, longitudinally depressed at the middle, faintly winged on top,
3 mm. in diam. Seeds back, smooth, pilose with white hairs, ovoid,
I mm. in diam. arillate.
Burma: Maymyo Plateau, alt. 1,000 mtr., 5-7-1909, Lace No.
4844 {Type in Herb.. Cal.); Wetwin marsh, alt. 1,000 mtr., “Fleshy
herb. Fl. yellow’, 6-11-1914, A. Rodger Esq., 1.¥.s. No. 236; Maymyo
marsh, alt. 1,000 mtr. ‘FI. yellow—small herb’ 7-6-1915 A. Rodger
Esq., 1.F.8. No. 131.
P. hyalina Wall. ex Hassk. var. pusila Mukerjee var. nov.—
Herba multiramosa, foliis minoribus, apice obtusis, racemis numerosis
dense floriferis a typo recedit.
Small glabrous herb, 12, cm. high; stem erect tender, branched,
terete. Leaves soft, elliptic or ovate, obtuse, base decurrent to the
petiole, veins slightly raised. on the lower surface, petiole 4-6 mm.
long, lamina 2.5 cm. long, 1.2 cm. broad, glabrous on both surfaces.
Racemes terminal or axillary, crowded at the ends of branches, up to
2 cm. long, with peduncles 2-5 mm. long; pedicels 1 mm. long;
flowers densely crowded, small, 3 mm. long, yellow; bracts absent.
Largest sepal 1.5 mm. long, persistent. Ovary suborbicular; style
curved, flat. Capsule 1.5 mm. long, 2 mm. broad, orbicular, com-
pressed, retuse, margined but not winged; veins prominent when dry.
Seeds tuberculate and pubescent, umbonate, ovoid, 1 mm. in diam.
Burma: Mree Hill, Maymyo, alt. 1,000 mtr. 12-9-1915, ‘FI.
yellow’ A. Rodger,’ Esq., 1.F.Ss. No. 170. )
INDIA: Karhan, Manipur—Naga Hills, alt. 1,000 mtr. 5-10-48,
‘FI. yellow’ Dr. S. K.,. Mukerjee No. 3615. :
INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN, , | pow, MORE RIB E
CALCUTTA.
526° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST} SOCIETY, Vol. 51
290 (GLEANINGS
The, Flymg Squirrel.
From ‘The Experiences of a Planter in the Jungles of Mysore’.
BysRoiHi Elliot: (1871r);'p. 33°
‘One of these animals was brought to me when it was about
half-grown, and soon came to consider my house as its natural home.
It soon found out an empty clothes-bag hanging at the back of a
door, and in this it slept all day. It came out at dusk, and used
often to sit on the back of my chair at dinner, when it got fruit and
bread. After dinner away it went to the jungles, and I seldom saw
anything of it till! about three in the morning, when it used to return
to the house and curl itself up at my feet. When I rose in the morn-
ing my pet betook itself to the clothes-bag, and there spent the day,
to go through the same round the following night. This interesting.
animal met with the ‘usual fate of defenceless pets, and was killed
by a dog as it was making its way to the jungle one night.’
Man, Bear, or Monkey?
Reproduced from ‘On the Air: An Anthology of the Spoken Word,’
chosen by R. C. Goffin (The English Readers’ Library). London.
Oxford University Press.
The latest expedition to Mount Everest) has: brought further
accounts of those ‘strange tracks in the snow’ which are attributed
to the’ so far unidentified Abominable Snowman. ‘A local inhabitant
who, claims to have seen one of these creatures described it to the
leader of the expedition,,Mr. Eric Shipton, as ‘half man half beast,
about five feet six inches tall, covered with reddish-brown hair,.but
with a hairless face’; the Natural History Museum in London supports
the view that the tracks are made by ‘a large Himalayan race of the
langur monkey’; while others believe them to be footprints of bears,
In the broadcast made some time ago by H. W. Tilman called ‘The
Abominable Snowman’, after outlining earlier accounts of the finding
of these mysterious tracks, he relates how he himself saw them in
1938, and then proceeds as in the passage following: )
‘. . . . In a recent book I rashly asserted that no Eurovean had
ever seen an Abominable Snowman. I was wrong. It was Dr. Odell
who at once showed me a book printed for private circulation by A. N.
Tombazi describing a tour made in Sikkim in 1925. The encounter,
occurred, significantly enough, some ten miles from the Zemu Gap
and to do Mr. Tombazi’s evidence full justice I quote verbatim.
Having been called from his tent by his porters, he says:
‘Intense glare prevented my seeing anything for the first few
seconds, but I soon spotted the object referred to, two or three
hundred yards away in the valley. Unquestionably the figure in
outline was exactly like a human being, walking upright and stoop-
ing occasionally to uproot some dwarf rhododendron. It showed
dark against the snow and wore no clothing. Within the next
minute or so it had moved into some thick scrub and disappeared.
I examined the footprints which were similar in shape to-those of
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 527
a man but only 6 or 7 inches long. Marks of five. toes and instep
were clear but trace of heel indistinct. The prints were undoubtedly
those of a biped. From inquiries I gathered that no man had
gone in this direction since the beginning of the year. The coolies
naturally trotted out fantastic legends of Demons, Snowmen.
Without in the least’ believing these delicious fairy-tales, “notwith-
standing the plausible yarns told by natives, I am at a loss to ex-
press any definite opinion on the subject: I can only reiterate
with a sufficient degree of certainty that the silhouette of) the
mysterious being was identical with the outline of a human figure.”’
‘Mr. Tombazi with his’ ‘‘fantastic legends’’ and ‘‘delicious fairy-
tales’’ is evidently’ an unwilling witness and all the more valuable
on that account. He is like the old lady at the Zoo who when confronted
with the giraffe could only say she didn’t believe it. I cannot produce
for you a scale drawing of a Snowman or even number his hairs’ on
the strength of a foot-print, though the professors in their search for
the missing link are less modest. Chesterton has remarked on the
loving care and skill bestowed by them on building up Pithecanthropus
—a bit of skull here, a few teeth there, and a thigh bone from some-
where else—until at last they produce a detailed drawing carefully
shaded to show that the very hairs of his head were numbered. I
am at a loss to express a definite opinion. I merely affirm that tracks
for which no adequate explanation is forthcoming have been seen
and will, no doubt, continue to be seen in the Himalayas, and until
a better claimant is found we may as well attribute them to their
rightful owner, the Abominable Snowman.’
Caution in Insecticide use can avert heavy Wild Life toll.
(Reproduced from Audubon Newsletter No. 4 of May 1952.)
Widespread damage to birds and other wild life will take place
this summer unless DDT and other insecticides are used with caution,
the National Audubon Society warned today.
John H. Baker, president of the Society, pointed out that appli-
cations of DDT during the nesting season have resulted in extensive
mortality of young birds. He cited an article in the May-June issue
of Audubon Magazine which describes the effects on bird life of
spraying 600 acres in Pennsylvania with five pounds of DDT in oil
per acre. Before spraying, the population was 3.2 birds per acre or
128 on a 4o acre study plot. On the third day. following spraying
only two birds could be found in the 4o acres.
‘Studies on.a 30 acre tract in Maryland revealed that after spray-
ing with five pounds of DDT per acre, a heavy application, the
population of birds decreased rapidly. Maryland yellow-throats were
reduced 63 per cent in the first 24 hours, prairie warblers were de-
creased by 93 per cent two days after spraying. The three com-
monest songbirds in the area were down in numbers by 80 per cent.
As a result of numerous surveys, the National Audubon Society
recommends that spraying of insecticides should, if possible, be done
before and after the major nesting season of birds. The Society
said that in cases where this has been done, harmful effects on wild
life have been reduced materially. The Society also cited Fish and
528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY) NATURAL HIST; SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Wild Life Service research which indicates that administration of
DDT in oil is three times as deadly as when mixed with dry crystalline
powder.
Mr. Baker stated that much of the damage which. insecticides
have inflicted upon wild life has been the result of carelessness, He
added, ‘Some operators have assumed that, if a low concentration of
an insecticide is regarded as sufficient to do the job, a high concentra-
tion should do it better. Research so far indicates that most light
dosages of insecticides, such as one-fifth pound of DDT per acre, or
less, have had little measurable effect upon birds or mammals, though
great adverse effect on freshwater and marine life as well as most
insect life; therefore indirectly on birds and mammals, including
man.’
The article by Dr. J. P. Linduska in Audubon Magazine makes. it
clear that the various kinds of wild life react differently to insecticides.
Fish are the most susceptible to poison, reptiles and amphibians come
next, followed by birds and then mammals, which are the most resis-
tant of all. It is also stated that certain birds are more resistant
than others. Starlings and mallard ducks are more than three times
as resistant to DDT as quail.
The National Audubon Society is particularly concerned about the
host of ‘super bug. killers’ which are coming on the market. It
pointed out, for example, that the organie phosphates include chemi-
cals which are 75 to too times as deadly as DDT... The Society
stated, ‘The increasing deadliness of the chemicals now being develop-
ed for control purposes makes it more important than ever that extreme
caution be exercised in the use of such poisons in the out-of-doors.
Carelessness can cause mistakes which may take a severe toll of our
wild life resources. Conservationists must be alert to the new dangers
which face wild life in a chemical world.’
[While it is not doubted that a heavy application of DDT may
result in extensive mortality among nestlings, it 1s not categorically
clear from paras 2 and 3 above whether the decrease in birds in the
instances cited was due directly to mortality caused by the insecti-
cide or indirectly by the birds forsaking the area consequent upon
destruction of the insects which provided their food supply... However,
with the increasing large scale use of sprayed insecticides the strictest
caution must be exercised so that wild life against whom it is not
intended, does not suffer.—Eps. |
The astonishing Kiwt.
In Oryx—the Journal of the Fauna Preservation Society—for
September 1951, Perrine Moncrieff.in ‘Bird Study in. New Zealand’
on p. 135 writes :— af)
‘When handled the kiwi’s lizard-like trait of shedding as many
feathers as would stuff a small cushion, and yet appearing as neat
as before, has to be seen to be believed.’
NOTES AND NEWS
NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR INDIA FOR BIRD PRESERVATION
The inaugural meeting of the above committee—formation of which
was announced on p, 688 of Vol. 50 (3), April 1952—-was held in the
Trustees’ Room of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, on 24th and 25th
November 1952. All the members were present excepting Dr. S. L.
Hora, Dr. S.C, Law and Mr. E. P. Gee who, by a curious lack of
ministerial co-ordination in fixing dates were, attending the meeting
of the Indian Wild Life Board held simultaneously in Mysore. Before
their departure from Calcutta, however, opportunity was taken to
discuss the agenda and resolutions with them informally, and_ their
views and suggestions were obtained. . They were also requested to
express the views of the Committee at the meeting of the Central Wild
Life Board, should occasion arise.
Dr. Biswamoy Biswas of the Zoological Survey of India was un-
animously elected Honorary Secretary, and it was decided that. for the
present the headquarters of the Committee should be the Bombay
Natural History Society, 114, Apollo Street, Bombay-r.
Twelve resolutions were passed covering the establishmcnt of bird
sanctuaries, export of feathers, packing and transport of live’ birds
by land, sea and air, protection of birds in urban areas, propaganda
for educating the public in the need for bird preservation, and other
relevant matters. The resolutions were forwarded to the Ministry
of Natural Resources and Scientific Research for necessary action,
Five sub-committees were formed, as follows :—
(1) Finance, (2) Sanctuaries, (3) Protection of Individual Species,
(4) Plumage and Wild Bird Export and (5) Education and Publicity.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research under
whom the National Committee will function and maintain its inter-
national contacts, are taking steps to implement some of the resolutions.
It is unfortunate, however, that they have turned down the key
resolution in respect of funds for secretarial work, stationery, etc.,
based on a draft budget prepared by the National Committee. For the
Committee to operate effectively and achieve tangible results, particularly
in the sphere of education and publicity, it will be essential to maintain
wide correspondence. And considering the enormous extra clerical work
this will involve it seems unreasonable of government to expect a private
institution like the Bombay Natural History Society to carry on this
work of national importance with its present inadequate staff and
resources, and without financial aid.
INDIAN WILD LiFE Boarp
The Central Board for Wild Life,—now officially designated the
Indian Wild Life Board—met for the first time in Mysore under the
chairmanship of H. H. Shri Jaya Chamaraja Wadiyar, Rajpramukh of
Mysore from 24th November to 1st December 1952. The Society is
represented on the Board by its Joint Honorary Secretary Mr. Humayun
Abudulali, and it is gratifying to record that three others of the non-
official members of the Board are also active members of the Society.
£30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Two of these—Messrs. R.C. Morris and E. P. Gee—are well-known
for their keenness and knowledgeability. A permanent Executive
Committee was, appointed consisting of four zonal representatives—
north, south, east and west, with an unofficial vice- president. Dr.
Swi. Hora - was appointed Secttetaty:Gerieral to the Board.
6 % “ % * {"}
The Bombay Natural History sbitetys ‘Loke-Salim’ Ali Orni-
thological Expedition’ to Sikkim returned on 7th February after a
successful 2§ months’ collecting trip in western and northern Sikkim.
Over 350 bird specimens and much useful] data concerning the bird
life in winter were secured.’ Another bird collecting expedition, from
the Zoological Survey of India led by Dr. Biswamoy Biswas, was. also
in the, field in Sikkim ‘during the same time. ' Close’ co-ordination’
between the two parties resulted in mutual advantages of various
kinds. The Society’s thanks are due to the Sikkim Government for
transport and other facilities extended to the Society’s expedition.
* x % * *
Prof. Dr.) Bernhard, Rensch, Director. of the Zoological Institute
and Dean of the Faculty of Biological, Sciences, Miinster University,
(West Germany) arrived in India on 28th February, accompanied by.
his wife and three assistants—Dr. Miss A. Nolte, Dr. K. W, Harde
and Dr. C.)Altevogt. He has an elaborate plan of about 3 months’
zoological field work and selective collecting in various parts of India,
including a study of the psychology and learning abilities of working
elephants, and the brains of smaller wild mammals.
Prof. Rensch will Jead the symposium. on ‘Organic’ Evolution’
organised in his honour by the National Institute of Sciences of India
in New: Delhi and, will lecture at various Indian Universities. Before
he left for Delhi, Prof. Rensch gave an interesting talk on ‘Ecological
Bases of Animal Geography’ before the Bombay Natural ae
Society and a large gathering of Bombay biologists.
+ * %* * *
In Vol. 50.(4), Pp. 703 a suggestion was mooted for rechristening
the Journal with some shorter name for the convenience of workers
who ‘have occasion to quote it frequently, and the opinion of members.
was solicited. We have received a number of! letters from protagonists
of both views, but on the whole the demand for a change is not
clamant enough to warrant such a step, whereas the ‘no-changers’
are emphatic in their, arguments. , The Executive Committee have
therefore decided to shelve the question for the present and. let the old
name stand. The approved abbreviation of the name is ‘J.B.N.H.S.’
ERRATA
On page 321 of Vol. 51, No. 1 in the Catalogue of Books in the
Society’s Library, Part VII—Natural History—Serial No. 44, for “The
Animals, 1949’ read ‘The Anamallais, 1949’.
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRIS33
18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—24-4-1953. (C7842
EDITORS: SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA AND H. SANTAPAU |
114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY :
|
NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS
Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions :
1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-
tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published
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2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on
one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.
3.__ Allscientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific names
always begin with a el letter even if they refer to a person or a
lace, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsont or Streptopelia chinensis sur
; Ee Dia later:
cient referring to sulisaasies should aye be used where
an ion has been authentically established by comparison of
specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification —
is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.
5. Photographs for pee DS must be clear and show good
contrast. Prints must be
(No. ‘i Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.
a size not smaller than 34 x 24 inches
. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Ttenink, : :
on Bristol board.
a References to literature shou
con ane arranged under ailihor's name with
urnals or periodicals ad epee (italics), and titles of books » “ala
a dies (roman type), thus ;
Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Hiibner. Trans. ont oe
Soc. Lond., 100 (2): 47-70.
Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.
8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by Pee :
the author's name and year of publication, thus; (Roepke, 1949).
each scientific paper Ke a Coe synopsis appearing at the
beginning, imm eee
It should convey bite y the content of the paper; draw attention to
all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. It eal .
also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions of an
experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new finding,
theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not exceed
200 words.
When the s s is complete it should be carefull: revised b:
the author to SMe ou ean bscurities, and further Goiapresse whereve :
possible without ene enne from its ae
114 Apollo Street, Fort, ___Eprrors,
Bombay 1. Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Seok
be placed at the end of che |
the a
‘ynopsis : As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific In- :
formation Conference (July 1948), the oe xe it desirable that
after the title. ncaa should be factual. ©
coe ee
Sey Vik
THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS.
Mammals.
Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, with many coloured and black and
white plates. Rs. 16.
(Price to Members Rs. 13).
Birds.
Game Birds of India, by E. C. Stuart Baker. Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition.
Rs. 20.
(Price to Members Rs. 15).
Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali, with many colour and black and white
plates, 4th edition, revised and enlarged. Rs. 16.
(Price to Members Rs. 12-8).
Set of 12 Coloured Picture Postcards of Common Indian Birds. Rs. 2-4 net.
Fish.
Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and
Burma, by A. St. J. Macdonald, with coloured and black and white plates.
Rs. 15.
(Price to Members Rs. 12).
Snakes.
Identification of Poisonous Snakes—
Folding Chart. Rs. 2-8.
Miscellaneous.
Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell, with 2 coloured plates and text figures.
Rs, 6.
(Price to Members Rs. 4-8).
Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal,
etc. Rs. 2-8.
Back Numbers of the Journal.
Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.
Obtainable from:
The Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society,
} 114 Apollo Street, Bombay I,
London Agents:
Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,
83/84 Berwick Street,
London, W. |.
TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.
~ Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and a Life Membership fee of
Rs. 500.
Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and an annual subscrip-
tion of Rs. 30.
The subscription of members elected in October, November and December
covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following
year.
MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.
The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members
should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the
amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 31-14-0 to the Society in
Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum
of £2-8-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The
National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C.
THE
JOURNAL
OF THE ©
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
INDEX AND TITTLE PAGE
VOL. 5I
Price Rs. 3-0-0
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following order when they are being bound :—
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Vol. 51
To follow frontis-
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THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
SOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
EDITED BY
SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SANTAPAU
VOL. 51
Nos. 3 & 4
| Containing 27 black-and-white plates, 76 text-figures,
1 map and 5 photographs
Dates of Publication
Part 3. (Pages 531 to 764) ... August, 1953
: ek, rd eee 765 to 986) ... December, 1953
LONDON AGENTS
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PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME +i
No. 3
PAGE
THE KEOLADEO GHANA OF BHARATPUR (RAJASTHAN). By
SHUN, (UY OWE HOWE RULED) aos co5 ceo sec. cee8b0008 vbpocnbEd 000 HS | WL)!
CHARACTERISTIC COLORATION OF JUVENILE SPECIMENS OF
Labeo (Morulius) angra witH NOTES oN GRowTH. By
K, H. Alikunhi and Hiralal Chaudhuri. (With two text
HOGI) ot. 006. 008, 500686005 660000900 800008 EEO GIUdED 00 COU dERUEDOD SEO 537
PLANTS FROM EAst NEPAL. Part ll. By M. L. Banerji... 543
WILp LiFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA: By Lt.-Col. R. W.
Burton, 1.A. (Retd.)... PSCC EE a 561
NoTES ON FISHES FROM Teena AND sien (Segenrs
- Disrrict, BomBAyY STATE). By E. G. Silas, M.A., M.Sc.
(Wath one plate and four text L1G UTES).......00ecsereercccerseee S19
Some BREEDING BIRDS oF SINGAPORE. Parr I. By W.T:
Loke. (With five plates)... FRAN Redecaee en eetaceces O90.
Host PLANTS, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF ents
(Thysanoptera) oF BOMBAY STATE. By Narayan G. Patel,
Maser CAStal) pny Grew ae aavel se Sco eb D (Connell). c....: 597
EcotocicaL NoTEs ON A CoLony oF SMALL SWALLOW-PLO- |
- VERS IN Mysore STATE. By C. Brooke Worth.............. 608
THe DETERMINATION OF AGE AND GROWTH OF. FISHES OF
- TROPICAL AND SUB-TROPICAL WATERS. By M.:Devidas
Menon.. PROM E ascter seer cea ea rand ace sansteee OOM ea OE OR ead OLS
THE neheaseese Gaye chee OF SOME OF THE MARSHY 7
VEGETATION OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS. By
184 Sb Niacin (WW @. PRUGE® nob cok esnocononoboBesebooseoaeneOg 636
More NoTES ON BirgDS OF THE GANDAK-Kost WATERSHED,
INNDAL gi by, Wesirees Prot dhe. s.ects t.) seas bes Sierietestecesseesc. - 653
OcCURRENCE OF Paragrewia GANGNEP. IN INDIA AND BuRMA.
Bye er SeshacitipindOem (1/27 /aaplaie) wien eaten cesta OF
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING
Cras, Neptunus pelagicus (LINNAEUS), WITH A NOTE ON
THE ZOEA OF Thalamita crenata LATREILLE. By R. Raghu
_ Prasad and P. R.S. Tampi. (With a plate and fifty-eight
figures)... EEO HOUNSONOU NO HEDIGH OOS CASGREE OF TORE C EDD BOLO HCAS TEEone: ulmimim OY 4
NOV 15 1955
iv
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51
POPULATIONS OF Mrs GOULD’S SUNBIRD, WITH COMMENTS ON
RANGES AND VARIATION AMONG RELATED SPECIES OF
SuNBIRDsS. By S. Dillion Ripley...
A NEw SPECIES OF Sesamum. By iNgaeia 8 Naidu, M.A., M.SC.,
F.B.S.
(With two plates)
SECONDARY SONG OF SOME INDIAN Birps. By M.D. Lister...
REVIEWS :—
My
(ap
fey
10,
Insects Indomitable. By Evelyn Cheesman. (V.K.C
Wild Flowers of the Ceylon Hills. By Thomas
E. T. Bond. (H. Santapau)... : Seats
Birds of Ceylon, 2. By W. W: A. . Pillip. S, A.)
African Handbook of Birds, Series One: Birds of
Eastern and Northeastern Africa, Vol. I. By
C. W. Mackworth-Praed and Capt. C. H. B.
Grant (Saco) , vs
Nestboxes. By Bawin Cohen ane Bruce enter
(Se 7As)) een een aS
Man, Mind ¢ or oMriee By Charles Mare er .(D. PB)
Downs and Dunes, their plant life and its environ-
ment. By Sir Edward Salisbury. (H. Santapau).
Records of Parrots Bred in Captivity. By Arthur
A. Prestwich. A(baA)) iat care seen reece renunan a a8
Search for the Spiny Babbler. By Dillon Ripley.
(Eh pA): «lhe on SoBe AEe ota 4, «ion. cee See ee ae ee
‘Wiid Elephant Chase. By Heinrich Oberjohann
(Cyril Connolly)...
List of Books added to the aoe Neen erie
Society is Wibraryasince May, 1953 2. mesen atten aetna
MIscELLANEOUS NOTES :—
1,
Be
A local variety of the Nilgiri Langoor. Editors...
The South Indian Panther—Faztheva pardus fusca.
ByAk.. Kadambi), DISCHER A Bos. ca eee eran tee
A cross between the Domestic Deg (Canis
tamiliavts) and the Fox (Vulpes bengalensts). By
P. J. Sanjeeva Raj. (With @ photo)... ...0...00-00
Wild Buffaloes and tame. By Surendr Lall...........
Wild Buffaloes andtame. By E. P. Gee. (With
a photo)...
Cannibalism in Hedeeises. ne Ishwar Prakash, |
NGS SGAING GOooddbn6000 4
PAGR
14.
US
21.
i.
Cae
24,
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 351
A colour variation, and albinism in the Giant
Squirrel—Ratufa indica. By Humayun Abdulali
AIG en Cam AMICllenmes dake eereteats cscs Soe e ethos vcesiase
Jungle notes from South India. By R. C. Morris.
Nivatery Raaclattorr, ° IBY 18), 1B CrSSsdsoted anona000 508600 006
The Ahmedabad Tent Club in earlier days. By
i- Col Re Wa burton, (wetds)s:
Eradicating Bats from bungalows. By S. R. Daver.
Why do Deer and other Mammals lick earth ?
Editors.. ; naiseticin apaeetaiied ten ae eeT
Tne Pied Myna and Bank baie as birds of
Bombay and Salsette. By Humayun Abdulali.
and Salim Ali..
The Tibetan Siskin TSpénus df EAP ey i ia)
INepale By) DESIEeCerROUGKY Meanccese eka as scenes tee
The distribution of the Greenbilled Malkoha
(Rhopodytes viridirostris Jerdon). By Humayun
PND CLULATIRG RUN a eRe TOR Re eo ee er ORNL OOK iy. ads
Common Grey Hornbill (Vockus birostris) eating
fruits ofthe Yellow Oleander (7hevetia neritto-
VOB LST NK IR, INGSVAIRATUEYD dos obuod ono00n000 doe ubob0C
Juvenile Brahminy Kites (alzastur indus) learning
things the modern way. By K.K. Neelakantan.
The Great Indian Bustard, By K. S. Dharma-
KMART ada Siee da ue Saheb ets a sce ids ose sD RAS LURE
Strange habit of Terns breeding on Godavari
sand-ilats. By K. K. Neelakantan..................-
Occurrence of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (flydro-
phasianus chirurgus) in Madras State. By K. K.
INeclalcantanheew, Far nei sgh COS MU Cet AT
Breeding of Aallina euryzonotdes nigrolineata
(Gray) in the Darjeeling District. By W.H.
VIAL CMiSF ey MABRONUMEIEE, Phile Fares coin oe Pid wetlectoa,
Observations on the nesting habits of some com-
mon Birds. By K. K. Neelakantan..
More about Vizagapatam Birds. By Hiapan
DG WT raters hse boa E De otk iis coke
Domestic Poultry Diseases now endemic in jungle,
By R. C. Morris...
736
737
737
741
vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51
20.) bitd Micrationyinslndia se CitOlseenese tere nreEternee
26. Scenting power of Birds. By Lt-Col. E. G. Phy-
thian-Adams, 1.4. (Retd).........
27. Additions to recorded food items of the Bull
Frog (Rana tigrina). By Ishwar Prakash, m.sc.
28. New locality record of Rana hexadactyla Lesson.
By V.KeiCharits.ickgec gee eee ee ee ee
29. Aposematic Insects and their Food Plants. By
Charles McCants eeac sere eee aaa
30. A note onthe Indian species of the genus Lyca-
enopsis Felder (Lepidoptera-Lycaenidae). By
W.. ELS ESVATIS 0 . ccoarrcin ttre cies Sone ares
31. More on Butterflies from Nepal. By Col. D. G.
LOWNGES) vena ws tees see teens aero ee
32. A unique case of a profusely branched Palmyra
Palm. By T.C.N. Singh. (W2éth a photo).....
33. Notes on the photography of Fossils, with special
reference to a specimen of Jnzdobatrachus from
Worli Hill, Bombay. By Charles Hale. ae bee,
a plate)... : y
34 Comment on‘ The Manz-jal of the Chilka Lake—A
special Net for Beloniform Fishes’. By M. Peter
IDYeneaisybnaveeneeyaal, cay asqacso6s4 090000000 000 OT ee yy
35 rep (GIG ANINGS . 38 .coe Races toe bein oee> sercnckoube Sucrie settee ats
Notes and N@WSiiaccs<sesmecansasicce coches eehee tee ee errr ee
No. 4
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORN-
ED RHINOCEROS (A. wnicornis Linn.). By E. P. Gee,
WGA ORIMCYACH (UIA Hi) /UILLAS))oc3132000050000000093030000009 52309-
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL. PARTIII. By M. L. BANERSI
NoTEs ON THE BIONOMICS AND MORPHOLOGY OF Ay fostdra
successavia \VLK., A GEOMETRID PEST ON DAINCHA (Ses-
bania aculeata) IN COIMBATORE. By K. P. Ananthanara-
yanan, B.A. (Hons) and S. Venugopal, B.se. (Zool.), B.Sc.
axe) ay) Bem ATOM Lata s HELI Vaede. 5995000408005 800 10500900000 AARGL
Some BREEDING BiRDS OF SINGAPORE. PART II. By W. T.
Loke. SUW/2tnstx DIGies ener: se hh wale BOb 4 FA Haars a eeents
755
759
759
761
761
763
765
773
789
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51
CRITICAL NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF
SOME BomsBAy PLANTS. II]. THE GENUS Zzzyphus MILL.
BYAEES Santa patty SoleneeHONe lasts safsemeciiiesiher second at Suaarenstsec ste
THr Doum-NuT BEETLE—Coccotrypes dactyliberda FABR. AND
ITS CONTROL. By K. R. Nagaraja Rao, B.sc. vag and
J. P. Janaki, B.sc. (W7th text figure)......... acre detat ore een
PROBLEMS OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN CEYLON. By
Siriaclere ILall lore, eral IN, Wo Io JRE 565.005 Gob cnn cap bagdndbno bed
CurtTis’s BOTANICAL MAGAZINE: ITS ORIGIN, HISTORY AND
MTSSKONGE yal lepbe INaizaGaee BeNale sceenctestenectices cos ecce
NARRATIVE OF A TREK AND OF NATURAL. HISTORY OBSER-
VATIONS IN KASHMIR IN MAy-JunE, 1942. By E.P.
Wiltshire y FRtE Ss (W272 wo) PIales))..8 cencen ces can veoejens sesame
Count oF Birp Nests IN A SMALL Town: DORANDA,
SUBURB OF RANCHI, BIHAR STATE. By Jamal Ara.....
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. 1. From
THE BEGINNING TO THE MIDDLE oF WALLICH’S
SERVICE, we byalonbte, Duclall Ss CU/27 G70 Pp) nesocecs\saceceje-
WHAT ULTIMATELY TERMINATES THE LIFE SPAN OF THE
WHALE SHARK, Ahineodon tyfus? By E. W. Gudger.
(With a plate and two text tigures)... 690000 OGC
Bionomics OF Monanthia globulitera WALK. int ieere
HETEROPTERA ; TINGIDAE). By U. S. Sharga, M.sc.,
PI, (CHO), (UAC WEBE LOLITAS) )o000960000006 050.046 056 0006 Ca0G00
Tur GENUS Cymbopogon SPRENG. IN INDIA, BURMA AND
CEVEONGE PART lee by, Nelow Oty cs. ssctcaseseccsneccces ses ott
LOCAL AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF COMMERCIAL FISHES OF
BOMBS, BY (Co Wo XUN aR arly IMS, 120104 caonscobocbonsee cob
OBITUARIES :—
A. A. Dunbar Brander. By James W. Best..
Dr. Maurice Suter. By N. J. _ Hamilton afl and
INTC can Ratner ieuneett sheen staan ciien cons veiyveee) saa sap aan'estiev es
REVIEWS :— |
1. Animal Ecology. By W. H. Dowdeswell.......... wists
2. Bird Migrants. By Bric Simms... .......-. <0...
3. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. By Henry
BOL Glee ariceteer Pat Ale sense sisticesstuad siitedie ae Pestmecaa nse ees
vii
PAGER
801
805
809
819
825
839
846
879
926
926
928
928
929
vil ‘5 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51
4, The Preservation of Wild Life in India—A Com-
pilations =By LiesColnRaWe sburtonn.. seeeeaen
5. The Indian Aquarist. Bulletin of the Bombay
A QuariimlSOCite by sss ee eee. semenece nomen eee eh
List of Books added to the Bombay Natural History
Society’s Library since September, 1953... ........ecceeseeeee
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
1. Onthe feeding habits of Bears. By M. S. Chandra-
Sekhar. Rasves tenes: drat Sgt ar
2. Albino Sambar. By I B. Subbiah Spas shad dougeaenet
3. Mystery Predator. By D. G. Meston.. ee
Wild Life Conservation—The Aue of the Deer.
By ti-Cols Kear bunboOn, LeAnm ((INCUG) mteseenee
5. Bayas and Fire-flies. By R. M. Aldworth............
6. On the re-occurrence in Ceylon of Blyth’s Pipit—
Anthus campesirts Chhy ane: * See By
W. W.A. Phillips... TRA detache deme arane
7. Crested Tree Swifts and wild Bees. ‘By B. E.
Smythies.. Oates ante Sher coca asec
8. Movements of Lesser Fierien | Sypheotides aM
(Miller)]. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhiji...
9, Lesser Frigate Bird ei mee: in Bey!
By R. M. Taylor... recs Perens e
10. Birds of Nepal. By Spat IDF eee I atte eas ae
11. The use of poisonous sprays. By Lt.-Col. R. W.
Buntony A (ietd)):.. . ie a
12. Egg-laying of the Bloodsucker Lizard. By ik ES
mous. (With a photo)... ASreneee
‘13. Python capturing Chinkara. ih ee of Jaedan®:
14. A note on the distribution of Azchoviella Palette
bus (Ruppell) and Axnchoviella zollingert (Bleek-
er) in Indian Seas. By S. Varadarajan............
15. Rare Ocean Sun-fish—MWasturusl anceolatus Lien2rd
in Bombay waters. By C. V. Kulkarni. (With
AUPNOLO) Menem seen a :
16. Occurrence of the Brine Shrimp Avtemta sp. in Bom-
bay. By C. V. Kulkarni. (With a text figure).
17. Occurrence of Nephila malabarensis in Bombay.
By T. V. Subrahmanyam. (W27th a text figure)...
946
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 351 ix
PAGE
18. Notes and queries on Land Leeches. By B. E.
SimiyjthleSayscte bans Pee Sa rhs eho de don dhet Moet mertodeaekd 4 O04
19, Sexual behaviour of Land Leeches. By J. L.
IslawreSO, (AWE. @ ALR HORII) sapsosonbacsaesocoa nea, «| SENS)
20. The species of Crotalaria in Bombay. By H.
SAMA AUN SNe crerseiote en ccc arses scene ocmonce st ecatertes GOO
21 The enh usine of Taverntera Shania) De. By
M. H. 8S. Murthy.. ane At 862
22. The Herbarium at the Poona reared Opilicny
ByvAy Vv. Gokhale anda. ki. Godbole...2.....5...:- 963
23. Gleanings.. we ib caerererderstseese ~ 965
Notes and Nene “Wild Life i in Stan’ ASanib herb eriiats oc banal 967
Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society
for the year ending 3lst December, 1952..........,.- 969
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
VOLUME 5]
Nos, 3 and 4
PAGE . PAGE
ABDULALI, HuMAyuN, The dis- Nests in a small town:
tribution of the Greenbilled Doranda, suburb of Ranchi
Malkoha (Rhopodytes viridi- Bihancuare _ am 939
rostris Jerdon) nee 737 | Banergt, M. L., Plants from
eet at ——1 More East Nepal. Part II 543
about Vizagapatam Birds 746
dal per Canaan, ee . my , Plants from
Salim, The Pied Myna and i late Pee eee Sal Ae 773
Bank Myna as birds of Bom- t Pek: Pas He REV otek
bayaandice |solte : || rent @ayjlany. evi Th, 820
ace Ree ae 1. H., Chapters of
variation, and albinism in Teint eee
Fe a aa 731 | ‘0 the middle of Wallich’s
ALDWORTH, R. M., Bayas an _ Service. (With a map) 846
Fire-flies Be ee OER | PURO) hola Io ilo, Tobe
Aut, Stim, see ABDULALT, (Retd.) Wild Life Preserva-
HUMAYUN. ; tionin India ... ore eee. OO
———, The Keoladeo oe are SS, ine
Ghana of Bharatpur (Rajas- Ahmedabad Tent Club in
than). (With four plates)... 531 earlier days we we 783
Atikunu!, K.H., and CHav- — a \ UI
DHURI, HIRALAL, Character- Life Conservation—The Pro-
istic Colouration of Juvenile blem of the Deer w. 935
Specimens of Labeo (Moru- ay Mn
lius) angra with Notes on use of poisonous sprays 943
Growth. (With two text CHANDRASEKHAR, M. S., On
figures) cee a foe 537, the feeding habits of Bears. 934
ANANTHANARAYANAN, K. P., | CHARI, V. K., New locality
B.A. (Hons.) and VENU- record of Rana hexadactyla
GOPAL, S., B,Sc. (Zool.), B.Sc. Lesson ... 50 Be a Cal
(Bot.), Notes on the Biono- | CHAUDHURI, HIRALAL, see
mics and Morphology of Hypo- ALIKUNHI, K. H.
sidra successavia Wlk., a | DANIEL, J. C., see ABDULALI,
Geometrid Pest on Daincha | HUMAYUN.
(Sesbania aculeata) in Coim- | Daver, S. R., Eradicating
batore. (With a text figure). 789 Bats from bungalows 734
AnnoymMous, Egg-laying of the | DEVASUNDARAM, M. Perer,
Bloodsucker Lizard. (Witha | Comment on ‘The Mani-jal
Photo) «. oes ee «oe 2 144 of the Chilka Lake—A special
Ara, JaMAL, Count of Bird Net for Beloniform Fishes’... 761
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, K. S.,
The Great Indian Bustard
Movements of Lesser Florican
[Sypheotides indica (Miller) }.
Epitors, A local variety of
the Nilgiri Langoor ... O00
--———, Why do Deer and
other Mammals lick earth ?...
———_-—.,, Bird Migrationin India
‘Evans, W.H., A note on the
Indian species of the genus
Lycaenopsis Felder (Lepidop-
tera—Lyccenidce
FLEMING, ROBERT L., Birds of
Nepal 50
GEE, E.P., Wild Buffaloes add
tame. (With a photo)
, Mistery Predator
————., Further Observations
—————
on the Great Indian One-
horned Rhinoceros (A. uni-
cornis Winn.). (With two
plates) ; ees BG
GODBOLE, S. R., see GOKHALE,
IX W/o
GOKHALE, A. V. and Gomme,
S. R., The Herbarium at the
Poona Agricultural College ...
GupGEr, E.W., What ultimate-
ly terminates the Life Span of
the Whale Shark, hineodon
typus? (With a Bak and two
text figures) . és
HALE, CHARLES, Oates on ins
photography of Fossils, with
special reference to a speci-
men of /udobatrachus from
Worli Hill, Bombay. (With
a plate) .
HARRISON, i Py, Sactel pena
viour of Land Leelee: (With
a text figure) ... oes rs
Hora, SUNDER LAL and
Pitztay, T. V.R., Problems
of Fisheries Development in
Ceylon ... 506 Si 500
JANAKI, I, P., see Rao, K. R.
NAGARAJA
JASDAN, Raja OF, Python cap-
turing Chinkara
PAGE
740
938
720
735
749
755
939
727
732
765
963
879
759
959
809
945
Tn nent
elle
KADAMBI, K., D.Sc,, The South
Indian Panther — Panthera
pardus fusca ... 500 500
KULKARNI, C. V., M.Sc., Ph.D.,
Local and Scientific names of
Commercial Fishes of Bombay
, Rare Ocean
Sun-fish—MWasturus lanceola-
tus Lienard in Bombay waters.
(With a photo)
——, Occurrence
ofthe Brine Shrimp Artemia
sp. in Bombay. (With a text
figure) ... 600 600 aa
LALL, SURENDR, Wild Buffa-
loes and tame ... 20 eae
LISTER, M. D. | Secdhdany Song
of some iadian Birds.. ‘
Loxre, W. T., Some Breeding
Birds of Singapore. Part. I.
(With five plates)
» Some
Birds of Singapore,
(With six plates) C00
LownDgEs, Col. D. G., More on
Butterflies from Nepal ve
McCANN, CHARLES, F.L.S.,
Aposematic Insects and their
Food Plants 600 500
MaTTHEWS, W.H., M.B.O.U..
Breeding of Aallina euryzo-
muoides nigrolineata (Gray) in
Darjeeling District aa
Menon, M. Devipas, The Deter-
mination of Age and Growth
of Fishes of Tropical and Sub-
tropical Waters
ae
Breeding
Part II.
Merston, D. G., W. Mystery
Predator ... a00 000
Morris, R. C., J ungle notes
from South India 600
, Domestic Pout
try Dies now endemic in
jungle... eee
Murtuy, M.H.S., The vere
cium of Tavernene nummul-
avia DC.... eas 200 aoe
Naripu, APPALA, M.A., M.SC.,
F.B.S., A New Species of Sesa-
mum. (With two plates)
xi
PAGE
721
917
948
951
726
699
590
752
747
962
697
xii
NAV4LKAR, B. S.. The Analyti-
cal Characters of Some of the
Marshy Vegetation of Bombay
and Salsette Islands. (With
a plate)... dee wer
NEEVLAKANTAN, K. K., Com-
mon Grey Hornbill (2o0ckus
birostris) eating fruits of the
Yellow Oleander (Thevetia
nervittolia) AAS ea
———-—, Juvenile
Brahminy Kites (Hadliastur
indus) learning things the
modern way
a —, Strange
habit of Terns breeding on
Godavari sand-flats 3
: Occur-
rence of the Pheasaxt-tailed
Jacana (Hydrophasianus chir-
urgus) in Madras State
Obser-
vations on the nesting habits
of some common Birds
PATEL, G. A., Se@ PATEL, NARA-
VAN, G.
PATEL, NARAYAN G., M.SC.,
(Agti.)© and PATEL)” GA‘;
-.M.Sc., Ph.p.. (Cornell), Host
Plants, Distribution and
Abnndance of
(Thysanoptera) of Bombay
State: ... SOP a:
PHILLIPS, W. W. A., On the
re-occurrence in Ceylon of
Blyth’s Pipit— Anthus campes-
tris thermophilus (Jerdon.)..
PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, E. G., I.A.
(Retd.), Scenting power of
Birds :
Pirtay, B. SuBBiAH, Albino
Sambar ... ce
PItvAy, Davie Ro, Sécm@ HORA,
SUNDER LAL.
PRAKASH, IsHWAR, M.Sc., Canni-
balism in Hedgehogs...
PRASAD, R, RaGHU and TAmMpPI,
P.R.S., A Contribution to the
Biology of the Blue Swim-
ming Crab, Vepiunus pelugicus
Thrips °
738 |
749
743
PAGE |
| Rao,
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
(Linnaeus), with a note on
the Zoga of Thalamita crenata
Latreille. (With a plate and
fifty-eight figures)
PRouD, DESIRE, More notes on
Birds of the Gandak-Kosi
Watershed, Nepal
ee re he Tibetan
Siskin Spinus thibetanus
(Hume) in Nepal
RAIZADA, M. B., F.N.I., Currie?s s
Botanical Meenas Its
Origin, History and Mission...
Ray, P. J., Sanjeeva, A cross
between the Domestic Dog
(Canis famitliaris) and the
Fox (Vulpes bengalensis).
(With a photo)
K. R. NAGARAJA, B.Sc.
(Hons). and JANAKI, I. P.,
B.Sc., The Dum-nut Beetle—
Coccotry pes dactyliperda Fabr.
and its Control. (With a text
figure) . 500
Rao, R. Siig ayvarts Occurrence
of Paragrewia Gangnep. i
India and Burma. eA i a
Plate)... se eee eae
| RIPLEY, S. Dyna: Populations
| SANTAPAU,
| SHARGA,
of Mrs, Gould’s Sunbird, with
Comments on Ranges and
Variation among _ related
Species of Sunbirds —-
Ils “Syiey © TEMINTSY
Critical Notes on the Identity
and Nomenclature of some
Bombay Plants. II. The
Genus Zizyphus Mill.
——, The Species of
Crotalaria in Bombay AP
WS: 5 M-SCy.g PED:
(Edin.), Bionomics of
Monanthia globulifera Walk.
(Hemiptera — Heteroptera:
Tingidae). (With five figures)
Srias, E.G., M.A., M.sc., Notes
on Fishes from Maha-
bleshwar and Wai, (Satara
District Bombay _ State).
(With one plate and four text
figures) ee
PAGE
674
653
737
819
724
805
671
690
801
960
885
979
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS sili
SinGH, T.C.N., A unique case
of a profusely branched Pal-
myra Palm. (Witha photo)
SMYTHIES, B. E., Crested Tree
Swifts and wild Bees
— —-— , Notes and
queries on Land Leeches_...
SUBRAHMANYVAM, JT. V., Occur-
rence of Nephila malabarensis
in Bombay. (With a text
figure) . bc0 000 :
TampI, P. R. S., see aon,
R. RAGHU.
TAYLor, R.M., Lesser Frigate
Bird (Fregata minor) in
Bombay 500
VARADARAJAN, S., A me on
PAGE |
952
989
|
PAGE
the distribution of Anchoviella |
heterolobus (Rtppell) and
Anchoviella zollingeri (Bleeker)
in Indian Seas wee coo BELG
| VENUGOPAL, S., see ANANTHA-
NARAYANAN, K.P.
| \Wiagesucyeaneen, Uh, aay anpRo Sa,
Narrative of a Trek and of
Natural History Observations
in Kashmir in May-June, 1942
(With two ptates) Bs 5825
WortTH, C. BRookE, esloaieal
Notes on a Colony of Small
Swallow-Plovers in Mysore
SHEL ©" bod cob 9 odo 90 TS)
TUSPVORSPLATES,
VOLUME 51
Nos. 3 and 4
PAGE
The Keoladeo Ghana of Bharatpur (Rajasthan).
Plate I.- General view of a section of the Heronry
Cormorants, White Ibises and Painted Storks
White Ibises and Painted Storks
Openbilied Storks, adults and young
Plate II. Painted Stork arriving at nest
Downy chicks of Painted Stork feigning death
White Egrets
Pelicans and Cormorants
Plate III. Cormorants fishing
Coots
Blackbuck in the Ghana environs
Sarus Crane and nest
Plate IV. Pond Heron (Ardeola grayit) and (swimming) iDantien
(Anhinga melanogaster)
Sarus Cranes (Antigone antigone) being disturbed Froth
nest by grazing buffalo
Notes on Fishes from Mahableshwar and Wai, (Satara District, Bombe
532
533
534
. e ° e ° e e . ° e e
e e e e . ° ° ° e ° °
bg : e : : . ° ° ° Py ° Ps °
ee Se ee wV-3- dee oe 2
State).
Plate I. Puntius sahyadriensis, sp. nov. ony heY4
Some Breeding Birds of Singapore.
Plate 1. Little Green Bittern (Autorides striatus javanicus) an) (BY)
Plate II. Blacknaped Tern (Sterna s. sumatrana) cog ASI
Plate III. Whitecollared Kingfisher (Hal¢yon chloris humit), )
Singapore. The bird is nesting inside a live nest of |
termites. :
Lesser Crow-Pheasant (Centvopus bengalensis LEN 4
Plate 1V. Barred Bustard-Quail (Zurnix suscitator atrogularis) ... bet.
594/595
Plate V. Young chick of Blacknaped Tern (Sterna s. sumatrana),
Squance Rock, Loyang, Singapore. Note protective
coloration, sno, WEB
594/595
The Analytical Characters of some of the Marshy Vegetation of Bombay
and Salsette Islands.
Plate. Avicennia alba trees from Uran 6 4]
Sonneratia apetala and Acanthus wicifolius from Mumbra + |
Rhizophora with its seedlings in the Avicennia vegetation } 640
from Mahim-Bandra ve |
sesuvium bortulacastrum from Vadala salt pan area eee)
LIST OF PLATES
Occurrence of Parvagrewiz Ganegnep. in India and Burma,
Plate. Paragrewia poilanez Gangnepain
A Contribution to the Biology of the Blue Swimming Crab, Men tuns
pelagicus (Linnaeus), with a Note onthe Zoea of Thalamila crenata
Latreille.
Plate I. Photographs 1 to 6
A New Species of Sésamum.
Plate I. Fig. 1. Sésamum ekambaramii Naidu, spec. nov.
Plate II. Figs 1-12. Sesamum ekambaramii Naidu, spec. nov.
Notes on the photography of Fossils, with special reference to a speci-
men of /udobatrvachus from Worli Hill, Bombay.
Plate. Jndobatrachus sp. from the Inter-Trappean Beds of Worli
Hill, Bombay.
Further Observations on the Great Indian One-horned Rinoeeros
(R. unicornis Linn.)
XV
PAGE
Plate 1. The last picture taken of the Boora Goonda, a few months }
before it died
The Kan Katta (Torn Ear) when it first came to Mihi.
|
¢
mukh had, in addition to its torn ear, a scar on its nose |
* and three gashes oniits Hank.
Plate II. This pair, known as Romeo and Juliet, were seen roche
for five months. :
Six of the seven rhino seen together at one mud wallow ;
another one had just left. eee
Some Breeding Birds of Singapore. Part II.
Plate I. Bluethroated Bee-eater (Merops viridis)
Resident Swallow (Hivundo tahitica abbotit)
Plate JI. Malayan Racket-tailed Drongo at nest
Plate III. Blacknaped Oriole ( Oriolus chinensis) see
Plate IV. Yellowvented Bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier personatus) sae
Plate V. A male Malayan Magpie Robin
Plate VI. Streaked Fantail-Warbler (C7sticola juncidis malaya)
Yellowbellied Wren-Warbler (Prinia flaviventris raft lest) .
Narrative of a Trek and of Natural History Observations in Kashmir in
May-June, 1942.
Plate I. Kishenganga near Bagtor
Inclined sheet of snow on right bank oi Kishenganga
Plate II]. The author, on the ‘‘ flowery shelf’ of Upper Kan-
zalwan
On the pass to Tragbal from Koragbal
What ultimately terminates the life Span of the Whale Shark, ral aati
ty pus ?
Plate
ny
|
A
>|
J
su
.
a)
|
672
674
698
699
760
766
767
794
795
796
797
798
799
832
833
883
LIND EXO WISROS TRAM TONGS:
VOLUME 51
Nos. 3 & 4
PAGE |
Acanthus ilicitolius _ Keoladeo Ghana of Bharatpur
Plate she 640 | (Rajasthan)
Anhinga melanor ase | Plate I
Plate IV. oa: Ase 535 | Plate II
Ardeola grayit | Plate III
Plate IV cas ach 535 | Plate 1V
Artemia sp. Labeo (Morulius) angra
Text figs. A,B &C ... 951 | Text fig. 1 a, b.
Avicennia alba Text fig. 2. a,b & ce.
Plate +) 640 | Masturus lanccolatus
Bloodsucker paral Photo
Photo is At 945 | Merops viridis
Borassus tlabelliter Plate I te ve
Photo se 759 | Monanthia globulifera
Botany in India, Ghaptersn on
the History of
Map ::. so 846
Buffaloes, Wild & tanto
Photo .. on ; 727
Butorides alas wees
Plate I se adc 590
Centropus bengalensis javanicis
_ Plate II Aas JAMS D4
Cisticola juncidis malaya
Plate VI ae ans 799
Coccotrypes dactyliperda
Mextii gy es lace. Ob 806
Copsychus saulavis musicus
Plate V fy 798
Dissemurus pavadiseus nalavensis
Plates 2 ates oe 795
Dog-Fox hybrids
Photo (doc eee 725
Hasemadtpsa pitta
Text fig. aide Ab 959
Halcyon chloris humii
Plate III a ae, . §94
Hiivundo tahitica abbotti
Plate I ues ae 794
Flyposidra successaria
Mext figs dye2 e334;
5&6 we 792 | sed
| Pycnonotus goiavier persoua-
Lndobatrachus sp.
Plate ... ae ee 760 |
Text figs. 1,2,3,4&5 ...
Natural History & Observa-
tions in Kashmir
Plate I
Plate II
Nemachilus evezardt
Text fig. 4
Nephila malabarensis
Text fig.
Neptunus pelagicus
Plate I 605
Fig. 1. Graph ...
FPjg. 2. Graph
Fig. 3. Graph
Figs. 4tol8 ...
Figs. 18 to 46 ...
Figs. 47 to 48 ..,
Oriolus chinensis
Plate III
Paragrenia potlanei
Plate ‘
Prinia flaviventris vattlesi.
Plate VI
Puntius sahyadriensis
Text fig. 1. Scales
Biaters. ae
Text fig. 2
Text fig. 3
LUS elatemlVae ues aan
PAGE
532
933
534
535
538
540
949
794
886
832
833
588
953
674
676
677.
678
680
681
686
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS xVii
Rhineodon ty pus
laren, dh
Big. 2
latemeace 50
Rhinoceros unicor nis
late I
Plate II
Rhizophora
Plate ae
Sesamum ekhambaramti
Plate I, Fig. 1
Plate Il, Figs. 1-12.
PAGE |
PAGE
| Sesuvium portulacastrum
| Piate Sot 306 640
| Sterna sumatrana sumatrana
Plate II eee 500 Sol
Plate V bet. 594, 595
_ Thalamita crenata
| - Figs. 49to 58 ... a) 687
Turnix suscitator atrogularis
Plate IV
bet. 594, 595
i
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Sera vat F Sai
INDEX OF SPECIES
|
|
PAGE
Abies pindrow 500
Abraxas virginalis $27, 829
Abroma 783 |
Abroma augusta 784
Acalypha sp. : 601, 604
AcanthocephalJus redlevanbe So
Acanthus 640
Acavthus ilicifolius ; "634, 640, 642, 643,
644, 647, 648, 649, 650
Acacia arabica 532, 603
Accipiter nisus , . «845 |
Acer pictum 827, 833 |
Acetes indicus 2% 6 | OS
Achaetothrips mundus ... 598, 601 |
Achorion gallinae 748
Acras sapota _... 300 A060 605
Acridotheres ginginianus
pete Fa 736) |
703
Acrocephalus dumetorum
- schoenoboenus 704
--——_— ~ scirpaceus oo | OL |
—— stentoreus brunnescens,. 826 |
Actinidia callosa ae Ses Tid ||
Actitis hypoleucos as a SOLS
Actyolepis puspa felderi 755 |
—- puspa 755
Adina cordifolia 840
Aegiceras majus 650
Aegle marmelos 849
638, 639, 640, 641,
642, 643, 644, 645,
646, 647, 648, 649,
Aeluropus repens
650, 651
Aelothrips fasciatus... 600 597, 598
Aesculus indica : 227
Aethiopsar fuscus tae O0 736
Aethopyga gouldiae _690, 692, 694, 696
—— ——-——-annamensis ...
690, 694
—_———_—_ —_ ——_ assameusis 695
—— — dabryii ... 690, 691, 692,
695
—_- gvouldiae... 690, 691, 692, .
693
. 691, 693, 695
——$—_———— ——__-—__jsolata
PAGE
Aethopyga ignicauda ... 668, 692, 694
———-——_nipalensis 694, 695
— —_—— -— angkanensis 695
——_—-— — ——- bianci 695
—_— ——- —— —- ezrai 695
—__ —— ——-— karenensis 695
——-———- ——- — koelzi 695
— -— victoriae 695
——_——- Saturata ms 000 694
—_—- — assamensis 695
—— —— — johnsi 695
— —_ - ochra 5 695
——_——_ ——__—- petersi 695
— —-— sanguinipectus 695
—— ——— siparaja 694
—_-—— ——-— labecula ... 695
—_—_-—— ———-- mangini ... 695
——_—— — ———- seheriae 695
Aetomylaeus maculata are cco IS)
Aglais kaschmirensis .. 826, 827, 829
Agrotis duosigna 835
— segetum 837
Ailanthus excelsa 841
Albizzia falcata 596
-lebbek ... 506 00 840
- procera 840, 841
Albulichthys krempfi 631
Albulina near pheretes ... 758
Alcedo atthis 611, 844
Allium cepa 599, 607
- ursinum ... 752
Alnus nepalensis 737
Amaurornis: Proemcuneel 534, 840,
845
Ambassis commersonii 627
Ammania 794
Anabas... Be ASP oe oo tol)
Anaitis plagiata ... 50 827
Anaphothrips (antanatiarnnins) Sac-
chari 598, 603
—— flavicinctus 598, 601
————_——- (Scirtothrips) dorsalis
598, 603
Anas platyrhyncha 840, 845
XX
PAGE
Anchoviella son we
Anchoviella fetersoeenet 946, 947
— —zollingeri .. 946, 947
Andropogon 892, 893
Andropogon caesius J12
—_-—_——— citriodorum 907
——_—_——_-——-. confertiflorus 905
—__-—--— distans S93
SS gidarba 892, 893
————-—— hookeri §92
SSS jwarancusa 892, 893
—— ——_ —— var. laniger 893
———_—_-——_ laniger 892, 893 |
—_—_——_-—— _ martini 908, Shah, Sits:
———. —— — microtheca Be 893
———-———. (Cymbopogon) nardoices
8 minor ; 914
——_——_—— _ nardus .. 892, 893, 903
— —— var. luridus 905
a subsp. nilagiricus
905 |
—_-_-—_—-——_ nilagiricus 905
—-——- —— pachnodes 908 |
—————— polyneuros 913
—_ ———— roxburgil 907
—— ———— schoenanthus 892, 893
———— ——--—— subsp.
genuinus var. versicolor. 913
—— var
genuinus 908, 912
a a ait
gracillimus 912
oa ert,
martinii 908
—— —-~-——- versicolor lay
Androsace geraniifolia 659
Anemone obtusiloba (?) 655, 657
——-—— tetrasepala 833
Anguilla anguilla 924
—-—— bengalensis 924
Anhinga melancgaster 533
———— rufa 845
Anthocephalus ederape 839, 841
Anthus campestris thermophilus 937
- hodgsoni . 658, 705, 843 |
—- ——-——-- yunnanensis 705
- novaeseelandiae malayensis... 938
Anthus --~——— -—— richardi 937
- richardi ae Bop tee}
———-— roseatus .. .. 658, 667, 668
Antirrbinum sp. ... 500 599, 6C5
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Aplonis panayensis 798
Apus affinis 844
Aquila clanga 844
— pomarina 844
Arachis hypogaea 599
Aralia ; 830
Aralia eaehenines 830
Araneus 952
Ardea cinerea O34
Ardeola grayii 534, 845
Areca catechu 806
Arenaria ee 556
Arenaria densissima 558, 559
——-——. globifera 558
— serpyllifolia 559
Argemone ie 543
Argemone mexicana 543
Argynunis . : 755
Argynnis eMldreni ost LO
———-——- eulgeniia aoa
——-—— lathonia issaea 758, 826
Arius 600 aes wat 812
Arius dussumieri : 919
——- gagorides aa 919
——- jella aeeney 919
——- sagor 919
Artamus fuscus ... 000 705
Artemia ‘ 951, 952
Artemisia mantis AC 832
—— —- vulgaris 500 832, 833
Artocarpus integrifolia 839, 840 |
Asura discisigna postica 629
Athene brama 844
Atule djedaba 920
——- kalla 00 920 |
——- mate 500 «. (920
Aularches 753, 754 |
Aularches miliaris ey i3y-, |
Aulocera brahminoides 157, |
Avena sativa 602 |
Avicennia
Avicennia alba
—— -—- 0 ficinalis
Awaous stamineus
Ayyaria chaetophora
Barbus dobsoni ..
-jerdoni
638, 639
638, 639, 640, 641,
642, 643, 644, 645,
646, 647, 648, 649,
€50, 651, 652
. 640, 643, 646, 647,
E49, 650, 651
598, 604
923
021 |
923
Buzura (Biston) suppressaria
INDEX OF SPECIES
|
PAGE
Barbus kolus 923
———- sarana 923
- tetrazona 932
——-— tor : ae 923
——-— (Tor) khudree 810 |
Barilius barna 581 |
———- bendelisis 581 |
—-—— guttatus O27)
Beaumontia sp. ... 841
Belone e 812 |
Belone Sironeulte 922 |
——— strongylurus 761
Benincasa cerifera 604
Berberis 655
Berberis AEE > 653 |
——— _ lycium 827
Bergenia stracheyi 831
Bibos sauveli Sat |
Boleopthalmus pageant 922
nn dussumieri Serre 22
Boloria jerdoni ... 829, $30, 833, 836, 837
Bombax ves ae pad aa ito
Bombax malabaricum ... 782, 839, 840, 841
Borassus flabellifer Ud)
Botaurus stellaris 845
Bougainvillea sp. 841
Brachystemma a 556
Brachysteinma oe 958
Brassica O0 547
Brassica eapestris var. aiehotetn coo Oe}
— -— —- var. saison 598, 601
——_——. oleracea ~ $99, 607
—-— trilocularis 549
Bregmaceros mcclillandi 923
Bruguiera gymnorhiza ... 650
———-— parviflora 643
Brumus saturalis 889
Bryophila 833
Bryophila modesta 838
Bubulecus ibis... oe. 533, 845
———— —- coromandus 747 |
Buetneria ~ 783
Buettneria aspera 785
—_— crenulata 785
Bufo bufo 762
Bursera delpechiana 974
Busseola hirsuta 834
Butorides javanicus fs 591
———— striatus - 608, 620, 845 -
———— ———- javanicus ... 591
789
Calidris temninckii
Caligula lindia :
Callerebia nirmala aarete
shakra
— ——-— scanda optima
Callichrous bimaculatus
On ee
| Callinectes sapidus
Calotropis gigantea
| ——~——- procera
a Sp.
Caltha palustris alba
Carnelligueeene ares
Camellia drupifera
Canavalia ensiformis
Cancer magister
——— pagurus ...
Canis familiaris ...
Canna indica
Cannabis sativa ...
| Capella gallinago
Capsella 508
Capsella bursa-pastoris
Capparis 000 600
Capparis aphylla He
———— multiflora
—— olacifolia
Capsicum annum
——— -— frutescens
Caranx djeddaba
——— kalla
——— rottleri
Carcharias laticaudus
Carcharinus limbatus
Caricharius melanopterus
Carcinus maenas
Cardamine
Cardamine hirsuta
Cardamine macrophylla
—— trifoliolata ...
violacea
Carpodacus pulcherrimus
rhadochrous
rhodopeplus
Carthamus tinctorius
Cassia siamea
Cassiope fastigiata
Catla buchanani
—- catla
Cedrela toona
Celastrina jynteana
sikkima
——et
———— —
.. 604, 605,
xxi
PAGE
601,
827,
920,
598, 599,
840,
849,
619
827
831
837
757
973i
674
753
753
754
835
776
777
604
674.
680
724
, 603
599
845
547
549
550
532
550
550
603
606
920
973
920
918
918
918
677
547
548
548
548
048
667
667
667
885
841
662
923
923
841
755
755
Xkil INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Celastrine hugelti es 30 scat Oo
Celosia argentea .. ic a eve! @ 005
Centropus boneaieners aes eo soy OWS
—---——_- ——-javanensis ... 594
-— ——- sinensis Ss eos wee O44
Cerastium . hat hob 5% sei ODO
= piomeratam oy, 500 OO
—-— triviale roe ae 6. Ot
Cercomela fusca oes ais aa NT
Ceriops .«.. 500 pte 638, 639, 640
Ceriops candolleana... ae 643, 650
Certhia discolor ... ue <e3 ec OOD
-familiaris mandelli ... COGS
Ceryle rudis ag oes aeOLO
Chaimarrhornis ieacccopnalie Mn tev)
Chana gachua + as ake ee G24
leucopunctatus ... a6 Be ee
marulius ... wae oot a ee
striatus... 500 560 waste ee
Chanos... 1) = 000 S00 Ole
Charadrius aS. sc SOF 617, 746
— —— curonicus ... Oly
—_—_—_—_—
jerdoni Op soon GOL?
Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum ... SneveGoG
Chilomenes sexmaculatus a 500 etek’,
Chirocentrus sas oes 500 oO
Chirocentrus dorab iG a sca O22
Chirothrips manicatus ... 500 598, 601
Chlidonias hybrida ee 500 all
Chloroclystis sp. oe: wae Oo
°@Chloropsis hardwickii ... a eer 00)
Chorinemus wee wee Soe mol
Chorinemus toloo 0A Or Sag AIL
Chrysanthemum sp. __... 600 605, 606
Chrysophrys berda vee ses joy
Ciconia episcopus ae ve pep EKOLS
Cinclus cinclus cashmeriensis ... TOO
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum ... Goo thls}
Circus aeruginosus se se 612, 845
macrurus ... oF i ee AO
melanoleucus... 200 608, 612
Cirrhina mrigala se oe So WY
Cisticola juncidis malaya ~ cos OS)
Citrullus vulgaris... ses S83 «<> 604
Citrus grandis . Oe Pee mnOUS
Clamator jacobinus “e aes Son O44
—_———_ —-—- pica aah ser pide
———_- ——--——- serratus... Ree tome
Clerodendron phlomoides fic 606
Clerodendrum inerme 638, 641, 642, 643, 646,
650
. PAGE
Cleyera... see os ate 7)
Cleyera japonica oc of ee 7")
——-— ochnacea is se sp His
Clupea fimbriata 606 500 Pee) t)
——-— ilisha... 350 BA yee IY)
——— longiceps ... see mr Ps ly
——— toli-- 500 oe dis ee eS)
Coccinella septempunctata ... Be Ciel
Coccotrypes dactyliperda ni 805, 807
Colias arida ssp. ... And ee 73)!
—- croceus ae = 828, 829, 831, 832
——-- dubia ssp. ... is es ono AO
Coilias dussumieri en Onc 1g
——— fieldii fieldii ay BEA 1 Se
Colocasia sp. a Ate ner 599, 606
Columba livia oe: es oe LOAD
Convolvulus sp. ... eh fs .. GOGR
Copsychus saularis a sich 701, 842
— -——-- —-—— musicus .. {ie
Coracias benghalensis ... - .. 844
Corchorus os eB Ses ot, es
Corchorus capsularis ... e oy)
——— -—- ditorius se he .. ASH
Corvus macrorhynchus PSs 609, 242 —
——— splendens F ih . = 84am
Corydalis ... ors 506 om = 545 |
Corydalis govaniana ... fr «| Odom
———— juncea bi A360 «. O46
———— leptocarpa ... see sos aoe
———— rutaefolia ee ay 546, 827
———— sibirica i sf soe, OAG
——-—_—. striolata one se «=~ Goma
Cosmos sp. one a4 ee .. . GOGH
Crataegus : os ee «OUR
Crataegus crenulata ots see Pe 3)°) |
Crotalaria ave See ee 754, 960
Crotalaria albida ... aus st - 960)
~— bifaria... bo eee . §«==— SOE
——— -— burhia ... ce oes -» Sole
—-— calycina Aa wa .. SOI5)
——-—— chinensis a Pes «oe GG
——-— dubia eee =; «. OGTR
——-—-- filipes ae sii .- - 960 |
——-fulva ... est ws esl |
——-—— heyneana : eee eo, 0 ORT
——-—— juncea «- 999, 604, 605, 961
——~-——- linifolia coe 960)
——-—— leptostachya ey, | ol |
——-—— lutescens 500 oor .. — Gor
——-——. medicaginea ne veo CORR
——-——mysorensis .. .. .. 961 >
INDEX OF SPECIES
Cymbopogon §90, 891, 892, 893,
894, 896
892, 893, 894, 895, 896, |
Cymbopogon caesius
897, 900, 913
Cymbopogon citratus ... 891, 892, 897, 898,
907 |
——— —-— clandestinus 892, 893, |
895, 900 |
————_——- coloratus 2. 993,897, 903 |
—-——_—_——_— confertiflorus ... 893, 895, 905
———- —— distans .. 892, 893, 896, 901
———_—_-— exsertus §92, 893, 901
891, 892, 893,
895, 896, 897
——__—_—_-—- flexuosus
PAGE
Crotalaria nana ... 960
—— nofonii 962
——-—— orixensis 8 on 962 |
——-—— priestleyoides 961
——-—— prostrata 961
——-—— pusilla.., 961
——-—— quinqueloba ... 962
——-—— ramosissima ... ECOL
—— —-——- retusa ... ens 500 754, 961
——.-—— sericea soo ON
——-— -— stocksii sees ee GOL:
——-—— striata 962
——-— triquetra 961
—— verrucosa 961
——-—- vestita 961
Cryphia 50 833
Crypsirina aareatoerade 46) 842
Cryptomeria 703
Cucullia verbasci ae she BRO ZO
Cuculus canorus ... 669
——-—— micropterus 669
———- optatus 669
——-— varius 843
Cucurbita maxima 604
Cyamopsis psaralioides ... 600 -.- 606
Cybium guttatum se 921
Cyclocheilichthys saoplotias 500 631
——— -—_ —_ —________ forma albescens. 896
—— — var. flexuosus... 902 |
— —— —— ——_ var. micros-
tachy 902
-— ———— var. sikkimensis. 902
———_—_—_-—. gidarba 892),893;
: 896, 900 ©
———--- - var. burmanicus. 899
—— -—_—. ———_ var. gidarba 899
— hookeri 892, 900 |
Xxill
PAGE
Cymbopogonjwarancus ... 892, 93, 894,
896, 899
—— ——--— khasianus 893, 903
= —— var. nagensis. 903
———-~— martinianus 908
——-- -—— martinii Sl, 892) 853;
895, 886, 897, 900, 908, 916
var. motia 895,
gyal
— _——_ —— —— -——_ va". sofia 895,
$96, 911
——-— microtheca 893, 899
—- narcus 892, 893, 895,
896, 897, 903, 904, 906, 907
—---—- var. confertiflorus
§92, 893, 895, 896, 901,
905
—— var, naraus 891,
898, 905
nervatus ... 891, 892, 896, 930
— osmastonii... 892, 899, 900,
915
—-- parkeri 899
—— ---——— pendulus 893, 897, 901
—— ——-— polyneuros 3 892, 893,
900, 913, 915, 916
——— — —_ -— schoenanthus 890, 892,
893, 894, 896, 899
~——— -—— Sstracheyi ... 896, 899, 900
SS thwaitesii... 901
——.-—— tibeticus 00
-_—-_-—_-——— travancorensis 885, 896,
903
——_—-—— versicolor 913
—_—-- -~-——~ virgatus 902
——-——— winterianus 891, 892,
893, 896, 898, 904, 906, 907
Cynoglossus dispar 922
———-—-— lingua 922
—-— semifasciatus 630
Cyperacea 580 506 2. 643
Cypripedium eetnieerans 836
Dactylicapnos 60 345
Dactylicapnos scandens 945
——-—— thalictrifolia 545
Dahalia gp. S00 coe eee 500 UE
Dalbergia sissoo 3 840, 841
Danais chrysippus 754
——-— limniace 754
Danithus chinensis 500 ab ; 606
Dasyatis (Himantura) uaraak coo ALS}
XXIV INDEX OF SPECIES
Datura metel
Delichon nipalensis
Delonix regia rey
Dendrocopus mahrattensis
Dendronanthus indicus
Dianthus plumeri
Diarsia festiva
——-— Sstrictica
Dicaeum ee enrenenan
Dicranura sp.
Dicrurus aeneus
Dictamnus albus
Dinentus indicus
Dioscoria argeria
Diospyros sp.
Discognathus lamta
Dissemurus paradiseus maieveneie
—_——__—-— ——_— -— platurus
Dissoura episcopus
at at episcopus
Dolichos biflorus
——--— lablab
Draba? : 50K
Drepane Sinctata aos
Drymaria
Drymaria cordata
Dryobates darjellensis
Dumetia hyperythra
Durio zibethinus
Dussumeria 5a
Dysauxes hyalina eaaninienee
Echinochloa stagnina
Kchinops echinatus
Eegretta alba 50
- garzetta <a OB,
— intermedia
Elacate nigra
Elaeocarpus ganitrus
serratus ... cee
Elanus caeruleus
- ——--— vociferus
Eleusine coracana 5h
Eleutheronema tetradactylum
Enchelyopus cimbrius ...
Engraulis 363
--—— commersonianus
———— -— indicus
——-—--—— malabaricus
—--——— mystax 5010 eS.
—-—— tri
Epinephelus
PAGE
603,
620,
812,
604
668
605
843
843
605
829 |
830
843
829 |
842
$32
582
€03
840
924
796 |
796
619 |
747
603
605
657
922
556
559
E69 |
842
797 |
812
838 |
602 |
605
233
845
533
922
788
788
845
746
hO2
921
629
947 |
247
947
919
c19
947 |
917
PAGE
Epinephelus maculatus 920
———— ~— tauvina 919
Equula edentula 627
- fasciata 922
Eranthis hiemalis 820
Erebia kalinda kasuriana . OS
Eremopterix grisea 840, 843
Eremurus himalayicus 832
Eriolaena 783
Eriolaena eneetabilic 784
-~— wallichii 784
Erolia minuta Mey oor 619
— temminckii a iP 609
Erithacus calliope ‘ 840, 842
————+ rubecula 699, 701, 702, 703
Erysimum 547
Erysimum hieracifollenn 549
——— pachycarpum 549
Erythrina indica 840, 841
Etroplus ‘ 810
———— suratensis 811, 924
Eudynamis oy 738
— scolopacea ... , «.. O44
Eugenia jambolana . 839, 840, 841
——-—— sp. 508 600, 789
Euphorbia hirta 789
Euploea core... 36 754
ISuproctis chrysorthoea 827
827
Eurya 775
776
- symplocina . 776
Euryzonoides nigrolineata 742
Euthynnous alletteratus affinis 921
—— pelamis 921
Eutrema 547
—_—. diimalactolan 548
Falco chiquera ... 844
————_ JUS Ser | i... ae 844
——- peregrinus 200 746, 844
—- tinnunculus .. 669, 746, 884
Felis chaus or an ee935
Ficus bengalensis .. 722, 840, S41
-——- benjamina ree
——- glomerata 840, 841
—- infectoria 840, S41
—--- religiosa ... O00 840, 841.
Fimbristylis-ferruginea ... 629, 643
Flacourtia... et 552, 593
Flacourtia ramontchi 553
Foeniculum valgare ee on!)
793) ||
Francolinus pictus
Frankliniella sulphurea
Fragraea fragrans
‘Fregata minor..
sldnensts
Fringilla coelebs
Fulica atra
Fumaria ... es
— parviflora
Galeocerdo arcticus
tigrinus
———_—_—_—_——
Galeodes
—-—— agilis...
Galerida malabarica
Gallinula chloropus
Garcinia
a patieniata
Garra mullya 600
Garrulax affinis affinis
Gaultheria
Gaultheria Finimileraides
Gentiana capitata
————. venusta
Geranium rectum
—- sanguineum ...
Gerbera ee
Gerres lucidus ...
Glareola lactea ...
Gloriosa is
—» superba
Glossogobius giuris
Glothis nebularia
Gnophos ...
Gobius criniger
- giuris
~——-- ocellatus
-— —- striatus ... eas
Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis
Gossypium herbaceum ...
— hirsutum
Grandala coelicolor
Grevillea robusta
Grewia ...
~ damine
disperma
—- hirsuta ...
-——-- laevigata
Oppositifolia ...
polygama 506
——_——- sapida
- scabrophylla
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE |
748 |
598, 604
798
939
939 —
700 |
845 |
515 |
547
918
918
(oul
750
610
534
TES. |
US |
581, 924
940
654
659
662
fee S27.
832, 834
605
603
OOF
608, 612
753
753
924
619
837
627
924
921
921
827
601, 603, 607
603
665
841
671, 785
786
785
786
672
786
786
786
786
Grewia viminea...
Gynandropsis
= anand,
-———- pentaphylla
Gyps indicus
Habrosyne fraterna
Haemadispa picta
Haemorrhagia rubra
— saundersii
Haliaetus leucogaster
——-—— leucoryphus
Haliastur indus ... :
Halcyon chloris humii ...
— smyrnensis
Haltica O00 ae
Hamiltonia suaveolens
Hampala macrolepidotus
Harpodon nehereus
Helianthus annuus
— erecta
tegestes
Heliophorus bakeri
Helloborus hiemalis
Helostoma ane
Helostoma temmincki ...
Hemiechinus auritus collaris...
flemiprocne longipennis
Hemirhamphus leucopterus ...
Hercothrips indicus
Heterophragma ... e.
- roxburghi
Heteropneusteus fossilis
Heteroxenicus cruralis
Hibiscus ae
Hibiscus apelameetas
— cancellatus
canabinus
esculentus
lampas
— rosasinensis
Hierococcyx sp.
Hieraetus fasciatus
Hippolais caligata
rama a
Hippophthoe rhamnoides
Hilsa
——- ilisha
——- toli
Himantopus Himeatonus
Hirundo tahitica
- abbotti:
——,
XXV
PAGE
831,
990,
S18)
6116739)
611,
597
d
665,
605,
.. 604, 605,
.. 628, 629,
672
550
599
550
844
835
959
832
832
972
844
844
595
844
754
654
631
922
605
605
605
828
820
819
811
730
928
922
599
753
753
923
7€0
779
781
781
604
606
78]
605
669
844
704
842
836
812
630
919
747
795
795
XXVI
Histiophorus gladius
Holarrhena antidysenterica
Homarus vulgaris
Hoplopterus duvauceli
Horeites brunnifrons
_Hydrophasianus chirurgus
Hymenocallis sp.
Hymonocallis sp.
Hypericum cernuum
-—— cordifclium
——-— elodeoides ...
— .— hookerianum
leschenaultii
es
—— —— japonicum
——-— napaulensis
-——- -—— patulum
-—— wightianum
Hyphaene indica
—— thebaica
Hyposidra
Hyposidra successaria
Ianthia ocellata .. :
Ichthyopbaga ichthyaetus
Ithaginis cruentus
Ictinaetus malayensis
llisha
Ilisha elongata
——- feligera
Indigofera ae
Indigofera gerardiana ...
Indobatrachus
Ipomea sp.
Ipomoea batatas
Irena puella
Iris persica
—- pseudacorus
Jasminum sp.
Johnius dussumieri
Juglans... ner nae
Juniperus macropoda
Kalanchoe bhidei
‘Kandelia rheedii a
Kittacincla macroura ...
K owala coval
Kydia
Kydia calycina
Labeo us
Labeo angra
calbasu
var. ees
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
922
849
677
845
667
74)
604
606
774
3,774
773, 774
. 774
weVAT:
774
774
774
774
774
774
805
825
793
790
664
844
eo 670 |
670 |
812 |
919
919
837
827
759 |
605
601
843
820
762
606
920
Oo
ee ERESoO
963
650
712
soe 840.
aco ete)
782
782
“541, 810
937, 540, 541, 542
537, 541, 542, 923
Labeo chrysophekadion
—-—- fimbriatus
— — (Morulius) angra
pleurotaenia
rohita ae
Lactarius delicantulus ...
-— lactarius
Lagasca mollis ...
Lagenaria siceraria
Lainellidens marginalis
Lamium ampiexicaule
Lampides baeticus
Lanius excubitor
=schachi ca. c00
Larus ridibundus
Larvivora brunnea
Lates calcarifer
Lathyrus odoratus
—- sativus
Lawsonia inermis
Leander potamiscus
— styliferus
Leiégnathus fasciatus ...
Leioptila capistrata
Lepidocephalus thermalis
Leptobarbus hoeveni. ... eee
Lethe baladeva ... 500
Lethe nicevillei ... aes
Lethrinus cinereus
Leucosceptrum canum (?)
Leuresthes tenuis
Libythea lepita
Lobelia nictinifolia
Lobipluvia malabarica ...
Lobiva nellus indicus
Loligo sp. 500 000
Lophophanes ater femoniae 600
dichrous dichrous
rubidiventris
Luffa aegyptica ... 600
Luscinia svecica
Lutianus aA
Lutjanus johni ... 300
—— -—— quinquilinearis
-— roseus
Lycaena kasyapa 50C eee
Lycaenopsis argiolus bothrioides
-— — jynteara
oa — sikkima
— -————- limbata
—_—_-—— -_——-—— amitra
598, 605
PAGE
63]
923
537
631
923
922
922
"602, 605, 605
605
£82
660
837
842
842
746
665
919
598
602
925
925
922
664
924
631
757
757
627
668
629
829, 830
605
747
618, 845
661, 664
eae
925
6€4
664
604
842
812
920.
627
9207 |
835, 836
785
755
735
755
755
INDEX OF SPECIES XXVIi
PAGE | PAGE
Hycaenopsis limbata limbata... .. 755 Milvus migrans .. sw 611, 844
— -—- —placida ... .. 795 Mimusops hexandra ... sa w. » 604
-——_—— — moorei oe 32: .. 755. Mirafra erythroptera .. es cco GUS)
———-—— puspa crissa ine .. 755 | Mola oR 506 a 00 boo WES
—_—— — -— -- lavendularis ... oo. | Mola mola ss 240 5aC 948, 949
—- ——_-- ——-- lilacea sre ... 755.| Molpastes leucogenys ... Se soo AS)
———-—— sikkima... aye ... /39.| Momordica charantia. ... Bs 604, 605
Ibyceana phieas 2.0 ss.) -.-- 798 | Monaathia Madons. seiloutiad nlisnoess9
Lip@lvais S80 S00 00 Suid ... $96 Monanthia globulifera ... ny 885, 888
Lychnis indica ... wer is ... £56 Monticola cinclorhyncha ay B00.
= = WAR iactica oe .. 96 Morinda tinctorum ae oe z.) 606
ee eer] catliS Meee ee OO! NeNlonus)indicale- | mi atl ween earn GDN
Lycopersicon esculentum 599, 602, 694,605 | Motacillaalba ... ... ... 610, 746, 843
Lymatr:a dispar ... 826, 831, 838, 966 | —- —— leucopsis ak . 843
Macroglossum poecilum fae inepESOL |) aie Jos cinerea. at: ap sis
Macrones cavasius ye amc ee) Ce ae ee a = 843
-— gulio. 63% 500 e235) == smaderaspatensise lls. 610, 746
Magnolia campbelli_... eee .. 820 | Mugil cephalus... os ay een 922
Malva 400 000 Hee 00 Com |= =veniceli de 406 561 enn 922
Malva verticillata ence sa joo Gell) | te Ate re ae {now 922
Mangifera indica 598, 600, 603, 840,841 | —- speigleri ... Pe a a Wor G22
Mastacembelus armatus 33% oo) | es GANG), : 973
Miastunuss-..00 s+ .. wiieeeany (ode oto) |) Muraena (Gyinnotiveram) necudetniy.
Maturus larccolatus ... 400 948, 950 soides Le 2s es O18
Meconopsis vee see vee .. 043 | Muraenesox talabonoides oa OLS
Meconopsis horridula ... £ eed | Musa paradisiaca eh aoe ... 606
——nipalensis ... oa ... 544 | Muscicapa parva ses Hs .. 842
——-—— robusta So euretiee ss 044. |) Muscicapula melanoleuca 2) 9). 2703)
———— simplicifolia 0c ... 944 | Mycerobas melanoxanthus ... wenn i667
——-—— wallichii .. ... ... 944 | Myiophoneus coeruleus Ceiee3) 703
Medicago sativa = ade 598, 605 ——— temminckii an con tetehl)
Megalaima meemacephala 500 ... 843 | Myliobatis maculata... sae 500 WIS)
Megalaspis cordyla ia 00 ... 920 | Myosotis arvensis ee 400 Soo es)
Melia azadirachta Ps a 840, 849 | Myricaria germanica ... x oe OO
Melitaea CE ae ee ce ee SO le a Myristicayragrans cehuue) RP OZR ABE E806
Melitaea arcesia 3h: ... 834, 835, 836 | Mystus cavasius ... 5a a 08923
-— -- balbita do wos - OOS.) — gulio 900 900 500 veges
———— —-—_—_- irma ... ef -- 758 | Nasturtium ae 60 oc ie 4
Molochiawe im. .is-. een ZOO Pe Nastuntiumepallistiem cos. meee O40
Melochia corchorifolia ... «.. 7&4 | Nelumbo nucifera speciosum ... Yo A822
NBME) Gap" G00 00 000 885, “$88 889 | Nemachilus botia var. aureus wa. 924
Meretrix meretrix fas ale loz |) = denisoniil. -.. 581
Merops orientalis ae ao co evezardi... 580, 581, 582, 588
——-—- viridis ... 400 ae oe ~ 793. | ——____ sp. 580°
Merops viridis viridis... Bas .. 794 | Neocrynothrips (Raman niennarietpeye
Mesua bra 500 tes 500 ane AOD jonnaphila ... 598, 601
Mesua ferrea 06 900 50h ... 775 | Neophron percnopterus 556 844
Metapenaeus monoceros eo 925:| Nepeta ... ie was sah 832, 835
Microcephalothrips brevipalpis. 598, 606 | Nephila Sap sae or SOG, ee 24
Micropus pacificus 00 see .» 669 | Nephila maculata see au6 20 Se SEO
Millingtonia hortensis ... er 840, 841 | —-malabarensis ... 500 509 BE
XEVIli
Neptunus ...
Nepttinus nelnciene
Nerium indicum
Netta rufina
Nettapus Gonamandelence
Nicotiana tabacum
Nomophila noctuella
Notopterus kapirat
————— notopterus ...
Nucifraga caryocatactes
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis
Nycticorax nycticorax ..
Ocimum Oc
Ocimum pacilicum
—canum ...
ee iim andsehanicur al
sanctum
Oenopopelia tranquebarica
Ompok bimaculatus
————_
Onchorhynchus tschawytscha...
.. 580, 581, 924 |
Ophiocephalus gachus
ee leucopunctatus
——_—_—_—_- — marulius
————-_-—-——- punctatus
——_—-—_—_-—-- striatus
Orchis latifolia
Oreitochilus sp. ...
Oreocincla dauma
— molissima
Oriolus chinensis diffusus
——— oriolus
——— traillii
——— xanthornus
Orthagoriscus
Orthotomus sutorius
Oryza sativa
Osphronemus goramy ...
—————-— olfax
Ostrea cucullata
— discordea
——— gryphoides
Otolithes argenteus
brunneus nee
ruber
Otus
Palaemon carcinus
Palemen kistnensis
Pampus 5
Pampus argenteus
———- chinensis
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE |
675, 676 |
674, 675, 676, 677, |
679, 687, 688, 925 |
605 |
747 |
845
601, 602
837
924
O24
664
849
534, 845
.. 888, 888, $89
£4885
605, 885
ve 885
885, 888
845
923
624
£24
924
581
924
828, 834
582
663, 666
663, 666
797 |
798 |
705
813 |
949 |
842
602 |
924
924 |
925 |
9257 |
925
920
920 |
920
654
925
582 |
917 |
921 |
921
Panthera pardus fusca ...
Panulirus fasciatus
———— ornatus var. decoratus
Paphia malabarica
Papilio jariaka janaka ...
— machaon
—— everesti
—— — philoxenus philoxenus...
Parachaeturichthys ocellatus ...
Paraechinus micropus
Paragrewia
Pararge shakra ...
Parastromateus niger
.. 671, 672, 673
Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus
Parnassius delphius lathonius ..
Paroeis sikkimensis
Parreysia cylindrica
Parrotia
——- epaphus sikkimensis
————- hadrwickei f. correctus
827, 829, 830, 837
— chloronotus
PAGE
72)
925
925
925
some Lo
826, $32
756
756
92]
730
581
837
921
756
756
oe S30)
757
582
Parrotia jacquemontiana 830
Parus xanthogenys Acie (HZ
Paspalurn vaginatum 639, 643
Passer domesticus 843
Pellona elongata 919
——— feligera ... 919
- Pennaeus indicus 924
— — semisulcatus ... 925
Pennisetum spicatum 602, 603
Pericrocotus peregrinus 842
Periopthalmodon schlosseri 922
Perissospiza carneipes 657
- icteroides 667
Phalacrocorax carbo ... 553, 845
—— fuscicollis 533, 845
javanicus 533
— niger 845
Phaseolus mungo 603
Phauda flammans 838
Phoeniconaias minor 710
Phoenicopterus ruber 711
Phoenicurus frontalis 701
- -—— hodgsoni 842
-——-. ochruros a0 701, 842
Phoenix dactylifera 806
—-—-— sp. 500 841
Phylloscopus affinis «= 843
collybita 843
—_——- Occipitalis 843
————- -— proregulus 505 651
mt BEG a Hem tent. 666
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE |
Phylloscopus pulcher ... 659, 666 ©
= trochiloides 843 |
SSS = tireless GDS |
661, 666 |
Picea smithiana ... 5 as Oa |
Picus Squamatus... 669 |
Pieris brassicae ... 826, 831 |
formosa 655, 659
napi ajaka 500.8) AS)
ovalifolia 654, 655
rapae 826, 831
Pinus excelsa 829
Piptanthes nepalensis ... one STO”
Pithecolobium saman 952
Pitta brachyura ... P 840, 843
Pittosporum nepalense ... 553
Placuna placenta 925%
Platalea leucorodia 58) |
Platycephalus 812 |
Pleione 663 |
Pleuronectes 506 €24
Ploceus megarhynchus ... 500 OS |
— philippinus 839, 843
Plumbago zeylanica soo OO
Podiceps ruficollis 534, 845
Poecilocerus pictus 753
Polycarpon 056
Polycarpon loeflingiae 959
Polygala ... a 554
Polygala arillata Shs) |
———— crotalapioides 555. |
———— leptalea 900 sia cco | OD
— persicariaefolia 555
esi piricass 595
——— triphylla 555
Polygonia c-album 826
———-— polychloros 829
Polynemus 000 500 ROL
Polynemus indicus ies 606 627, 921
— — tetradactylus apo | Ail
Polyommatus stoliczkana 750, 832
Pontia daplidice... 829, 831
- Populus sco. tava)
Populus alba 833, 835
—-—— ciliata ... oO OOD
Porphyrio poliocephalus 534 |
Portulaca sp. ... 2a oat OOS
Portunus xantusi 676 |
Potentilla monanthes con ONL |
— peduncularis 661, 662
Primiula aureata...
§62 |
BXix
PAGE
Primula cornuta a 659, 827
—— denticulata ... 660, 827, 828
—-—-— deuteronan 661
———— listeri €59
——-— petiolaris 660, 661
——-—— rosea... a een SCH
—-—— strumcsa 661
Prinia flaviventris rafflesi 800
—- socialis es 843
‘Pristipoma argenteum ... 430
— commersonii 920
~—— maculatum 920
Pristis cuspidatus 918
Procarduelis nipalensis es 500, «80
Prosopis spicigera 532, 600, 603
Prunus cornuta ... wi. op soo | CBD
Psettodes erumei 628, 922
Pseudibis papillosa 747
Pseudogyps bengalensis 844
Pseudopterpna- ‘. 789
Pseudorhombus arsius c00 Cog WAG
Pseudosciaena diacanthus 920
—— -——_-—— sina 920
—— - soldada co ~~ SAD)
Psidium gujava ... a 600, 603
Psittacula cyanocephala 844
— eupatria 844
——-—— krameri ate 844
Pteropus sp. ae eS
Punica granatum ... €00, 603, 606
Puntius arulius 585
— bramoides 631
——-— gelius 985
——-— jerdoni ct : 923
— + — var. maciveri 5 Diep
- kolus aes Ass 981, 923
——--——-— melanampyx ... 500 Foo Lele)
——-— narayani 585, 586
——---— nigrofasciatus .. ae agg | @hehs)
——--— sahyadriensis 081, 582, 585, 586
- sarana 923
——-— ticto 581
Pycnonotus cafer 842
—— goiavier... 8% 789
—— ——-— personatus 798
Quercus lamellosa (?) ... Bax eee OO
——-— semecarpifolia ... ... 609, 658, 940
Rachycentron canaduts.., 922
Rallus superciliaris superciliaris 743
Ramphalcyon capensis ... 500 sco. ILL
Rana cyanophlyctis 751
INDEX OF SPECIES
XExX
PAGR |
Rana hexadactyla 751, 752
—- temporaria oe 762 |
——- tigrina 750, 751 |
Rantus sp. 982
Ranunculus 828 |
Ranzania 948 |
Ranzania laevis 948
Raphanus sativus 603
Raphicera moorei moorei Be oe aod
Rasbora daniconius 981, 627, 924
——-— elegans €27
———-~ vulgaris re BH ee 47
Rastrelliger kanagurta ..626, 630, 921 |
Ratufa indica ba SIA |
- dealbatus 731
——— maxima 73) |
Rhamnus eee boc xs47/
-— jujuba 802, £03 |
Rhinoceros sumatrensis 771
-—— unicornis as ee OSE
Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus ... 597, 600 |
Rhizophora 600 See 640 |
—— mucronata ... 643, 648, 650
Rhododendron anthopogon 662
—_——__—-__-— arboreum ... 655, 657, 668
———_-—--— — barbatum 657
woe campanulatum 657, 663,
688
——-—— -——_ falconeri 657
-- ~——— lepidotum 659, 662
Rhopodytes viridirostris be WIRE}
Rhyacornis fuliginosa 828, 829 |
Rhynchobatus djiddensis 918
Ricinus communis 603, 604
Rosa serica eeODS
——sp. .. ag 600, 604
Rostratula bengalensis Se |
Rubus calycinus 655
Rudbeckia purpurea ~ 820 |
Saccharum officinarum
Saccobranchus fossilis ...
Sagina O00 ot
- procumbens
Salicornia ste
———~-— australis
Salivia officinalis
Salix
Salmo irideus
—--— trutta
Salomonia Ses
598, 599,
601, 602, 603
923
556
459 |
974
974
885
828, 829
624, 626
625 |
654 |
PAGE
Salomonia edentula 554
—_———-— oblongifolia 554
Salvadora oleoides Fr 532
—-—— persica 532, 640, 646, 649,
650
Santalum album 601, 606
Sapindus trifoliatus .., 601
Sardinella 812
Sardinella fimbriata oor ne OS
———-— longiceps 627, 629, 919
Saurauia fasciculata 773
— napaulensis 778
Sauropatis chloris chloris HAATSSS
Saxicola caprata SAP aa 7.1, 842
--— torquata 842
Scatophagus argus 922
Schima ee 776
—— — wallichil aon eG
Schleichera trijuga 840, 841
Sciaena diacanthus 920
— glauca 920
——~- miles 920
-—sina 920
— vogleri 920
— vulgaris 630
Sciaenoides brunneus 920
Scoliodon sorrakowah soon WIE
Scolopax rusticola 500 ie 670, 747
Scclopia > 552
————- crenata 552
Scolopis bimaculatus 630
-- Vv smeri 606 see en OR
Scolothrips assura 598, 605
--—-— sexmaculatus 598, 606
Scomber microlepidotus 921
Scomberoides tala $21
Scomberomorus guttatus 921
Scopula moorei achrosta 834
Sceylla serrata... aoe 925
Seicercus burkii oes 666
Sarco2zyps calvus a 500 «. 844
Semiothisa : 789, 792, 793
——-- pervolgata .. 789
Sepia sp. 925
Serranus Ane 917
Serranus bontoo 919
— — maculatus 920
— malabaricus $19
———-— patherinus 919
——~—— salmoides 9/9
——-—— semipunctatus 919
Sesamum e
— — SianiGarantit
——-——— indicum
———-— laciniatum
/__—_—_:—_ prostratum
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Setaria indica
Shorea robusta
Sida
— actua
— carpinifolia
—— cordifolia
—— humilis
—— rhombifolia
veronicaefolia
Sillago
—-— sihama
Silonopangasius ehildteni
Silundia sykesti
Siphia strophiata
Sisymbrium sp.?
Siva strigula
Skimmia laureola wes
Solanum melongena ..
€40, 642,
" 599, “603, 605
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
697
698
605, 697
697
697
638, 639,
“643, 646, 649 |
603
779
779
780
780
780
780
780
eee 784
812
923
923
923
666
659
664
827
———— tuberosum ... oo so | SEY)
Sonneratia 639, 640
= acida ose 640, 651
——_.—_-—_-—. apetala 638, 639, 641,
Sorghum vulgare
Sparus berda B00
Spatula clypeata...
Sphenocercus sphenurtis
Sphyrna zygaena
Spilornis cheela
Spinus thibetanus 400 300
Spirogyra sp.
Spizaetus cirrhatus
Spondias mangifera
Sporobolus glaucifolius
Spratelloides majabaricus
Stachyurus himalaicus
Stellaria ie
bulbosa
= crispata 200
decumbens
——__— --——__—-—_ pulvinata
——— saxatilis
— uliginosa
643, 644, 650
601, 602, 606
922
840, 845
oo GO
918
611, 670
737
we 585
746
.. 840
639, 640,
643, 648
xo oe
ee ES
556
557, 558
557, 558
557
558
557, 558
557, 558
Thespesia lampas
XXx1
PAGE
Stenorumia abiunata 830
Sterculia ... ee wee 783
—-—~- -- alata 840, 841
———-- rubiginosa 783
——--— wrens ... % 753
Sterna aurantia 616, 740, 746, 845
——w— melanogaster 616, 740
——— sumatrana sumatrana ... 593
Stole phonusm ace meres: 947
Stolephorus commersonii | 947
——- ——-— heterolobus 947
————- — malabaricus 919
Streptopelia chinensis ... 845
Stromateus OV
Stromateus cinereus 921
————-— niger estes Ll
————— sinensis G21
Sturnopastor contra 736
Sturnus contra R43
——-— malabaricus $43
———tristis ... 6C0 ie 843
Suaeda fruticosa . €43, 646, 650
Surniculus lugubris 669
Suthora fulvifrons 664
Swertia ; c00 eS eOOZ
Swertia purpurea €62
Swietenia sp. OC 840
Sylvia curruca : 843
Sylviparus modestus ... o0c 656
Symplocos crataegoides 653, 655
———_-_— sumantia 653, 655
Synagris japonicus 630
Tamarindus indicus 840, 841
Tapes sp. ; 925
Taraktogenos sp. 752
Taraxacum 828
Tarsiger chrysaeus 665
Taverniera nummularia 962
Tegestes erecta ... €06
Teleonemia lantanae v2. “889
——— —- — scrupulosa ss 885, 886
Tephrodornis pondiceriana -. 842
Terminalia arjuna 00
——--—_—— catappa 600
Terpsiphone paradisi 842
‘leuthis java SG 627
Thalamita crenata 687, 688, 689
Thalassodes immisariopalina 789
re (Oenospila) flavifuscata 789
~ Therapon jarbua 628, 928
781
XXXii
Thevetia neriifolia 200
Threskiornis melanocephalus ..
Thrips (Isothrips) orientalis
Thrips tabaci 50
Thrissocles malabaricus
-—— mystax
‘Thunnus macropterus
Thynnus macropterus ...
— thunnina
Tilapia mossambica
Tor khudree 600
—- mussullah
Treron phoenicoptera ...
-vernans ...
Triacanthus
Trichiurus haumela
——- savala
Trichogaster pectoralis
Trichopodus trichopterus’
Trichosanthus alba
Trigonella foenumgraecum
‘lringa glareola
——— ochropus
Triticum aestivum
Triumfetta
Triumfetta annua
—— pilosa a00
— rhomboidea
Trochalopterum affine .. *
Troglodytes troglodytes nipalensis
Trollius acaulis ..
Trygon uarnak . a
Tryphactothrips Parenteral 563
Turbinella pyrum
Turdoides earlii _
Turdus albocinctus
- boulboul
—-—— merula
Turnix atrogularis oe :
———-— suscitator atrogularis
Typha ses
Tylosurus ctronen INnte
Upenoides sp.
Upupa epops
Urena
Urena lobata sue
Uroloncha malabarica ..
Uromastix
Vanessa carduii ...
PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—1959.
O98,
597,
AS)
PAGE
738
533
606
607
919
919
921
921
921
811
923
58]
845
798
812
920
920
811
627
605
752
619
618
€02
785
787
787
787
664
665
$27
918
601
£98,
842
666
702
702
592
592
826
922
922
844
779
781
746
“750, 751
827, 829, 831, 837
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Vanessa kashmirensis aesis 757
Verbascum $26
Viburnum ae €55, 830 )
Viburnum corcrolinm 659°
-—- erubescens 653.
———-~+—- foetens 827, 830, 833
—— nervosum 661
Victoria regia 822
Vigna catjang 604
Vinca rosea 605°
Viola biflora 551, 834
—-— diffusa DOL ooe
——- distans 5o1), 552m
——-— hookerii DOL, 552
——- patrinii dol oog
= ELISA op a oo], 552
——- —-—- Var. canescens ... 552
Vitex negundo 849
Vitis vinifera 600, 601
Vulpes bengalensis 724
Wallago 810
Wallago attu 923
Xancus pyrum as 925
Xenorhynchus as: mere 534
Xylena vetusta 831
Xylosma oa ses ~- 592
Xylosma controversum 553.
— longifolium 903
Yuhina occipitalis 655, 665
Zea mays 5 601, 602 |
Zingiber pecans 604 |
Zinuia sp. 606
Zizeeria maha ; 758
Zizyphus 735, 7&9, 801, 802
Zizyphus glaberrima 803
—jujuba .. SONS 802, 803 —
————— lineatus 801
—— —— oenopiia 801 —
——.—— orthacantha ... ee oe ©«=— 0
——_-——— ox yycarpa SOUR
-- mauritiana 802, 803 —
——_——-_ rugosa . 605
————- saliva 801, 802
——-— vulgaris 802
— xylopyra 801, 803
-— — var. glaberrima 803
———— xylopyrus .. 801, £03, 804
Zosterops palpebrosa 843 |
Zygaena malleus 918 |
C3895
Lal
a
ies
JOURNAL OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Vol. 51, No. 3
Editors
sALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SAN'TAPAU
( Nov19 1953 }
SOIR RARY
meses! ted OU PLN Bs
Movintianianiaente
Illustrated with 12 ee eeril nature photo- ct
graphs—one to a page—and a Kodachrome on cover
by well-known photographers. — y
Price Rs. 2-4-0 to members
» Rs. 2-8-0 to non-members
Postage and packing extra
CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER
AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA |
AND BURMA
By 7
A. Sr. Ve MACDONALD
A handy, comprehensive volume for anglers |
and fishermen, profusely illustrated with black and jf
| white plates and 4 in colour depicting the various _
mahseers. It deals with every aspect of the sport —
in India and furnishes accurate information on the
status and distribution of Indian Game Fishes, anda. |i
on fishing localities. |
Bound in full cloth Price Rs. 15 —
(To members of the Society Rs. (12) 0
INDIAN MOLLUSCS |
JAMES eer F. L. S., F.R. i 1
An attractive booklet of 96 pages (93” x 63”)
with 2 coloured plates and 70 line drawings in the |f —
text illustrating and describing all the shells and |f
shellfish found in Indian coastal and fresh 5 waters. |f
Price Rs. 6 ea!
Rs. ur 0 to ) members)
Apply to ied eae
The Bombay. Tatil Hist. Sots
, 114 eoalby Street, Boma Coon
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51, NO. 3
“THE Krorapro Gana OF BHARATPUR (Rajasthan). By Salim Ali,
(With four plates) ay ait fe oe
CHARACTERISTIC COLOURATION OF JUVENILE SPECIMENS OF Ladeo (Moru-
dius) angra with NOTES ONGROWTH. By K. H. Alikunhi and Hiralal
Chaudhuri, (With two text figures) ere an pe
PLANTS FROM EAST NeEpart, Part Il. By M. L, Banerji
WILpD LIFE PRESERVATION IN Inpra. By Lieut.-Col. R. W. Burton, ra,
(Retd. ) ae be at au AEs,
Notes on FISHES FROM MAHABLESHWAR AND WAI, SATARA DISTRICT,
BomBAy State. By E. G. Silas, m.a., M.Sc. (With a plate and four
text figures) 600 006 Sei. om 600 oo
SoME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE. Parr lil. By W. T. Loke. (With
five plates) ss Set coe ae Se se
Host PLANTS, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF TRIPs (THVSANOP=
TERA) OF BOMBAY StaTE. By Narayan G. Patel, M.Sc. (Agri.) and
G. A. Patel, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Cornell) r38
ECOLOGICAL NOTES ON A COLONY OF SMALL SWALLOW-PLOVERS IN MvsoRE
StaTE. By C. Brooke Worth = St i
THE DETERMINATION OF AGE AND GROWTH OF FISHES OF TROPICar
AND SUB-TRopIcCAL WateRS. By M. Devidas Menon
THE ANALYTICAL CHARACTERS OF SOME OF THE MARSHY VEGELrATION
OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS. By B.S. Navalkar. (With a
plate) eoe e@oe e@e « eee
More NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED, NEPAL, By
Desiree Proud ose bak 600 300
OCCURRENCE OF Paragrewia GAGNEP. IN INDIA AND BurMa. By R. Sesha-
giri Rao. (With a plate) ... 393 200 aa a
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING CRAB, Nep-
tunus pelagicus (LANNAEUS) WITH A NOTE ON THE ZORA OF Thalameita
crenata LATREILLE. By R. Raghu Prasad and P.R.S. camer (With
a plate and fifty-eight figures) se Ra
eo0
POPULATIONS OF MRS. GOULD’S SUNBIRD, WITH COMMENTS ON RANGES
AND VARIATION AMONG RELATED SPECIES OF SUNBIRDS. By S, Dillon
Ripley ee mae G00
A NEw SPECIES OF Séesamum. By B. Appala Naidu, M.a., M.SC., F.B.S,
(With two plates) 50b 5 ss igs
SECONDARY SONG OF SOME INDIAN Brrpbs, By M.D. Lister
PAGE
531
537
543
361
OTS
590.
597
608°
636
653
671
674
690
697
699
Pt |
ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51, NO. 3
REVIEWS :—
1. Insects Indomitable. By Evelyn Cheesman. (V. K. C.) aos
Wild Flowers of the Ceylon Hills. By Thomas E. T. Bond. (H.
Santapau) ba i eee eS.
Birds of Ceylon, 2. By W. W.A. Phillips. (S. A.) p, a
African Handbook of Birds, SeriesOne. By C. W. Mackworth-
Praed and Capt. C. H. B. Grant. (S. A.) ey, see
Nestboxes. By Edwin Cohen and Bruce Campbell. (S. A.) aon
Man, Mind or Matter. By Charles Mayer. (D.J.P.) ... aoe
Downs and Dunes. By Sir Edward Salisbury. (H.Santapau) ...
ROSA) of Parrots bred in Captivity. By Arthur A. Prestwich.
Search for the Spiny Babbler. By Dillon Ripley. (H. A.) Ae
Wild Elephant Chase. By Heinrich Oberjohann. (Cyril Connolly)
SH CNA pH NH
bh
ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
1. A local variety of the Nilgiri Langoor. By Editors (p. 720). 2. The
South Indian Panther—Panthera pardus fusca. By K. Kadambi (p. 721).
3. A Cross between the Domestic Dog (Canis familiaris) and the Fox
(Vulpes bengalensis). (With a photo). By P. J. Sanjeeva Raj (p. 724).
4. Wild Buffaloes and Tame. By Surendr Lall (p. 726). 5. Wild Buffa-
loes and Tame. (With a photo). By E.P. Gee (p. 727). 6, Cannibalism
in Hedgehogs. By Ishwar Prakash (p. 730). 7. A colour variation,
and albinism in the Giant Squirrel—Aatufa indica. By Humayun Abdulali
and J.C. Daniel (p. 731). 8. Jungle notes from South India. By R.C.
Morris (p. 731). 9. Mystery Predator. By E. P. Gee (p. 732). 10. The
Ahmedabad Tent Club in earlier days, By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 732)..
11, Eradicating Bats from bungalows. By S.R. Daver (p. 734). 12. Why
do Deer and other Mammals lick earth? By Editors (p. 735). 13. The
Pied Myna and Bank Myna as birds of Bombay and Salsette. By Humayun
Abdulali and Salim Ali (p. 736). 14. The Tibetan Siskin [Spiznus thibe-
tanus (Hume)] in Nepal. By Desirée Proud (p. 737). 15. The distribution
of the Greenbilled Malkoha (Rhopodytes viridirosivis Jerdon). By Humayun
Abdulali (p. 737). 16. Common Grey Hornbill (Zockus bivostris) eating
fruits of the Yellow Oleander (Zhevetia neriifolia). By K. kK. Neelakantan
(p. 738). 17. Juvenile Brahminy Kites (Haliastur indus) learning things
the modern way. By K.K. Neelakantan (p. 739). 18. The Great Indian
. Bustard. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 740). 19. Strange habit of
Terns breeding on Godavari sand-flats. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 740).
20. Occurrence of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus)
in Madras State. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 741). 21. Breeding of Rallina
euvyzonoides nigrolineata (Gray) in the Darjeeling District. By W. H.
Matthews. (p. 742). 22. Observations on the nesting habits of some common
birds. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 743). 23. More about Vizagapatam
birds. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 746). 24. Domestic poultry diseases
now endemic in Jungle. By R.C. Morris (p. 747). 25. Bird Migration in
India. By Editors (p. 749). 26. Scenting power of birds. By Lt.-Col.
E. G. Phythian-Adams (p. 750). 27. Additions to recorded food items of
the Bull. Frog (Rana tigrina). By Ishwar Prakash (p. 750). 28. New
locality record of Rana hexadactyla Lesson. By V. K. Chari (p. 751). 29.
Aposematic insects and their food plants. By Charles McCann (p. 752).
30. A note on the Indian species of the genus Zycaznopsis Felder (Lepidop-
tera—Lycaenidae). By W.H. Evans (p. 755). 31. More butterflies from
Nepal. By Col. D. G. Lowndes (p. 756). 32. A unique case of a pro-
tusely branched Palmyra palm. (With a photo). By TT. C. N. Singh
(p. 759). 33. Notes on the photography of fossils with special reference to
a, specimen of /xdobatrachus from Worli Hill, Bombay. (W%zth a plate).
By Charles Hale (p. 759). 34. Comment on ‘The Mani-Jal of the Chilka
Lake—A special net for Beloniform fishes’. By M. Peter Devasundaram
(p. 761}. 35. Gleanings (p. 761).
WNoTs anp News oe oh oy shes a
717
719
763
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
1953 VoL. 51 ; No. 3
THE KEOLADEO GHANA OF BHARATPUR (RAJASTHAN)
BY
Sfurm ALi
(With four plates)
One of the first acts of the newly constituted National Committee
for India for Bird Preservation has been a recommendation to the
Central Government to notify Keoladeo Ghana as a national bird
sanctuary in order to ensure its unimpaired continuance as a breeding
ground for water birds.
Keoladeo Ghana has enjoyed, and still enjoys, a reputation as a
winter resort of wildfowl and a duck-shooting jheel which is perhaps
second only to the Manchar Lake of Sind in pre-partition days. Unlike
the Manchar, however, it has long been the private preserve of the rulers
of Bharatpur; therefore, its fame is less widespread since comparatively
few people have been privileged to shoot on it, chiefly as the Maharaja's
guests. At the big official shoots, of which three or four used to be
held each year between November and February and to which
distinguished persons were invited, some very large bags were made.
The more notable of these are permanently inscribed on a special
kiosk erected at a central point near the jheel. The biggest
ever was made on the 12th November 1938 when the then Viceroy,
Lord Linlithgow, and 38 other guns accounted for no less than 4,273
duck and geese.
Incidentally it was on this day also that perhaps the world record
for shots fired in one day by a single sportsman was made, the ex-
Viceroy being reported to have loosed off no less than 1900 rounds!
Even allowing for the weight and substance with which Lord Linlithgow °
was blest by nature, such a feat sounds truly superhuman and can
seldom, if ever, have been equalled. The kiosk reveals that between
1907 and 1946 there were 19 shoots in which bags of over 2,000 duck
and geese were made, and of these 5 accounted for over 3,000 birds
each. As to the ethics of mass slaughter upon a scale such as this
one can only hope that there are no two opinions, but the bags in
themselves are a good indication of the density of the wintering wildfowl
population on the Ghana after a season of good monsoon.
NOV 1. 7 1953
532 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Some may even find comfort in the fact that with the changed
political and economic conditions in India, organizing on the lavish
scale necessary for these big shoots will no longer be practicable except
perhaps once in a way. Indeed the present world position of ducks
and geese shows such disturbing signs of rapid deterioration that every
factor tending towards their preservation must be welcomed by conser-
vationists. But in the cessation of these mammoth shoots on the
Ghana and in its altered status from a rigidly protected private game
preserve there is one great danger inherent which it is hoped its
conversion into a national sanctuary will help to mitigate. The danger
stems not so much from the direct destruction of wildfowl through
over-shooting or even illicit netting or from the harassment of the
breeding water birds as from the possibility of reclaiming the Ghana,
ostensibly for purposes of cultivation, or from the diverting of its
water supply elsewhere. Under the new order in Bharatpur, certain
of the more disgruntled and less imaginative elements of the population
have recently been clamouring for the jungle on the site of the Ghana
to be cleared and the area to be thrown open for growing crops; or
alternatively that the water from the Ajan Bund should be diverted
away from the Ghana and put to better use than ‘providing duck
shooting facilities for the Maharaja and his triends’—a charge that is.
neither justified nor entirely without malice. The effect of diverting
the water from Ajan Bund elsewhere, which at present goes to fill
the Ghana, would of course be to ruin the place completely as a duck-
shooting jheel because even in a good monsoon the water that collects.
in the depression is not sufficient to last through the winter months
without replenishment from Ajan Bund. But the effect of clearing
the Ghana of jungle and draining its bed, would be far more disastrous.
from the bird preservation point of view. It would mean the devas-
tation of the nesting grounds of a congregation of water birds the
like of which certainly does not exist anywhere else in India, and
perhaps in few places in the world.
To appreciate this danger properly it is necessary to understand
the topography and circumstances. |
The total area covered by Keoladeao Ghana is 17,455 bighas
equivalent to about 7,000 acres. Just before the onset of the monsoon
the Ghana presents the appearance of an expansive park-like basin
covered with patches of medium-sized trees and shrubs of babul (Acacia
arabica), Kandi (Prosopis spicigera), Peeloo (Salvadora persica and
S. oleoides), wild caper (Capparis aphylla) and other species characteri-
stic of a semi-arid biotope. Here and there stand enormous single
trees or groves of the spreading, verdant Kadamb (Acanthocephalus
kadamba). ‘The parched ground is scantily covered with close-cropped
erass which is lush when the water first dries on the advent of the hot
weather and provides good grazing for the cattle of Bharatpur city
and environs. Jn as much as this is the only grazing available in
the neighbourhood for the cattle which supply milk to Bharatpur
city, its maintenance seems essential even from the economic angle.
The grazing fees derived from the Ghana total about Rs. 10,500 per
annum. In years of normal rainfall (average ca. 27 inches) the depres-
sion gets filled between July and September and becomes a shallow
lake in which reeds, sedges, lotus and a variety of floating aquatic
sunod pur sznpe ‘sy101S paj[tquedg SY1IOJS pojUIeg PUe SASIqT IITA
LOYIN
Wei:
YAdLVAVHE “VNVHD OAGVIOdUxy nasineneeataasen ae oe —
—- —- === —— = = = ae —- — ro — —— S—— ©.
ESOT AN - ——E= a aes
Y}Pop SUIUSIOF Y1OZG pozJUured JO syoryo AUMOG SUTATIIG Y10JS poured
PEER OE ao.
BY
UNdLVAVHA “VNVHD OACVIOAy
{Il FIVId "90S ‘LSIH| ‘IVN AVaAWOg ‘Nuno[
THE KEOLADEO GHANA OF BHARATPUR 533
vegetation abounds. Owing to the nature of the soil, the Ghana
begins to dry up rapidly after the monsoon, and were it not for the
additional water let into it from the inundations of the rivers Gambira
and Banganga which are impounded on arable land above by means
of an artificial dam called Ajan Bund, it would become too dry in the
winter months to attract wildfowl in the quantities it now does.
Under normal conditions the level of the water collected above
Ajan Bund is high enough to permit, or in fact necessitate, its being
sluiced into the Ghana by stages after about 15th September. Thus
by the middle of October all this water has drained into the Ghana
making the land above the dam available for ploughing and sowing
rabi crops such as wheat and gram. ‘This tail water, added to the
partial natural inundation by the monsoon, is really what transforms
the basin into the expansive shallow lake and makes the Ghana the
duck-shooting paradise it is in winter.
For the non-shooting bird lover the real charm of Keoladeo Ghana
lies in the vast variety of masses upon masses of water birds that
frequent the- lake, particularly during the breeding season, between
July and November. A visit to this gigantic heronry at the appropriate
time of year and in a season of normal rainfall is, for an ornithologist,
an experience that he is not likely to forget. There is no doubt that
with suitable facilities for visitors, both pure sightseers and scientific
investigators and bird photographers, the place has potentialities of
the highest order.
Already by the end of July or in early August the partially submerged
trees in the Ghana begin to be appropriated by the various species
of water birds, and they soon become covered with masses of twig
platforms of varying sizes in disorderly but close-packed tiers. The
large kadamb trees are chiefly patronized by Painted Storks and
Cormorants, while the babul, kandi and others are occupied by Open-
billed Storks, Hgrets (Hgretta alba, EH. intermedia, E. garzetta and
Bubulcus ibis), Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo, P. javanicus and P.
fuscicollis), Darters (Anhinga melanogaster), White Ibises (Threskiornis:
melanocephalus) and Spoonbills (Platalea leucorodia). Although in many
cases nests of a particular species predominate in a certain tree,
there is no hard and fast segregation, and nests of 4 or 5 different
species may often be all in the same tree, perhaps several of each
kind cheek by jowl and touching one another. After an experience
of this kind, one wonders how many of the neatly labelled eggs seen in
collections, e.g. of egrets, are of really undoubted authenticity as to
speci¢s. It is usual to find nests of all 3 egrets along with those of
cormorants, darters and white ibises packed in a single tree. On
approach of the collector all the incubating birds fly off; the twig nests.
in all cases are similar shallow platforms, and the eggs of the various
species are also hard to tell definitely from one another. Under the
circumstances unless nests are carefully marked down. beforehand,
while the owners are actually sitting on them, I found it quite
impossible to be entirely certain about the specific identity of eggs
taken from these mixed colonies.
The tops of some of the lofty kadamb trees scattered solitarily on |
the edge of the jheel are patronized by the massive stick nests—
disused at this season—of Pallas’s Fishing Eagle (fHaliaétus
leucoryphus). From here the birds keep a close watch over the
234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
surroundings for prey. Coots, which winter on the Ghana in great
abundance, form an important food item of this eagle.
The enormous ancient peepal trees which are dotted here and there,
particularly in the neighbourhood of Ajan Bund, are favourite sites
for the non-colonial nests of the Blacknecked Stork CCRC is
asiaticus).
It has always puzzled ornithologists as to what happens to these
multitudes of normally sedentary birds in years of bad monsoon when
the Ghana remains dry and conditions for nesting are unfavourable.
Do they spread themselves out far and wide in search of alternative
nesting grounds? or do they contrive to skip a season without re-
production? These are questions to which satisfactory answers can
only be found by marking the birds on a sufficiently large scale. The
only results we have so far had from a rather limited ringing of young
White Ibises one year was that one of the marked birds was again
observed on the Ghana a year later. Whether it was breeding at the
time or not could not be ascertained.
No sooner have the first showers of the monsoon filled the ditches
and hollows in the bed of the Ghana than the water birds begin to
move in, evidently over considerable distances of the surrounding
countryside in many instances, and the scene is soon transformed
into one of bustling activity. The birds lose no time in staking out
their claims for nesting sites, and building operations presently become
intense. ‘There is much rivalry and jockeying for coveted situations,
and a great deal of squabbling and noise prevails. Besides the
species named, there are Paddy Birds (Ardeola grayi), Night Herons
(Nycticorax nycticorax), Grey Herons (Ardea cinerea) and Purple
Herons (Ardea purpurea), settling in the tree-tops, while Purple
Moorhens (Porphyrio poliocephalus), Gallinules (Gallinula chloropus),
Whitebreasted Waterhens (Amaurornis phoenicurus) and Dabchicks
(Podiceps ruficollis) are competing for sites on the weed-covered water
below, and in the bushes and reedbeds along the edge. All the time
the distant sonorous trumpeting of the Sarus Crane is on the air as
pairs stride along sedately on the squelchy grassland or indulge in their
spectacular prancing and leaping ‘dancing dervish’ courtship displays.
In years of good monsoon the Sarus nests freely on the edge of the
Ghana or on grassy islets in the midst of shallow water or marshes,
and while one bird is sitting on the eggs its mate is invariably keeping
guard nearby to give warning of suspicious intruders or to chase off
a stray dog or cow venturing into unwelcome proximity of the nest.
Twig platforms bedeck the partially submerged trees in close-
packed disorderly tiers. To the observer it is a source of unceasing
wonder how the birds ever manage to sort out their own nests amongst
this welter of jostling and confusion. After the young have hatched
out and are sufficiently grown to leave the nest and to clamber helter
skelter amongst the surrounding branches, the confusion becomes
worse confounded. How parents then ever recognize their own
offspring is indeed a mystery, but it is significant that feeding of the
chicks is only done on the nest so that the wandering brood must
always return to this centre in order to obtain the food which the
parents bring. It would seem therefore that the important thing is
for the birds, both adults and young, to recognize their nest rather than
one another.
LOUINP
ysou pue oueID snes
S}OO)
SUOIIAUS CULY OY} Ul Yonqyorlg
aNd LVAVHEA “VNVHD OF OWIOWS “ : sass
Journ. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc. PEATE Si
KEOLADEO GHANA, BHARATPUR
Pond Heron (Ardeola grayit) and (swimming) Darter (Anhinga melanogaster)
Sarus Cranes (Antigone antigone) being disturbed from nest by grazing buffalo
THE KEOLADEO GHANA OF BHARATPUR 535
The vast quantities of food—mostly fish, frogs, snails and water
beetles—needed to sustain a bird concentration of this magnitude for
a period ranging over several months, in which voracious youngsters
have, moreover, to be catered for, is a source of interesting but some-
what bewildering speculation. It has been found impossible to make
even a reasonably accurate census of the breeding bird population
of the Ghana as a whole, since no technique of counting of which
I am aware seems applicable to the conditions that obtain. However,
a very rough and ready count I made one season on a small section
of the lake occupied chiefly, but not exclusively, by Painted Storks
will suffice to indicate the enormous quantities of food involved, and
point to the abounding richness of the Ghana as a source of fish
supply. :
In this census area of roughly one square mile it was conservatively
estimated that 2-3,000 pairs of Painted Storks were feeding
nest young of varying ages but mostly well grown, in the last week of
October (1942). A generous margin of error was allowed for, so that
it may well be that the actual number was nearer 4,000 pairs. Jivery
tree standing in the water in this well-wooded section, large or
small, was crowded out with nests of Painted Storks in addition to.
countless others, chiefly of White Ibises and Cormorants. The din
of the young birds’ expectant clamour for food was incessant, and
it became deafening on the return of the parents with food. The
normal procedure is for a parent to alight on the edge of the untidy
nest or upon an adjacent branch, apparently quite heedless of the
insistent begging of the young excitedly shaking their heads from
side to side to the accompaniment of a strident scraping double note.
After a few moments of this detached ‘meditation’, as if overwhelmed
by a sudden fit of violent sea-sickness, the parent aims its bill
perpendicularly down into the nest and disgorges anything from 4 to.
8 fishes, one after another, lavishly lubricated by a disgusting looking
slime. These are quickly gobbled up from the nest floor by the hungry
youngsters, some of the greedier and more impatient ones even thrust-.
ing their bills up into the parent’s gullet and tugging at the food
to speed it on its way.
The appetite of all young birds is phenomenally healthy, but that
of the Painted Storks quite amazingly so. When a fully fed fledgling
on the nest is handled, its immediate reaction is to disgorge all the
food it has lately guzzled. It thereafter lays itself down on the
bottom of the nest, arranges itself in pitiable contortions and does its
best to pretend it is in the last agony of death. This obliging habit
makes it possible for the investigator to gain some idea of its food
requirements. Frequently I found 5 or 6 fish thus cast up by the
chicks, each maybe 38 or 4 inches in length and weighing in the
ageregate between 4 and 3 lb. Upon this data an interesting problem
of simple arithmetic can be based. Assuming that each nest holds
only two young—actually 3 is the commoner number and 4 not un-
usual—and that they are fed no more than twice a day, it means
that 2 to 3 lb. of fish are needed per nest per day. Therefore for the,
say, 2,000 nests in this section of the Ghana the daily requirement
worked out to 4 to 6 thousand lb. In addition to young, however,
there were the parents—4,000 of them—who presumably needed at least
the same quantity for their own sustenance. Thus this breeding
536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
colony of Painted Storks alone required 8-12,000 lb. of fish per day,
or 34 to 5} tons, and that at least for 30 or 40 days. Counting it only
as a round 8 tons per day and that only for 90 days in order to simplify
our arithmetic, we still arrive at the astounding total of 90 tons of
fish needed to sustain a fraction of the total breeding population of a
single species on the Ghana! And this, leaving out of count the
masses of other fish-eating birds, of which the cormorants in particular
are well known to be every bit as voracious as they were plentiful
and prolific.
As a showplace for nature-minded tourists and visitors to India,
and as a centre for scientific investigations on the biology of water
birds, the Keoladeo Ghana of Bharatpur merits the highest rank. It
is easily accessible by road and rail, being under 150 miles from
Delhi and only about 30 from Agra. It is hoped that turning it into
a permanent national bird sanctuary will ensure its unimpaired
continuance and save it from the extinction with which it is threatened
through questionable schemes for clearing the jungle and draining off
the water in order to grow more food.
TPinally, it may be stated that in my opinion properly regulated
shooting of wildfowl on the Ghana in winter by sportsmen of the
right type is not likely to prove detrimental to the aims and objects
of this particular sanctuary, and it seems unnecessary to ban shooting
altogether. At present the shooting rights are vested in His Highness
the Maharaja of Bharatpur, and restricted permits are also issued by
the Rajasthan Government to special State guests to shoot on the lake.
Since the merging of Bharatpur State into Rajasthan, the area
has been treated as a Reserved Forest under the Divisional Forest
Officer, Bharatpur. It is patrolled in the routine manner by forest
guards whose duty is to prevent illicit felling or lopping of trees and
killing of birds and animals. The right to fell and remove dead trees
and to collect dead twigs, etc., for firewood is auctioned annually by
the Forest Department.
The strengthening of the existing organisation by the addition of a
few extra guards, more vigilant overall supervision, and tightening up
of current restrictions would probably meet the case as far as the
safety of the birds and animals is concerned. The vital need, however,
is to ensure that under no circumstances shall hasty schemes of
draining or deforestation be undertaken which are likely to alter the
ecology of the Ghana and jeopardise the very existence of this unique
natural feature.
CHARACTERISTIC COLOURATION OF JUVENILE
SPECIMENS OF LABEO (MORULIUS) ANGRA
WITH NOTES ON GROWTH!
BY
K. H. Auikunut AND Hy]RALAL CHAUDHURI
(Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-station, Cuttack)
(With two text figures)
INTRODUCTION
Labeo (Morulius) angra (Ham.) is fairly common in the Mahanadi
River where it breeds along with other carps during the monsoon
months, July-August. Hatchlings and young fry are occasionally caught
along with those of major carps from the river, though it has not yet
been possible to identify and isolate them during these early stages.
Several advanced fry and early fingerlings were collected at Cuttack
from experimental nursery ponds which were stocked with a mixed
collection of early carp fry. ‘These specimens show some resemblance
to corresponding stages of Labeo calbasu and the local fish farmers
also generally identify them with the latter species. L. angra is known
to occur in Assam, Bengal and Orissa in India.? It does not generally
exceed 8-9 inches in length.
Since nothing is so far known about the life-history of this species
and since it is necessary to distinguish this relatively minor carp
from its larger congener, L. calbasu, a brief description of the juvenile
‘specimens and their distinguishing characters from L. calbasu are given
in this note. A post-larval specimen which was obtained from Assam
is also briefly described. Several specimens were reared in cement
cisterns and nursery ponds at Cuttack for a period of about 11 months
and their growth during different stages is also reported in this
communication.
POST-LARVAL STAGE
A single specimen, 12.8 mm. long, was obtained on 5-6-1951 from
an isolated, shallow pool in the Raomari Bheel, Gauhati, Assam. A
dark, blotch-like pigment spot at the tip of the caudal peduncle and
smaller concentrations of chromatophores on the body, one each at
the base of the dorsal and anal fins, are characteristic of this specimen.
1 Published with the kind permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central
Inland Fisheries Research Station.
2 Day, F. (1889): Fauna of British India, Fishes, Vol, 1, pp. 267-268.
538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
A few chromatophores are present over the nape, extending down
to the operculum. ‘There is no pigment on any of the fins. Maxillary
barbels have appeared. The dorsal, anal and caudal fins are differen-
tiated but the ventral fins are rudimentary.
JUVENILE STAGES
Stage I: 20.0 mm. long: (Fig. 1a)
Body is pale yellowish in colour. Some scattered chromatophores
are present over the snout, dorsal aspect of the head and the upper
portion of the trunk, above the lateral line. A conspicuous dark band
extends down from the nape over the operculum on either side.
More chromatophores have appeared on the body near the base of the
dorsal fin. Chromatophores near the base of the anal fin have
concentrated into a slightly elongated distinct dark spot. The caudal
spot is conspicuous and is somewhat oval-shaped though a little pointed
anteriorly. The major portion of this spot lies below the lateral line
along which two more dark spots have appeared, a larger one at the
level of the anal fin and a smaller one at the level of commencement
of the dorsal fin.
All the fins are transparent and devoid of pigment. Snout is rather
prominent, with thick lower lip. Maxillary barbels are pale whitish
in colour.
eo Sasa ~
“3 7" “
Lippe “
CLE
ee
Text-fig. 1.—Labeo (Morulius) angra (Ham.); Characteristic pigmentation of
juvenile specimens: (a) 20 mm. Jong and (b) 29.0 mm. long.
Stage II: 25.5 mm.
General body colour remains pale yellowish. More chromatophores
have appeared on the dorsal portion of the head. The pigment near
the base of the dorsal fin is less conspicuous than in the previous
stage. The ventral spot near the base of the anal fin persists. The
caudal spot extends anteriorly and merges with the elongated blotch at
the level of the anal fin. The spot at the level of the dorsal fin has
elongated.
COLOURATION OF LABEO (MORULIUS) ANGRA 539
Stage III: 29.0 mm. (Fig. 1b)
Body appears more yellowish in colour. The caudal spot now
extends forwards as a continuous dark band, almost extending to
the operculum. The vertical band at the nape and the blotch near
the base of the anal fin persist. No chromatophores are found on
the. body below the lateral line. A number of chromatophores are
scattered all over the dorsal half of the body and head. All the
fins are transparent and no pigment has appeared on any of them.
Snout is prominent, overhanging the mouth. Lower lip is thick.
Stage IV: 43.0 mm. to 50.0 mm. long.
General body colour is bright yellow, often tending to become
yellowish-brown. Lateral pigment band is still conspicuous and
extends up to the operculum. The nape band and the anal blotch also
persist.
Stage V: 68.5 mm. long.
Dorsal half of the body has become brownish but the ventral half
is still bright yellowish. ‘The blotch near the base of anal fin has
disappeared. The nape band is rather inconspicuous.
Stage VI: 95.0 mm. to 119 mm. long.
The conspicuous lateral band is formed of a pigmented row of
scales, besides the first 9-10 scales of the row immediately below it.
The central portion of scales along the two rows immediately below
the lateral line are golden yellow in colour, and this is quite prominent
near the head region. Yellow and dark pigments extend over 2-3
rows of scales below the lateral line adding a faint bluish iridescence.
Hind portion of operculum is golden yellow. The dorsal, anal and
caudal fins have the tips pink while the middle portions are dark.
Adult specimen, 173 mm. long.
The dark brown lateral band persists and is still conspicuous. The
caudal spot is confluent with it. The upper half of the body is dark
brown, while the lower half is dirty yellow in colour. Scales adjoining
the lateral pigment band are tinged reddish or golden. ‘Day gives the
colour as brownish along the back, with a black or bluish stripe passing
from the eyes to the base of the caudal tin where it ends in a black
blotch.
Notes oN GROWTH
Certain structural changes take place with growth, particularly in the
length of head, diameter of eyes, position of fins and nature of lips.
Though only one specimen of each size has been measured the
540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
following table gives an idea of the relative proportion of the head,
eyes and snout in the juvenile specimens measuring up to 50 mm. in
total length.
| |
AT Ag 0 Lites BLS
No. Riese | “= — | —— Remarks.
| :) fe teeta DD, || D8 |
| |
NG) Pe eS ‘ | 4 leap
rl 19:0 33 | 33 | 14
3020-0 38 (ee 233 iti
Ae | ARO Bion, aa aa: }4
Bee 40:0 42 lam alas ie
ee) 44 38 12
7, | 46:0 4. 38 va Be |
ch ph UO | 4%. 43 12 ihe
9. bes 52 33-44 14-1? _ Adult condition
| | given by Day.
(T.L. = Total length ; L.H. = Length of head ; D.E. = Diameter of
US § L.S. = Length of snout.)
Even in the 50 mm. stage the head is relatively much larger than
in the adult, but the eyes and snout have attained adult proportions.
The dorsal fin also shows a forward migration, with growth. Up
to the 20 mm. stage the commencement of the dorsal fin is distinctly
nearer to the base of the caudal fin than to the tip of snout. In
specimens 26 mm. to 29 mm. long, the origin of the dorsal is almost
mid-way between the tip of snout and the base of caudal fin. From
the 40 mm. stage onwards the origin of the dorsal fin has become
much closer to the tip of snout than to the base of caudal fin. This
represents the adult condition in L. angra.
Scales over the anterior part of the body have become distinct in
the 20 mm. stage and about 8 scales along the lateral line are
perforated. By the 29 mm. stage the scales are well formed and
lateral line scales have all become perforated.
Text-fig. 2.—Labeo (Morulius) angra (Ham.): Ventral view of the head showing
the structure of lips and barbels during growth. (a) Postlarva, 12.8 mm. long ;
(b) Juvenile specimen, 20 mm. long; (c) Same, 46 mm. long.
__ In the 12.8 mm. long post-larva the lips are thick but not fimbriated
(Pig. 2a). The rostral barbels are very short while the maxillary pair
COLOURATION OF LABEO (MORULIUS) ANGRA a4]
is longer. The mouth, though ventral, is almost terminal in position;
and is crescent-shaped. In the 20 mm. stage the lips have become
conspicuously fimbriated, and the mouth is distinctly ventral in position
and almost semi-circular in shape (Fig 2b). Both the rostral and
maxillary barbels have become conspicuous. The lips are continuous
and the fimbriations distinctly papillate. The upper lip has 2 distinct
rows each of 18-19 papillae. In the lower lip the papillae near the
margin are well developed, large and somewhat alternately arranged.
Behind these there are 2-3 incomplete rows of smaller tubercles. In
the 46 mm. stage the lips are still quite conspicuous but the tubercles
are not so prominent as in the 20 mm. stage (Fig. 2c). Two irregular
rows on the upper lip and 8 rows on the lower lip are perceptible, but
unlike the papillate structure in the earlier stage, they appear only as
short tubercles. The rostral barbels have disappeared; while the
maxillary barbels have become very much shorter than in the 20 mm.
stage. ‘The adult condition, according to Day (1889, p. 267) is ‘Mouth
rather narrow, the lips continuous and with a deep groove across the
chin; both the lips fimbriated’. Though in the adult specimen there
is only a single pair of short, maxillary barbels (Day, p. 267), it is
interesting to observe that a rostral pair of barbels had a transitory
existence in the earlier stage of its life and that the maxillary barbels
themselves were likewise longer and more conspicuous than in the
adult. However, in his ‘synopsis of Indian species’ of the genus
Labeo Day (p. 257) mentions L. angra as having 2 or 4 barbels.
As in other aa fishes growth depends mainly on the food and the
density of fish population in the pond. 3-4 days old fry, stocked in
nursery ponds along with similar fry of other carps have attained a
maximum length of 29.0 mm. within 23 days. In another pond with
larger population of carp fry the growth ranged from 20.0 mm. to
25.5 mm. only within 28 days. Approximately 49 days-old specimens
measuring 46.0 mm. to 50.0 mm. in length, were transferred from
the pond to a cement cistern where they attained a length of 96.0 mm.
to 119.0 mm. within the next 76 days. The specimens were later
released in a pond and when fished out 7 months after, had reached
a maximum length of 1738 mm. (weight 56.8 gms.). Adult size has
been attained and this represents the growth during the first 11 months
of its life. On dissection the gonads were found immature.
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS FROM Labeo calbasu
The characteristic yellowish ground colour of the body, the
conspicuous dark lateral band and the absence of dark pigment on the
fins, besides the non- pigmented barbels are important features by
which the juvenile specimens of L. angra could easily be distinguished
from L. calbasu. In the latter dark pigment is concentrated on the
dorsal, ventral, anal and caudal fins, at their bases; while in the former
species pigment appears as distinct spots on the body, near the
dorsal, anal and caudal fins. The dark band at the nape is common
for both the species, though in J.. calbasu, this lies in between two
distinct yellowish bands. Fingerlings of L. angra have the lateral
pigment band very prominent, but in L. calbasu the body assumes
a general dark brown colour. The barbels in L. calbasu are through-
out conspicuous by their dark pigmentation.
542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
SUMMARY
The characteristic pigment patterns of the post-larval and juvenile
specimens of L. angra have been described. Certain structural changes
that take place with growth, particularly the relative size of the head
and eyes, the position of dorsal fin, and nature of lips and barbels
have been detailed. Adult size is attained in the first year of life.
Characters by which juvenile specimens and fingerlines could be
distinguished from L. calbasu have been indicated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are indebted to Dr. 8. L. Hora and Dr. 8. Jones for kindly
going through the manuscript and to Mr. E. G. Silas for drawing our
attention to certain aspects of growth while verifying the identification
of the species at the instance of ‘Dr. Hora.
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL
BY
M. L. BANER]I
Botany Department, Meerut College, Meerut
ParT II
(
| Continued from p. 423 of Volume 51 (2)|
PAPAVERACEAE
Annual or perennial herbs with milky or coloured juice, rarely
watery. Leaves radical or alternate; stipules absent. Flowers often
large and nodding, terminal, solitary, cymose or paniculate. Sepals
2-3, hypogynous, free or cohering in a cap, caducous. Petals 4 in
2 whorls, large, crumpled, rarely more or 0. Stamens indefinite in
inany series, rarely few; filaments slender, anthers basifixed, dehis-
cence lateral. Ovary 1-celled with 2 or many parietal placentas or
these being prolonged, divided into many nearly complete cells. Style
short or 0; stigmas radiating, as many as the placentas, free or
adnate to and crowning the flat top of the ovary. fruit 1-celled or
by the intrusion of the parietal placentas a many-celled capsule,
opening by 2 or 4 longitudinal valves or by pores at the top.
XN
Key to the genera
Stigmas 4-6, radiating from the top of a
depressed style 1. Argemone,
Stigmas 4-6, decurrent on the top of tne
style Te econopsisr
1. ARGEMONE Linn.
An erect prickly annual. Flowers bright yellow; sepals 2-3;
petals 4-6; stamens indefinite. Ovary 1 celled; style very short;
stigma 4-7 lobed; ovules on 4-7 parietal placentas. Capsule short,
opening at the top by valves; seeds many.
Argemone mexicana Linn.
Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal.
2. Merconopsis Viguier.
Perennial herbs. Leaves entire or lobed. Flowers solitary or
racemed, blue, yellow or purple. Sepals 2; petals 4. Ovary 1-celled;
style distinct; stigmatic lobes radiating ; capone ovoid or elongated
with short rales below the persistent style. Seeds many.
544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Key to the species
Scapes radical, 1-flowered
- Softly hairy ; leaves lanceolate, entire
or few-toothed. Sepals hispid.
Capsule 2 in. covered with hairs 1. M. simplicifolia.
Prickly; leaves lanceolate, subentire.
Sepals bristly. Capsule 4-1 in.,
prickly 1) 2. MM. hornidula:
Stems leafy. Flowers racemed or panicled
Glaucous or sparsely hairy. Leaves
pinnate and = lobes pinnatifid.
Flowers 2-3 in. diam.;_ sepals
bristly. Capsule 14 in., densely
bristly . 336
Pubescent and laxly hairy. Leaves
sinuate-lobed or pinnatifid.
Flowers 2-34 in. diam.; sepals
setose. Capsule 14-2 in., clothed
with appressed hairs wit
Pubescent and softly hairy. Leaves
oblong or obovate-lanceolate.
Flowers 14-2 in. diam.; sepals
densely pubescent. Capsule 1 in.,
densely bristly o-» —5- M. wallichu.
3. M. robusta.
4. M. nipalensis.
1. Meconopsis simplicifolia Hf. & T.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 118. Wallich,
trom Nepal.
2. Meconopsis horridula Hf, & T.
Banerji 360, Nangpa La pass!
3. Meconopsis robusta Hf. & T.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 118. Wallich,
fiom Nepal.
4. Meconopsis nipalensis DC.
Ref.: ~ Hooker's’ Flora: British India 12) 118. Wallichs
from Nepal. Banerji 276, Phaplu to Rhingmo! {In Herb. Calcut.
Wall. sheet 8121).
5- Meconopsis wallichi Hk.f.
Ref.: Hooker's. Plora British India 1: 119. _- Walhichs
from Nepal.
FUMARIACEAE
Annual or perennial often glaucous herbs with watery juice.
Leaves usually decompound. Flowers irregular, hermaphrodite in
racemes. Sepals 2, small; petaloid or scarious, deciduous. Petals:
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 545
4 in 2 very dissimilar pairs; 2 outer, one or both outer spurred or
gibbous at the base; inner smaller, often cohering at the tip.
Stamens 6, usually in two bundles opposite the outer petals; central
anther in each bundle 2-celled, others 1-celled. Ovary 1-celled; style
long or short; stigma obtuse or lobed. Ovules parietal. Fruit a
1-seeded nut or a bivalved, many-seeded capsule.
Key to the genera
Fruit a many-seeded capsule
Both the outer petals with saccate
bases or spurred TL Dactvircapnosr
Only one outer petal spurred (post-
erior.) 500 Bo Compelallos
Fruit a one seeded nut; only one outer
petal spurred so Bo IMAI.
t. DACTYLICAPNOS
Glabrous, perennial rooting, climbing, slender herbs. Leaves
decompound, petiole ending in a branched tendril. Flowers in leaf-
opposed pendulous racemes or corymbs. Sepals 2, small; petals 4,
connivent, 2 outer oblong, concave with saccate bases or spurred,
2 inner clawed, tips cohering. Stamens 6, diadelphous. Ovary 1-
celled; style filiform; stigma bilobed. Ovules on parietal placentas.
Fruit a capsule dshisciine by 2 longitudinal valves, leaving the seeds
on a replum.
Key to the species
Capsules membranous, lanceolate ;
seeds smooth, shining soo ©6— lo: ID. SCOMMEDS.
Capsules fleshy, ovate-cordate; seeds
granulate oo «=o ID. Wolof Oha.
1. Dactylicapnos scandens (D.Don) Hutch.
Maries, no number, no locality! Banerji 521, Hatia to
Hangaon !
2. Dactylicapnos thalictrifolia Wall.
Ref.: Hlooker’s Flora British India 1: 121. Wallich,
from Nepal.
2. CORYDALIS DC.
Erect or prostrate herbs, usually perennial rooted. Leaves lobed
or cut. Upper leaves sometimes opposite. Flowers in racemes,
rarely sub-umbellate, small, white, blue, yellow or purple. Sepals 2,
small; petals 4, erect or conniving; 2 outer dissimilar, anterior flat
or concave; posterior gibbous or spurred at the base; 2 inner clawed,
tip free or cohering, keeled. Stamens 6, diadelphous, posterior
bundle with a basal spur enclosed in the petal-spur, mid-anther of
546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
each bundle 2-celled, lateral 1-celled. Ovary 1-celled; style filiform;
stigmas 2, minute or dilated. Ovules on 2 parietal placentas.
Capsules ovoid, oblong-elliptic or linear.
Kkey to the species
Erect, leafy, branched, fibrous-rooted
herbs. | Capsule narrow, linear.
Racemes long-peduncled. —Posticous
petal concave, much shorter than the
spur lan eplocarpar
Roots bulbous or rootstock elongated;
stem simple. Radical leaves few or
o, cauline leaves opposite, alternate or
Wwhorled. Racemes undivided.
Racemes erect. Outer petals equal-
ling or shorter than the inflated
obtuse spur Sou 6 Oo AON.
Racemes terminal. Posticous petals
longer than the short obtuse spur 3. C. juncea.
Root fusiform. Stem or scape simple,
rarely divided, leafless or with 1 or 2
leaves; leaves chiefly radical. Racemes
undivided. Spurs equalling or exceed-
ing the petals. Posticous petal very
convex, shorter than the curved spur 4. C. govaniana.
Root fusiform. Stem branched.
Racemes often divided. Spurs equal-
ling or exceeding the petals. Posticous
petal hooded, equalling or exceeding
the conic spur 566 1) Son Co SUDTUGT
1. Corydalis leptocarpa Hf. & T.
Banerji 447, on way to Dingla!
2. Corydalis rutaefolia Sibth.
Ref. : Hooker’s Flora British India 1: ? and Wallich’s Tent.
Fl. Nep. 54 (C. diaphylla.).
3. Corydalis juncea Wall.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 123. Wallich,
from Nepal; and Wallich’s Tent. Fl. Nep. 54.
4. Corydalis govaniana Wall.
Ref. : Hooker’s Flora British India 1: ? and Wallich’s Tent.
Il, INGOs SSe
5. Corydalis sibirica Pers.
Wallich 1433!
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 547
3. Fumaria Linn.
Annual branched sarmentose herbs. Leaves finely divided.
Flowers small, white or pink, with purple tips of the petals, in terminal
or leaf-opposed racemes. Outer anterior petal flat, posterior gibbous
at the base. Stamens diadelphous, posterior bundle with a spur at
the base. Ovary 1-celled; style filiform; ovules 2 on 2 parietal
placentas. Fruit indehiscent, 1-seeded nut.
Fumaria parviflora Lamk.
Wallich 1436A! Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from Journ. to Nepal:
CRUCIFERAE
Herbs, rarely undershrubs, with watery juice, sometimes pungent.
Leaves radical and cauline. Radical leaves in a rosette; cauline
leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers racemed, rarely solitary,
terminal or axillary. Sepals 4, 2 often large and saccate at the base,
imbricate. Petals 4, hypogynous, imbricate. Stamens 6, rarely
fewer Or many, 4 inner and longer in opposite pairs. Disk with 4
glands opposite the sepals. Ovary 2-celled due to a replum, or 1-
celled, or with many superposed cells; style short or 0; stigma entire
or bilobed. Ovules usually many on 2 parietal placentas or rarely
I or 2, erect. Fruit a siliqua or a silicula.
Key to the genera
Pods usually long, dehiscent, terete 4
angled or compressed dorsally
Sepals erect not saccate. Pods
flat; seeds t1-seriate. Flowers
white or purple Si
Sepals spreading not saccate. Pods
cylindric; seeds 2-seriate. Flowers
usually yellow ooo lo IN@SURIABOND
Glabrous herbs. Sepals short and
erect. Seeds i-seriate. Flowers
. Cardamine.
to
white S08 Bo JB OH OOo
Hoary herbs with appressed hairs.
Sepals erect. Seeds 1-seriate.
Flowers white 4. Erysimum.
Sepals erect or spreading, laterally
usually saccate. Stigma capitate,
truncate or 2-lobed. Pods long 5. Brassica.
Pod short, dehiscent, compressed
laterally, triangular, many-seeded ... 6. Capsella.
1. Nasturtium Br.
Terrestrial or aquatic herbs, glabrous or pubescent, branched.
Leaves entire, lobed or pinnatifid. Flowers small, racemose, some-
times bracteate. Sepals spreading, not produced into a pouch at the
base. Petals cuneate, hardly clawed, yellow or rarely white or o.
Stamens 2, 4, or 6. Pods long or short, nearly cylindric; valves r-
nerved.
2
548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Nasturtium palustre DC.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 133.
2. CARDAMINE Linn.
Annual or perennial herbs, glabrous or slightly pubescent. Leaves
entire, lobed or pinnate. Flowers white, pale purple or violet or
rarely yellow. Sepals not saccate; petals clawed. Pods narrow-
linear, compressed tapering at both the ends; valves elastic, midrib
distinct.
Key to the species
Leaves not deeply lobed or pinnatisect.
Leaves sessile, amplexicaul, lanceo-
late, toothed. Flowers large, violet 1. C. violacea.
Radical leaves trifoliate. Leaves petio-
late, leaflets 3-lobed. Flowers
pale-lilac Oe mC mL TOlOlatar
Radical leaves, or all, pinnatisect
Stem sub-erect or decumbent.
Leaflets petioled, orbicular-ovate.
Flowers small, white a
Stem stout and erect. Leaflets
ovate or lanceolate. Flowers
large, white or deep violet re 4 Cmmacropnylias
Ba Cahinswia.
1. Cardamine violacea Wall.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 137. Wallich, from
Nepal.
2. Cardamine trifoliolata Hf. & T.
Banerji 526, Hongaon to Popti La Pass!
3. Cardamine hirsuta Linn.
Ref. : Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal; Mukerji.
4. Cardamine macrophylla Willd.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 139.
3. EuTREMA Br.
Biennial or perennial herbs, glabrous. Leaves entire or serrate,
radical on long petioles, upper short petioled or sessile. Flowers
white, corymbose; sepals short, erect, equal at the base. Pods
linear or linear-oblong, terete; seeds few, irregularly 1-2 seriate.
Eutrema primulaefolium Hf. & T.
Scully, no number, no locality !
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 549
4. Erysimum Linn.
Herbs with appressed hairs. Leaves linear or oblong, entire or
sinuate-toothed, base not auricled. Flowers yellow rarely purple,
ebracteate. Sepals erect, equal or lateral gibbous at the base; petals
clawed. Pods elongate, narrow, compressed tetragonally or terete;
seeds numerous, tI-seriate.
Key to the species
Leaves oblong, sinuate-toothed, upper
sessile. Pedicels equalling —_ the
sepals, stout, upcurved; style slender 1. E. hieraciufolium.
Leaves petioled, lanceolate, sinuate- Bie
toothed. Pedicels much shorter than
the sepals; style thick ma 2. La pachycarpum.
1. Erysimum hieracufolium Linn.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 153. Wallich, from
Nepal.
2. Erysimum pachycarpum Hf. & T.
Banerji 262, Phaplu to Rhingmo!
5. Brassica Linn.
Glabrous or hispid herbs; rootstock often woody. Leaves large,
pinnatifid or lyrate, rarely entire. Flowers yellow in large racemes.
Sepals erect or spreading, lateral usually saccate at the base. Pods
elongate, terete or angular; seeds 1-seriate, globose.
Brassica trilocularis Hf. & T.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 156.
6. CAPSELLA Moench.
Small branched herbs, radical leaves in a rosette, entire. or
pinnatifid. Sepals spreading, not gibbous at the base. Pods obcord-
ate, ovate-oblong, cuneate, laterally compressed; valves boat-shaped ;
seeds many, 2-seriate.
Capsella bursa-pastoris Moench.
Scully 98, no locality !
CAPPARIDACEAE
Herbs or shrubs, erect or climbing, rarely trees. Leaves alternate,
Or very rarely opposite, simple or palmately 3-9-foliate; leaflets
usually entire; stipules spinescent or minute or o. Flowers solitary,
racemed, corymbose or umbellate; regular or rarely a little irregular ;
bisexual or rarely dioecious. Sepals generally 4, free or connate,
usually imbricate; petals 4, rarely o or very rarely 2, imbricate,
550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
hypogynous, or sometimes inserted on the disc. Stamens usually 6,
sometimes 4 or numerous, hypogynous or perigynous or inserted at
the base of or on a long or short gynophore. Ovary usually stalked,
t-celled; stigmas usually capitate, sessile; ovules many on 2-4 parietal
placentas. Fruit a pod-like capsule or a berry or rarely a drupe.
Key to the genera
Herbs with usually digitate leaves and
capsular fruit. Ovary long-stalked;
stamens 6, inserted on the gyno-
phore; leaves 3-foliate 1. Gynandropsis.
Trees or shrubs with usually simple
leaves; fruit usually a berry. Thorny
or unarmed il Se LOAD arise
1. GyNANDROPSIS DC.
Annual leafy herbs. Leaves long petioled, digitately 3-7-foliate.
Flowers bracteate, white or purple in racemes. Petals 4, spreading,
iong clawed. Stamens about 6, inserted upon a long gynophore,
spreading. Ovary stalked, 1-celled; ovules many on 2 parietal
placentas. Capsule oblong or linear.
Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC.
Wallich 6868 !
2. CAPPARIS Linn.
Trees or shrubs, erect or straggling or climbing, unarmed or with
stipular thorns. Leaves simple or o. Flowers white or coloured, |
often showy. Sepals 4, free in 2 whorls, all imbricate or outer
valvate. Petals 4, imbricate, 2 rarely united into a short spur at
the base. Stamens long, numerous, inserted on the torus at the
base of the gynophore. Ovary stalked, 1-4-celled; ovules many
on 2-6 parietal placentas. Fruit fleshy rarely dehiscing by valves.
Key to the species
A large woody climber, thorns 0; leaves
large. Flowers small Mr.
An erect shrub, thorns straight or
slightly curved. Flowers large, white;
anthers blue 5 det
pH 6
.
C. multiflora.
Ls)
C. olacifolia.
1. Capparis multiflora Hf. & T.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 178. Hooker, from
E. Nepal?
2. Capparis olacifolia Hf. & T.
Banerji 104, Tinpipli to Nepalthoke !
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 5ol
VIOLACEAE
Herbs, (shrubs or trees). Leaves alternate or very rarely opposite,
entire, crenate, serrate or pinnatisect, stipulate. Flowers regular or
irregular; sepals 5, equal or unequal, imbricate or contorted in bud.
Stamens 5, free or monadelphous; anthers erect, connectives produced
beyond the cells. Ovary sessile, 1-celled; style simple; stigma
terminal or lateral, capitate, truncate or capsular, entire or lobed.
Ovules many on 3 parietal placentas. Fruit a 3-valved capsule,
rarely a berry.
VIoLA Linn.
Herbs rarely woody below. [Flowers 1-2 on long axillary pedun-
cles, often dimorphic, sometimes large-petalled but ripening few seeds,
sometimes small-petalled ripening many seeds. Sepals produced at
the base; petals erect or spreading, lower largest spurred at the base.
Anthers connate, connectives of the lower 2 often produced into spur
within the corolla spur. Style clavate or truncate, tip straight or
bent.
Ikey to the species
Stigma oblique, 2-lobed, not beaked;
lobes short and spreading. Leaves
reniform; flowers yellow soo to Va. LUO.
Stigma terminal, truncate, dilated, de-
pressed, orbicular or lobed
Stipules free
Stemless but with stolons. Leaves
elliptic ovate obtuse, crenate... 3. V. diffusa.
Stem and stolon short. Leaves
orbicular-reniform, broadly cre-
nate; stipules toothed or lacer-
ate eee Ven hooverits
Stem and stolon long. Leaves
ovate-cordate or deltoid-cordate ;
stipules fimbriate. Stigma in-
distinctly 3-lobed soo Bo Vo CRSOKIS:
Stipules adnate. Plants stemless.
Leaves triangular-lanceolate, not
deeply cordate; petioles wanged)
Stigma distinctly 3-lobed SoS a) Wg TAI
Stigma oblique or lateral, often minute
and perforated. Long leafy stem
and stolons. Stipules free. Sepals
linear, gradually attenuated from a
lanceolate base. Ts Onn Vm Sempenise
1. Viola biflora Linn.
Banerji 437, beyond perterult
552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
2. Viola patrini DC.
Wallich 1445!
3. Viola diffusa Ging.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 183. (Nepal).
4. Viola hookeri T. Thoms.
Banerji 387, Puyia to Jubing'!
5- Viola distans Wall.
Maries, no number, no locality!
6. Viola serpens Wall.
Scully 59, no locality! Banerji 388, Puiya to Jubing!
var. canescens Wall. Often stemless, hoary or pubescent.
Banerji, no number, Chandragiri range!
FLACOURTIACEAE
Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, usually distichous.
Stipules usually small and caducous. Flowers small, axillary, or in
lateral or terminal cymes or racemes with small bracts, regular,
bi-sexual, monecious or dioecious. Sepals 4-several, free, sometimes
not distinguishable from the petals, imbricate or open in bud. Petals
present or 0, sometimes not arranged regularly in relation to the
sepals; with or without an opposite scale inside the base, imbricate.
Stamens indefinite, rarely few, hypogynous, free; anthers 2-celled,
often short, opening lengthwise. Ovary t1-celled, with usually 3-5
parietal placentas, which sometimes meet in the axis making the ovary
many celled. Styles and stigmas as many as the placentas. Fruit
indehiscent, mostly a berry or drupe, very rarely a capsule.
Key to the genera
Petals 4-6 a5 | le, SOOUOMIG.
Petals absent
Ovary incompletely 2-6 celled;
styles as many 5.) -2. Flacourtia.
Ovary 1 celled; style usually con-
nate 650 Bio, AGMOSHOG. y
=
1. ScoLoPIA Schreber
Trees, spinous, spines often compound. Leaves alternate, entire,
stipules minute or o. Flowers small, racemed, axillary, 2-sexual.
Sepals and petals 4-6 each, imbricate in bud. Stamens many, anthers
ovoid, connectives produced above. Ovary 1-celled; style erect;
stigma entire or lobed; ovules few on 3-4 parietal placentas. Fruit
a berry, 2-4-seeded.
Scolopia crenata Closs.
Banerji 123, Nepalthoke to Mulkote!
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 553
2. FLACOURTIA Commers.
_Trees or shrubs, usually thorny. Leaves toothed or crenate.
Flowers small, usually dioecious. Sepals small, imbricate. Petals o.
Stamens many, anthers versatile. Ovary on a glandular disc, im-
perfectly or rarely perfectly 2-8-celled, usually with 2-8 deeply
intruded placentas. Styles and stigmas several, and stigmas notched.
Fruit a berry. 3
Flacourtia ramontchi L’ Herit.
Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal.
3. XyYLOSMA Foster
Characters of Ilacourtia. The ovary in many cases imperfectly
2-3-celled; stigmas are sometimes 2-3, and these are split nearly to
the base. (Scarcely separable from Flacourtia.)
Key to the species
Male flowers in racemes. Leaves
4-9 in. la A. LON etfolum.
Male flowers in panicles. Leaves
3-6 in. s.. 2. X. CONtroversum.
i. Xylosma longifolium Closs.
Burkill 29913, Sangu to Trisuli.
2. Xylosma controversum Closs.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 199. Wallich, from
Nepal.
PITTOSPORACEAE
Trees, erect or climbing shrubs or undershrubs. Leaves alternate
fascicled, very rarely opposite or verticillate, entire or very rarely
toothed. Flowers hermaphrodite, in various terniinal or axillary
inflorescences. Sepals 5, free or connate, imbricate. Petals 5,
hypogynous, free or connate, imbricate. Torus small. Stamens 5,
free anthers versatile. Ovary 1-celled with 2-5 parietal placentas, or
as many celled by the projection of ‘slawenting,: style simple; stigma
terminal, 2-5-lobed; ovules many. Fruit capsular or indehiscent.
P1TTOSPORUM Banks.
Frect trees, (shrubs or undershrubs). Inflorescence usually
corymbose, subumbellate or paniculate. Sepals 5, free or connate
below. Petals erect, recurved at the top, claws connivent or connate.
Stamens erect, 5; anthers bursting inwards. Ovary sessile or shortly
stalked, incompletely 2- scelled: ovnliss 2 or more on each placenta.
_ Fruit a capsule. | :
‘Pittosporum nepalense (DC) Rhd. & Wils.
- Wallich 8127D! Banerji 2, Pashupatinath temple ag
554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
POLYGALACEAE
Annual or perennial herbs, erect or climbing shrubs, (or large
trees). Leaves usually simple, exstipulate, entire or occasionally
reduced to scales. Flowers hermaphrodite, irregular, bracteate,
axillary, spicate or racemed. Sepals 5, free, imbricate, 2 inner
(wings) often petaloid and larger. Petals 5 or 3, the anterior (Keel)
usually different and carinate. Stamens 4-5 or usually 8, hypogynous,
monadelphous, rarely distinct. Ovary free, 1-3-celled; style simple,
generally curved, filiform or variously dialated; stigma capitate.
Ovules 1 or more in each loculus. Fruit generally a 2-celled, 2-seeded
loculicidal capsule.
Key to the genera
Annual herbs. Flowers minute in
long terminal spikes; sepals nearly
equal; stamens 4-5 .-. 1. Salomonia.
Herbs or shrubs. Flowers fairly
large; 2 sepals larger (wing sepals);
stamens 8 me eez OM aalar
t. SALOMONIA Lour.
Small branched or unbranched annuals. Flowers minute in dense
terminal spikes. Sepals nearly equal. Petals 3, united at the base
with the staminal tube, the inferior one keel-shaped, hooded, not
crested. Stamens 4-5; filaments united into a sheath below. Ovary
2-celled, 1 ovule in each loculus. Fruit a _ loculicidal capsule,
laterally compressed, 2-celled. |
Key to the species
Lateral petals much shorter than the
keel; sepals lanceolate J Le em OULomeunolias
Lateral petals broad and nearly as
long as the keel; sepals ovate ... 2. S. edentula.
1. Salomonia oblongifolia DC.
Ref. : Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 207.
2. Salomonia edentula DC.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 207. Wallich, from
Nepal.
2. POLYGALA Linn.
Herbs, rarely shrubs. Leaves alternate. Sepals usually persistent,
2 inner larger and sometimes petaloid. Petals 3, lower boat-shaped
and usually crested at the tip. Stamens 8, monadelphous. Ovary
2-celled; 1 ovule in each cell. Fruit a 2-celled loculicidal capsule.
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 55
Leal
Key to the species
Shrubs. Keel crested; flowers yellow in
drooping terminal racemes; strophiole
large Soon Aha Re GIGI)
Herbs. Keel not crested; flowers yellow
in erect terminal racemes; strophiole
with 2 minute appendages Soo Bo IPs UDO MUO
Herbs. Keel crested
Bracts persistent
Undershrubs. Racemes axillary,
usually shorter than the leaves;
strophiole with 2 appendages... 3. P. crotalarioides.
Herbs. Strophiole without appendage
Racemes dense flowered; bracts 2
as long as the buds; flowers
blue; wings narrow bres
Racemes lax flowered; bracts
small; flowers rose-coloured ;
4. P. leptalea.
wings broad 5. P. persicariaefolia.
Bracts caducous. Flowers blue in
extra-axillary racemes. Capsules
broadly winged; strophiole with 3
appendages 500 > IP, SHON eH
t. Polygala arillata Buch.-Ham.
Wallich (?)! Scully 144, no locality! Burkill 29943,
Thansing to Sangli khola.
2. Polygala triphylla Buch.-Ham. var. glaucescens Wall.
Leaves 1-2 in., elliptic; flowers yellow.
Wallich 4182!
3. Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham.
Wallich 4176! Scully 27 and 46, both with no locality !
4. Polygala leptalea DC.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 202, Nepal; Burkill
29526, Kuro nadi near Hettaunda.
& Polygala persicariaefolia DC.
Wallich 4185!
6. Polygala sibirica Linn.
Wallich 4186! Banerji, no number, no locality !
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Herbs, sometimes a little woody at the base, branches jointed,
and thickened at the joints. Leaves opposite, usually quite entire;
stipules scarious, setaceous or even o. Flowers rarely unisexual.
Sepals 4-5, free, imbricate in the bud or united into a toothed calyx.
556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Petals 4-5, entire, toothed or bifid, sessile or clawed or sometimes o.
Stamens 8-10, rarely fewer, inserted with the petals and sometimes
slightly adherent to them. Disc annular or glandular or elongated
into a gynophore. Ovary free, 1-celled or imperfectly 3-5-celled;
style 2-5, free or connate; ovules 2 or many on a free central or on
a basal placenta. [Fruit a dry capsule, dehiscing by teeth or valves
or irregularly, rarely indehiscent.
Isey to the genera
Calyx gamosepalous. Styles 5, free;
Capsule’ 1-celled. — Stipules ro? ::. (1. Envchnis:
Calyx of free sepals
Stipules o; style free
Petals notched or entire. Capsule
cylindric or conic. Styles 3-5 2. Cerastium.
Petals 2-fid. Capsule globose,
ovoid or oblong. Styles 3-5 --- 3. Stellaria.
Petals entire. Capsule de-
pressed. Styles 2 nee
Petals entire or lacerate. Capsule
globose, ovoid or _ oblong.
Styles 2-3 “isis
Petals: “entire; minute Jor) o:
Capsule 4-5-valved. Styles 4-5 6. Sagina.
4. Brachystemma.
5. Arenaria.
Stipules scarious. Styles 2-3, united.
Sepals not keeled. Petals 2-6 fid
Sepals keeled. Petals entire
. Drymaria.
. Polycarpon.
CONT
1. LycHnis Linn.
Annual or perennial herbs. Flowers solitary or cymose. Calyx
more or less inflated, ovoid campanulate, clavate or tubular, 5-toothed
or cleft. Petals 5, claws narrow, limb entire or bifid. Stamens 10;
disc usually. produced into a long gynophore. Ovary 1-celled; styles
usually 5.
Key to the species
Stem elongate; leaves linear-lanceolate ;
flowers very few on elongate racemes 1. L. multicaulis.
Stem diffusely dichotomous; leaves
elliptic or ovate-lanceolate; panicle
lax, many-flowered jda 2b ibe venoms
t. Lychnis multicaulis Wall.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 224. Wallich, from
Nepal. |
2. Lychnis indica Benth. var. indica petals with a short bifid
blade, lobes entire or 2-toothed; styles 2. ;
Wallich 6241
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 557
2. CERASTIUM Linn.
Pubescent herbs. Leaves usually small. Flowers in_ terminal
dichotomous cymes, white. Sepals 5, rarely 4. Petals as many,
notched or bifid, rarely entire, sometimes o. Stamens 10, rarely
few. Ovary t-celled; styles usually 3-5; ovules many. Capsule
cylindric, often curved near the top, dehiscing by teeth.
Key to the species
Leaves small, ovate, obtuse; sepals
acute : 1. C. glomeratum.
Leaves usually lanceolate or obovate+
lanceolate, acute; sepals lanceolate... 2. C. triviale.
1. Cerastium glomeratum Thuill.
3 Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal; Wigram 146,
no locality ! Banerjz 50, Bhadgaon to Dhulikhel.
2. Cerastium triviale Link.
Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to. Nepal.
3. STELLARIA Linn.
Herbs of various habits. Leaves various. Flowers in dichoto-
mous cymes or rarely solitary and terminal, white. Petals 5 or
rarely 4, 2-fid or 2-partite or o. Stamens 10, rarely 8. Disc annular
or glandular. Ovary 1- or rarely 3-celled; styles 3, rarely 2-5; ovules
many. Capsule short, splitting to below the middle into entire or
bifid valves. |
Key to the species
Ovary 3-celled. Stem with a line of
hairs, nodes often hairy; leaves
sessile, oblong or linear-oblong.
Sepals equal to or half of the petals 1. S. crispata.
Ovary trcelled. Stem with a line of
hairs; leaves obovate or. elliiptic-
lanceolate. Sepals 4-5, much shorter
than the broad petals fh
Ovary t-celled. Sepals more or less
connate at the base.. Filaments not
suddenly dilated at the base
Stem cylindric, with stellate tomen-
tum. Sepals tomentose exceeding
the 2-partite petals S00
Stem 4-angled, glabrous or with
few hairs at the base of the o
leaves. Petals minute or o ... 4. S. uliginosa..
Ovary 1-celled. Sepals connate at the |
broad base. Filaments’ dilated at |
the base Bus
2. S. bulbosa.
3. S. saxatilis...
Se ‘decumbens.
558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
1. Stellaria crispata Wall.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 229.
2. Stellaria bulbosa Wall.
Banerji 320, Puyia to Ghate!
3. Stellaria saxatilis Wall.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 232. Wallich, from
Nepal; Burkill 29674, Markhu.
4. Stellaria uliginosa Linn.
King’s Collector, no number, no locality (in Herb. Calcut.) !
As far as I can find, King did not send any collector to Nepal. If
he did send one, then it must have been along the Nepal-Sikkim
boundary. ;
5. Stellaria decumbens Edgw. var. pulvinata Hk.f. forming dense
globose or cushion-like masses; leaves densely imbricate, ovate-
subulate. Flowers solitary; sepals 4-5, coriaceous.
Mukerji.
4. BRACHySTEMMA Don.
A diffuse sub-scandent branching herb. Leaves lanceolate.
Flowers in axillary or terminal panicles. Sepals 5, sub-scarious.
Petals 5, minute, narrow and entire. Stamens 10, 5 without anthers.
Ovary 1-celled; styles 2; ovules 4. Fruit a capsule, depressed, globose
and 4-valved.
Brachystemma calycinum Don.
Wallich (in Herb. Calcut. with no number, but bearing
Wallich’s handwriting)! Burkill 28161, Supari-Tar, & 28168, Nimbua
Tar; Banerji 308, Rhingmo to Jubing!
5. ARENARIA Linn.
Annual or perennial herbs, often tufted. Leaves broad or narrow.
Flowers white or pink, solitary or in dichotomous cymes. Sepals 5.
Petals 5, entire, lacerate or retuse, never bi -fid or -partite, rarely o.
Stamens 10, rarely 5. Ovary t-celled; styles 3-4, rarely 2; ovules
many. Fruit a capsule, short rarely exceeding the sepals.
Key to the species
Flowers always solitary, sessile or very
shortly pedicelled
Plants forming compact hemispheri-
cal tufts. Leaves spreading.
Petals retuse 66 ALS OOD.
Plants forming large compact tuft.
Leaves recurved. Petals linear-
lanceolate, acute .» 2. A. densissima.
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL Na: 599
Cymes few- or many-flowered, rarely 1-
flowered. Plants branching from the
roots. Sepals exceeding the petals 3. A. serpyllifolia.
1. Avenaria globifera Wall.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 238. Wallich, from
Nepal. Scully 219, no locality !
2. Arenaria densissima Wall.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 239. Wallich, from
Nepal. Banerji 361, Nangpa La!
3. Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn.
Burkill 29684, Chitlong.
6. SAGINA Linn.
Small herbs. Leaves linear-subulate, connate at the base, exsti-
pulate. Flowers small, globose, solitary, axillary or terminal.
Sepals 4-5. Petals 4-5, entire or o. Stamens 4-10. Ovary 1-celled;
styles 4-5; ovules many. Fruit a capsule, 4-5 valved.
Sagina procumbens Linn.
Banerji 250, Patale to Phaplu!
7. Drymaria Willd.
Diffuse glabrous herbs. Leaves rounded; stipules of several
bristles. Flowers in axillary and terminal cymes. Sepals 5; petals 5,
bi- to 6-fid. Stamens 3-5. Ovary 1-celled; style 3-fid; ovules 3 or
many. Fruit a 3-valved capsule.
Drymaria cordata Willd.
Wallich 647! Burkill 29548, Hettaunda.
8. POLYCARPON Linn.
Diffuse or erect and dichotomously branched herbs. Leaves
opposite, or from the presence of axillary fascicles appearing whorled ;
stipules scarious. Flowers crowded with many scarious_ bracts.
Sepals 5, keeled. Petals 5, small, hyaline, entire or notched.
Stamens 3-5. Ovary t-celled; style short, 3-fid. Fruit a 3-valved
_ capsule.
Polycarpon loeflingiae Benth. & Hook.f.
Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal.
560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
TAMARICACEAE
Mostly bushes or small trees. Leaves minute, scale-like, rarely
sheathing, sometimes fleshy; stipules o. Flowers usually spicate or
in crowded racemes, small, regular. Sepals and petals 5 each, rarely
4, sometimes a little connate below. Stamens 5-10 or many, free
or connate below. Ovary free, 1-celled or imperfectly 2-5-celled;
styles 2-5, free or connate; ovules 2-many on basal placentas. Fruit
a 3-valved capsule.
Myricaria Desv.
Fastigate shrubs. Leaves small, narrow, sessile, often crowded.
Inflorescence of lateral or terminal spike-like racemes. Flowers rose-
pink. Stamens 10, alternately long and short, monadelphous. Ovary
tapering with 3 sessile stigmas; placentas basal; ovules many.
Myricaria germanica Desv.
Mukerji; Banerji 373, Namchebazar to Dingbochee !
(To be continued)
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA!
BY
LieuT.-CoL. R. W. Burton, 1.a. (Retd.)
During the past sixty-five years there have appeared in our journal
no less than eighty references of one kind and another on the subject
of protection of wild birds and animals, the abolition of the plumage
trade, the conservation of game birds and animals, the preservation
of game and wild life. There have been the Society’s proceedings,
reports by the honorary secretaries, editorials and contributed articles.
Generally, through the pages of the Journal the Society has greatly
contributed to bring about such legislation as has been enacted during
this long period. .
Prominent among the protagonists for the protection and con-
servation of wild life have been the late Theodore Hubback whose
forceful and beautifully illustrated articles have done, and are still
doing, so much for the cause we all have at heart; Mr. S. H. Prater,
the Society’s curator, who twenty years ago designed and conducted
the notable series, ‘The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire and the
problem of their Preservation’; the Conservators of Forests and
other experts who contributed to that series; Sir Reginald Spence
who, during his term of office as honorary secretary and editor did
so much for wild life (and fisheries); Mr. Salim Ali who has done
so much particularly in the matter of nature study; and Lieut.-Col.
R. W. Burton who wrote the pamphlet of 1948 and the supplement
to it which were widely distributed by the Society as related in the
Honorary Secretary’s Report in Vol. 47, p. 792 (1949), and who con-
tributed from time to time other papers on the subject.
1952 AND A CENTRAL BOARD FOR WILD LIFE
After an interval of years there arrived in 1952 a revival of activity
on the part of the Government of India, and the Ministry of Food
and Agriculture Resolution of April 4th 1952 constituted and appointed
a Central Board for Wild Life (now ‘Indian Board for Wild Life’)
with its functions defined and terms of business arranged.
The first meeting of the Board assembled at Mysore from the
November 25th to the 1st of December 1952 under the chairmanship
ef His Highness the Maharaja of Mysore, who observed in his
Inaugural Address how fortunate it is that we have as Vice-Chairmen
K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar and Shri M. D. Chatur-
vedi, the Inspector-General of Forests, and remarked upon the
strength and inspiration afforded by the distinguished body of natura-
lists, conservationists and experienced officers of the various Forest
Departments of the different States of India who are now serving
* Text of the farewell address delivered at a meeting of members of the Bombay
Natural History Society on April 15, 1953.
562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
on the Board. The inclusion of a number of officials and non-officials
raised the twelve members appointed by the original Resolution to
close upon forty at this first session. It is understood that the 23
recommendations of the Board have been accepted by the Government
with the single exception that the matter of the declaration of the
Indian Board for Wild Life as an institution of national importance
is held over just now for reasons of legislative convenience.
THE CONFERENCE AT MYSORE
The proof of a conference being in its sequel, it is a good augury
that some press notices from New Delhi indicate activity in several
respects: for instance, formation of zoological parks near cities and
large towns; and the calling for statistics from the States govern-
ments regarding their holdings of wild birds and wild animals in
their respective areas. The recommendation that the Indian Lion
needs another locality besides the Gir Forest is also receiving atten-
tion in a practical way.
One of the first results from the constitution of the Board of
Control is the compilation at the instance of His Highness of Mysore,
and with his financial assistance also, of a volume, ‘The Preservation
of Wild Life in India—A Compilation’ (i-xiii+176 pages and same
size as our journal). The genesis of the book is contained in the
first paragraph on p. 863 of the Journal for August 1952,: and the
500 copies which have been printed are being now (April 8th) distri-
buted to persons and institutions in India and abroad, perhaps also
to the Press, in accordance with a list prepared by the Secretary of
the Indian Board for Wild Life. It is possible that, should there
be sufficient demand by others for priced copies, a second printing
would be made. This would require the sanction of His Highness
of Mysore. The price would probably be Rs. 4-8-0 ex postage and
intimation of requirements would be received by the Secretary of the
Board, who is also Under-Secretary to the Government of India in
the Food and Agricultural Ministry, New Delhi.
The Foreword by Mr. Girja Shankar Bajpai, Governor of Bombay
and President of the Bombay Natural History Society, observes that
the book brings together in convenient compass the relevant literature
on the subject.
“THE PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA—A COMPILATION’
The introduction by the compiler, Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, states
the purpose of the book is to assist the cause of wild life through
endeavour to place in readily accessible form before all the com-
mittees that will be formed in the States and Unions the principal
contents of the various important articles which have been from time
to time contributed to the Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society. There are also important editorials and other papers which
greatly aid right knowledge and understanding of the many and
varied aspects of this complex question. All these are dealt with in
the Summarized Index of the compilation which consists of 102 para--
graphs having references and cross references to the reprints contained
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 563
within it. ‘Appendix ‘A’ of the compilation gives a summary of the
speeches delivered at the Mysore meeting, and Appendix ‘B’ prints
the Resolutions Adopted by the Board at its First Session. The
eighty references previously mentioned are listed at pages 116-119 of
the compilation. Among the List of Contents is reference to ‘The
Book of Indian Animals’ by S. H. Prater (Rs. 16 to non-members)
a copy of which should be with all who have interest in the wild
animals of India, and is essential to the secretaries of all wild life
boards and committees.
While all the paragraphs of the Summarized Index are more or
less important as concerned with the past and present situation of
many of the wild birds and wild animals and the general question of
their preservation, there are some which call for particular mention.
SOME PRESENT DAY PROBLEMS
All of us know that afforestation is one of the most pressing
needs of this sub-continent at the present time. In his address to
the Indian Science Congress at Allahabad in 1949 Mr. M. S.
Randhawa observed that nature conservation and conservation of soil,
forests, grass-land and water are intimately connected, and just as
fundamental to agriculture, horticulture, forestry, game preservation,
fisheries, etc., as it is to the management of National Parks. Readers
of the Journal will have in mind Mr. Randhawa’s illuminating article
on the progressive desiccation of northern India and the effect this
has had, and is still having, on wild life in those parts; and will
wholly agree with his urge that re-afforestation is the sovereign
remedy to check soil erosion, and ‘Plant More Trees’ should be our
slogan for the next many decades.
Just as afforestation favourably affects wild life so is disafforesta-
tion its deadly enemy. A sub- leader in The Mail, Madras, of October
16th 1952 clearly demonstrates how those same forces of destruc-
tion which brought about the desiccation of northern India and the
Siwaliks are at this very time being practised by the government
and the people of several named taluks in the Madras State; and
it is well-known that this same process is at work in other parts of
country also. In this connection it can be fittingly quoted, ‘Many
are the paths along which Man proceeds to destruction though his
main object is his own survival.’ Of the 19,000 square miles of
forests in the Madras State there are 16,000 open to grazing.
Mr. A. A. Dunbar Brander has advocated as a remedial measure,
‘Establishing associations for the protection of wild life, and rousing
educated public opinion, and enlisting influential men as members
of such societies. The long established Nilgiri Game Association
is a well-known example of what can be effected through good and
continued organization. There are also successful associations of
the kind in northern Bengal. The recently constituted Sportsmen’s
Club of Orissa (1949), should it have had continued success, and be
taken as a model by other States and Unions, should result in largely
aiding the functions of the Indian. and other boards of control for
wild life throughout India.
3
064 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
CONSERVATION, CONTROL, FOREST STAFF, GAME FUND, REAL INTEREST
Regarding conservation and control it is well expressed by the
editorial of the May 1952 Bulletin of the I.U.P.N. that, ‘More and
more game will only be able to survive in so far as Man himself is
both able and willing to set a limit to killing.’ That is one of the
important functions of the Boards and Committees—to set a limit to
kalling. Theodore Hubback declared, ‘I think we may claim that
the chief object of the conservation of wild life must be to prevent
the disappearance of species’. Phythian-Adams_ correctly states,
‘Wild life is a very real national asset and no one can object to all
reasonable steps being taken for its preservation.’ One of the main
difficulties in preservation and protection of wild life is that of en-
forcement. One principal remedy is increase of forest staff, and this
would be possible were a Game Fund established in all States and
Unions, and at the Centre also. The case for the Game Fund is
plainly and logically stated in paragraph 31 of the Summarized Index.
Real interest denotes considerably more than casual interest, and
has been frequently urged as an essential to the preservation of wild
life. It is bound up with public opinion and with nature study.
‘In power politics a well informed public opinion is the world’s.
greatest security. So also in regard to wild life, real and correctly
informed interest on the part of the public is its greatest protection.’
There is urgent need in India for creating and stimulating a real
interest in the wild life of the country which also means the pro-
tection of the forests—and not only by the governments. Besides.
the governments the editors and journalists too have a duty in this.
matter. An essential to enable Boards of Control and Committees
give effect to function 3 (ili)—‘to promote public interest in wild life
and the need for its preservation in harmony with natural and human
environment’—is the widest publicity through government channels
and the newspapers; and an imperative help is the whole-hearted
aid by editors and journalists both in the papers and periodicals in
English and in the regional languages also. No less a person than
the Vice-President of the Republic of India has declared (16-9-52),
‘It is the duty of the Press to produce the climate of opinion which
would help the Government achieve its objectives.’
Wuat 1s Meant By ‘WILD LIFE?’
‘Wild life’ at the present juncture, means, in most of the litera
ture, the game birds and the larger animals. Game is part of the
natural heritage of the country which it is incumbent on the State
and on the present generation to preserve for posterity. But unless.
active and continued, and continual, steps are taken what will be —
the result? Nothing but the gradual elimination of the game birds.
and the larger animals of the country. Once it is gone no efforts.
of mankind can restore it. In many parts of the country there are
people of middle age who have seen the disappearance of species
within the period of their lives. The beauty and interest of the
creatures they have seen will not be known to their descendants. In
his Foreword to this recent compilation our Society’s President very
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 565.
rightly points out how lifeless and wanting in interest will be our
forests when the game has gone.
The value of wild life is considerable; and this apart from
certain considerations of science which could be mentioned. Pro-
minent among the magnets for attracting tourists in India is the
spectacle of wild life and its abundant interest for all classes of sports-
men and sightseers. Who can gainsay that?
ZOOLOGICAL AND OTHER PARKS ~
The formation of Zoological Parks in the vicinity of all the cities
and larger towns in India is one of the suggestions in the ‘Delhi
Memorandum’. The Chairman of the Indian Wild Life Board in his
final speech on December 1, 1952, said that this proposal deserves
earnest consideration at the hands of the public and the several
governments. The proposal is covered by Resolution No. 6 of the
Board. A New Delhi press note of date March 5, 1953, announces
the intended establishment of such a park between the Purana Kila
and Humayun’s Tomb. This, it is said, has the backing of the Prime
Minister of India; and the Planning Commission so much to the
fore at the present time has, it is stated, provisions for such parks
throughout the country. |
In the ‘Delhi Memorandum’ the suggestion is also made that
places of religious pilgrimage such as Mount ‘Abu, Mandu, Parasnath
and the like should be formed into dual purpose parks; that is, parks
both for protection of religious monuments and historic buildings
and the wild life that is around them. In and around these places,
being annually visited by millions of the people, much could be done
to bring home to them the variety and beauty of the wild life that
is their heritage from the past. They would learn and realise that
it is their duty to pass to their descendants all that 1s now theirs to
use and enjoy.
The management of India’s Wild Life National Parks and
Sanctuaries has been dealt with by Mr. E. P. Gee in our December
1952 Journal. The Compilation, here referred to, treats of these
matters in detail; and in regard to parks of other kinds also—Peoples’
Parks, Dual Purpose Parks and Zoological Parks.
TrabE, NETTING, POACHING AND SPORTSMANSHIP
An essential for the preservation of game is the prevention of
its commercialization. Resolution ro adopted by the Board of Control
recommends that the netting of wild animals and birds should be
stopped during ‘close’ seasons. This, if enforced, will be a some-
thing against the trappers and snarers. Those who have good
knowledge of the question will realise how very difficult effective
enforcement will be. The close season from February 15th to the end
of September should protect all areas outside the forests. The 1938.
U.P. Forest Department Schedule of close time for netting might
with advantage be adopted by all States and Unions.
566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54
A measure which is essential in respect to trade is to recognize
that flesh of wild animals and birds is not in these days necessary
to human existence. Legislation is necessary to prohibit offering for
sale, possessing for sale, or marketing in any way the hides, horns,
flesh of any indigenous wild birds, or wild animals throughout the
year. What possible objection can there be on religious or other
grounds to a general law throughout the country to that effect? If
half measures only are adopted the wild animals and birds now
slaughtered for gain will gradually vanish. It can be said that the
trade will, in course of time, put an end to itself through the ex-
termination of all the creatures which support it !
There are two powerful enemies to wild life which need to be dealt
with (1) Poaching through use of the motor vehicle, (2) Poaching
through use of the electric torch. Unless these two forces of des-
truction are halted the larger wild life of India is doomed. Those
shocking predators, the “Mighty Jeep’ and its many relatives are at
work in many parts of India during the evenings and nights of most
months in the year. The Game Laws and Rules should conform
with the Excise Laws and give power to the convicting courts to
order confiscation of any vehicle used to contravene the laws and
rules. Why not? Unless this step is taken poaching through use
of the motor vehicle will continue. Other countries have faced the
facts; India should do the same.
In his speech at the final session, the Union Minister of Agri-
culture, Dr. Punjabrao Deshmukh, declared that ‘we must inculcate
a spirit of sportsmanship into our people’. That has reference to
other aspects of shooting than the use of the motor vehicle at night.
The speeches delivered at the Mysore Session (Appendix ‘A’ of
the Compilation) have in them much of interest, instruction and
guidance.
WHAT OF THE FUTURE?
The foregoing is of the past and the present. What of the
future? Most of us have more or less knowledge of what is being
done in Bombay to guide and instruct the youth of to-day in nature
study. Outside Bombay and in the rest of the country what is being
‘done to educate the children in this respect? Nature study forms
a part of the curriculum of primary and secondary schools. Is there
a sufficient trained teaching staff? It is feared that the teaching
staff are handicapped by being unfamiliar with their subject. Have
they in sufficient quantity the necessary suitable books, charts, litera-
ture, lantern slides and so on? Some thirty years ago it was
authoritatively stated that the Boy Scouts and Girl Guides have an
unparalleled opportunity for arousing an interest and an active love
of Nature in children. Is that great organization doing anything
12 this important matter?
It is a truism to say that the youth of to-day must be the con-
servationists of to-morrow. In 1930 the Governor of Bombay said
that we should aim at teaching the children the value of wild life;
in 1949 the Governor of Ceylon declared there is need for propaganda
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 567
and education among the younger children in the schools to convince
them that they will, and must be the future custodians of wild life.
Unless in their youth the children of the present generation are
properly instructed how are they going to be any better than the
past and present generations which have brought the wild life and
the forests of this country to their present parlous state?
In some countries good work is being done in this matter of
instruction of the children. Apart from European countries the
movement has advanced in West Africa, in Uganda and Northern
Rhodesia, to mention only a few. It is recognised that small game
and birds have an educational value for nature study which is en-
couraged as much as possible in schools. Roads and rest camp
accommodation is providing opportunities for school children to visit
Reserves, and the heavy booking during the school holidays shows.
that advantage is being taken of the facilities provided.
At the present time—1953—the I.U.P.N. is making considerable:
efforts in the direction of education of the youth. Special lessons
-for the use of educators and of teachers and pupils in primary and
secondary schools of a number of countries are being issued. ‘In
spite of its importance to mankind the theme of these lessons is
little known or totally ignored by contemporary nations,’ writes the
Secretary-General. So India is not the only country apathetic in
this vital matter. In the nature study movement lies the real
interest that is the true protection of wild life and the forests of the
future.
APPENDIX ~ A’
List of references printed in the book, ‘The Preservation of
Wild Life—A Compendium’ compiled and written by Lt.-Col. R. W.
Burton and published in March 1953 with the financial assistance of
His Highness the Maharaja of Mysore, Chairman of the Indian Board
for Wild Life.
1. The Wild ‘Animals of India and the Problem of Their
Preservation.
(a) Introductional Survey of the Indian Empire and the
Problem.
By S. H. Prater, 0.B.E., C.M.z.s., Curator, Bombay
Natural History Society.
(b) The Central Provinces (Madhya Pradesh).
By A. A. Dunbar Brander, Late Conservator of Forests,
Central Provinces. [Vol]. 36 (4); 1933].
(c) The Bombay Presidency (Bombay State).
By Go Wicromendn, mess. | Wolle Bo (7) 8) woes Ile
(d) Assam.
By A. J. W. Milroy, Conservator of Forests, Assam.
[Vol. 37 (1); 1934].
568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
(ec) The United Provinces (Uttar Pradesh).
By F. W. Champion, Deputy Conservator of Forests.
United Provinces [Vol. 37 (1); 1934].
(f) The Madras Presidency (Madras State).
By R. D. Richmond, 1.F.s. (Retd.). [Vol. 38 (2);
1935].
(g) Comments on Mr. Richmond’s Note.
BytR> ©oeMornis;F-Z7s. [| Volmg38a(2)i 1o3isi|r
{h) Mysore State.
By Major (Lt.sCol.) E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.£.,
Imes || VOle BS 4a) 3 TORS].
(:) Hyderabad State.
By, Salim Ay yAli;) McB.O; Urn Vol. 3852) keTossile
2. Principles of Wild Life Conservation.
By Theodore Hubback,.F.z.s. [Vol. 40: r1oo-111 (1938) |.
Wild Life Preservation in India—India’s Vanishing Asset.
By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. [Vol. 47: 602-622 (1948)].
4. Preservation of Wild Life in India—Supplement to the above.
By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1a. (Retd.) [Vol. 48: 290-299
(1949) |.
5. Wild. Life Preservation—Birds.
By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.) [Vol. 47: 778-780
(1948) |.
6. Preservation of Wild Life.
By M. D. Chaturvedi, B.sc. (Oxon), 1.F.s., Chief Conservator
= of Forests, and now Inspector-General of Forests and
Vice-Chairman of the Indian Board for Wild Life. With
Comment by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.a. [ Vol. 48: 588-
591 (1949) ]. :
Nature Conservation, National Parks and Bio-aesthetic Plan-
ning in India ‘An Address to the Section of Botany, 36th
Indian Science Congress, Allahabad, 1949). (abridged.)
By M. S. Randhawa, 1.c.s., M.sc., F.N.1., Deputy Com-
missioner, Ambala (E. Punjab).
8. A Memorandum (42 paragraphs) dated 16th October 1950 sub-
mitted by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, to the Sub-Committee to
be assembled at New Delhi to examine and suggest ways
and means for setting up National Parks and Sanctuaries
in India.
9. Editorials: The Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society. Game Preservation in India. [Vol. 32: 359-365
(1927)].
ro. Jungle Memories.
By Major (Lt.-Col.) E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.£., F.Z.S.,
1.A. (Retd.) ‘Conservation’ at pp. 467-468, Vol. 50 (1952).
oo
“NI
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA
569
APPENDIX ‘B’
RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE CENTRAL BOARD FOR WILD
LIFE AT 1TS FIRST SESSION HELD IN MYSORE FROM
NOVEMBER Z5TH TO DECEMBER IlsT, 1952.
1. The Central Board for Wild Life recommends that its name
be changed to ‘Indian Board for Wild Life’, so as to specify its precise
territorial limits for international purpose.
2. Whereas India’s heritage of wild lifeis fast becoming a vanish-
ing asset in respect of some of the country’s notable animals, such as,
lion, rhinoceros, tragopan, cheetah, etc., 3
Whereas the preservation of the fauna of India and the prevention
of the extinction of any species is a matter of great national impor-
tance, and
Whereas protection in balance with natural and human environment
are also matters of urgent national importance,
The Central Board for Wild Life reeommends to the Government
(7) To devise ways and means for
the conservation and control of wild
life through co-ordinated legislative
and practical measures, with particu-
lar reference to seasonal and regional
closures and declaration of certain
species of animals as ‘ protected’
animals and prevention of indiscrimi-
nate killing ;
(2) to sponsor the setting up of
national parks, sanctuaries and z0o-
logical gardens;
(zz) to promote public interest in
wild life and the need for its preserva-
tion in harmony with natural and
hitman environment ;
(zv) to advise Government on policy
in respect of export of living animals,
trophies, skins, furs, feathers and
other wild life products;
(v) to prevent cruelty to birds and
beasts caught alive with or without
injury ; and
(vz) to perform such cther functions
as are germane to the purpose for
which the Board has been constituted.
List I—item 13. Participation
of India that, despite the existence
of entry 20 ‘Protection of wild
animals and birds’ in List II (State
List) of the seventh Schedule to the
Constitution of India, the Central
Board for Wild Life, with the
marginally noted functions assigned
to it under the Ministry of Food and
Agriculture Resolution F. 7-110-51-
R of the 4th April 1952 be declared
by Parliament by Law to be an
institution of national importance
as envisaged in items 62 and 64 of
List 1—Union List—of the VII
Schedule tothe Constitution more
specially as the proper exercise of
the functions of the Board will
involve recourse to action under
one or more of the following en-
tries in the Union and concurrent
Legislative Lists :—
List I—item 5. Arms, firearms,
ammunition and explosives.
in the international conferences,
associations and other bodies and implementing of decisions made
thereat, e.g., the International Union for the Protection of Nature.
List I—item 41. Trade and commerce with foreign countries;
import and export across customs frontiers—in so far as living animals,
trophies, skins, furs, feathers and other wild life products are con-
cerned.
List I—item 42.
Inter-State Trade and Commerce with respéct to
' matters specified against the preceding entry (No. 41).
List I—item 81.
(Union List) Inter-State migration (of wild life).
an
Name
Dec lara-
tion of the
Central
Board for
Wild life as
institu-
tion of nae
tional im-
portance.
Amend-
ment of the
constitution
of the Cen-
tral Board
for Wild Life.
Executive
Committee.
570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
List IlI—item 17. (Concurrent List) Prevention of cruelty to
animals.
List III—item 29. (Concurrent List) Prevention of the extension
from one State to another of infectious or contagious diseases or pests.
affecting men, animals or plants.
List I1I—item 33, (Concurrent List) Trade and Commerce in and
the production, supply and distribution of the products of industries.
where the control of such industries by the Union is declared by
Parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest.
[Sub-Section (2) of Article 246 enables Parliament to make laws.
with reference to any of the matters enumerated in List III.]
3. Whereas the constitution of the Central Board for Wild Life set
up by the Government of India requires elaboration and amplification
with a view to devising ways and means for the proper fulfilment of its.
aims and objects,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends :—
(a) that each State Government should be requested to set up a
State Wild Life Board consisting of representatives of various organi-.
sations and interests to deal with the day-to-day administration of local
Wild Life problems.
Note :—The co-ordination of the activities of the State Boards will
be effected through the Central Board for Wild Life. |
(6) that Honorary Regional Secretaries should be appointed as.
the Board’s representatives to cover on its behalf the various regions
in India.
Note :—Appointments of Honorary Regional Secretaries wiil be
made by the Government of India and duly notified in the Gazette
of India. Each Regional Secretary will maintain liaison between the
Central Board and the State Boards. It will be necessary to make pro-
vision for the travelling allowance of the Regional Secretaries for the
journeys performed by them in their respective regions in the discharge
of their duties assigned to them by the Board.
(c) that Dr. S. L. Hora, Director, Zoological Survey of India, and
President, National Institute of Sciences, India, should be appointed as.
the Honorary Secretary-General of the Board.
(d) that for the day-to-day administration, an Executive Committee:
consisting of the following be constituted :—
The Non-official Vice-Chairman. (Chairman)
The Regional Secretaries.
The Secretary-General.
The Secretary of the Central Board. (Secretary)
Note :—The Executive Committee will be vested by the Board with.
authority to function on its behalf in the disposal of day-to-day business.
(e) that the Constitution of the Board should be so amended as to:
cover the above recommendations.
4. Whereas it is necessary to provide the Executive Committee of
the Board with authority to carry on the day-to-day business of the:
Board and to take action onits behalf while the Board is not in session,
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 571
The Central Board for Wild Life resolves::—
(a) that the Executive Committee is vested with full powers to
take necessary action in pursuance of the objects of the Board to deal
with the day-to-day business of the Board and to address the Central
Government and other authorities on various matters concerning the
business of the Board ;
(6) that the Executive Committee will transact its business by
circulation as far as possible and will meet at least once in 6 months;
(c) that the Executive Committee will frame bye-laws for the dis-
posal of its own business as well as the business of the Board subject
to the ratification of the Board;
(d) that the proceedings of the Executive Committee shall he
circulated to the Members of the Board in the form of periodical bulle-
tins ; :
(e) that in the event of a decision to be taken in respect of a State,
the representative of the State concerned on the Board shall be co-
opted; and
(f) that the Executive Committee is authorised to make verbal
alterations in the language of the resolution to be presented to Govern-
ment.
The Central Board for Wild Life resolves :-—
5. that its grateful appreciation of the generous arrangements made
for holding its inaugural session at Mysore should be conveyed to the
Government of Mysore.
In particular, the Board would kee to convey its gratitude to His
Highness the Rajpramukh for his unstinted hospitality and for the
interest he has taken in the proceedings of the session.
The Board also acknowledges with thanks the assistance rendered
by the Chief Conservator of Forests, Mysore, and his staff in organizing
visits to various institutions and making arrangements for the dele-
gates.
6. Whereas the preservation of nature in its unspoiled state is
deemed essential for its educative and aesthetic value ;
Whereas wild life in India is progressively diminishing,
Whereas some of the wild animals have already become extinct or
are on the verge of extinction, and
Whereas the maintenance of an equilibrium between the vegetable
kingdom and the animal kingdom and among the animals themselves
is of importance to mankind,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends that the attention of
the State governments should be drawn to the need for :—
(a) the creation of National Parks in conformity with the general
objectives laid down by the International Union for the Protection of
Nature and affiliated bodies,
provided that should a State create a National Park, the advice of
the Central Board for Wild Life will be taken to ensure its national
character.
Note :—The term ‘ National Park’ for this purpose would generally
denote an area dedicated by statute for all time, to conserve the scenery
Thanks to:
Mysore Gov-
ernment.
Protection:
of Nature
and Wild
Life.
572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
and natural and historical cbjects of national significance, to conserve
wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such
manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the
enjoyment of future generations, with such modifications as_ local
conditions may demand.
(6) the creation of Wild Life Sanctuaries (or Wild Life Refuges) of
such size and in such numbers which the needs for the preservation of
wild life, more particularly of the species which have become scarce or
which are threatened with extinction, may demand.
Note:—1. The expression ‘ Wild Life Sanctuary’ shall denote an area
constituted by the competent authority in which killing, hunting, shoot-
ing or capturing of any species of bird or animal is prohibited except
by or under the control of the highest authority in the department res-
ponsible for the management of the Sanctuary. The boundaries and
character of such a sanctuary will be kept sacrosanct as far as possible.
Such sanctuaries should be made accessible to visitors.
2. While the management of sanctuaries does not involve suspen-
sion or restriction of normal forest operations, it would be generally
desirable to set apart an area of 1 to about 25 square miles within a
sanctuary where such operations may not be carried out, to ensure the
nursing up of wild life undisturbed by human activities. Such sacro-
sanct areas may be declared as ‘ Abhavaranya’ i.e., a forest where
animals could roam about without fear of man. Sucha sanctuary within
a sanctuary would also ensure the preservation of plant life unspoiled
and undisturbed.
3. Inthe management of sanctuaries, control should be exercised
over elements adverse tc the maintenance of wild life, including des-
truction of vermin and predators. In the case of any difficulty, expert
advice may be obtained from the Central Board for Wild Life.
4, Inthe event of a sanctuary being located in one State contigu-
ous to a sanctuary in another State, the desirable co-ordination may be
effected through the Central Board for Wild Life.
(c) imposing restrictions on the issue of shooting permits and by
the prohibition of shooting in State Forests of a particular species for
such periods as may be deemed necessary in order to attain the objec-
tives in regard to the preservation of wild life.
Note :—Special ‘ preservation plots ’ may be constituted where plants
of medicinal vaiue or species of special botanical interest may need to
be preserved along with or without wild life.
(d) encouraging members of the public interested in wild life to
assist in the preservation of wild life by appointing them as Honorary
Wild Life Officers who will perform the duties and enjoy the powers and
privileges of Forest Officers in respect of preservation of wild life
delegated to them.
Note:—Alil the members of the Central and the State Wild Life
Boards as well as Honorary Wild Life Officers should be issued with a
badge of office and an identity card in consultation with the Central
Board for Wild Life.
(e) the setting up of zoological parks for the purpose of entertain-
ment, recreation and study of animal life.
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 573
Note 1:—These parks should provide ideal conditions for rescuing
and multiplying any species on the verge of extinction.
2. A Zoological Park is different from a zoological garden,
inasmuch as it provides space and secures conditions similar to those in
the natural habitats for the housing of animals, which are not possible
in zoological gardens.
(f) modelling the BEainisiation of zoological gardens of the
various States along the lines of Alipore Zoo, Calcutta.
Note:—The maintenance of zoos at a high standard of efficiency is
desirable, and advice in this respect may be obtained from the Honorary
Secretary-General of the Central Board for Wild Life.
(g) declaring the following species as protected animals :—
(i) Indian Lion (viii) Musk Deer
(ii) Snow Leopard (ix) Brow-antlered Deer
(iii) Clouded Leopard = (x) Pigmy Hog
(iv) Cheetah (xi) Great Indian Bustard
(v) Rhinoceros (all species) (xii) Pink-headed Duck
(vi) The Indian Wild Ass (xiii) White-winged Wood
(vii) Kashmir Stag : Duck
Note :—This list is illustrative and not exhaustive and may have to
be added to from time to time to suit local conditions. Legislation
should be enacted where necessary to secure complete protection of
these animals and birds which are on the verge of extinction.
7. Whereas the Indian lion, which not long ago was distributed
throughout north-west India,
“Whereas the Indian lion has now receded to the confines of Gir
Forest in Kathiawar Peninsula, and whereas the Indian lion is an
animal of national importance requiring rigorous protection,
The Central Board for Wild Life
Views with great alarm the dangers attendant upon concentrating the
remnant lions in a single locality and not immune from epidemic and
other unforeseen calamities ;
Recommends that an additional locality as a Sanctuary for the lions
in a suitable area should be developed. In the selection of this locality,
the original range and environment of the lion shall be taken into
consideration.
And Requests that the attention of the Government of Saurashtra
should be invited to the need for associating the Central Board for Wild
Life in the management of the lions of the Gir Forest.
8. Whereas unrestricted trading in trophies, skins, furs, feathers
and flesh is detrimental to the wild life resources of the country,
The Central Board for Wild Life Recommends :—
(a) that the export of trophies, as defined in the Bombay Wild
Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act 1951 (xxiv of 1951) should
be prohibited except in cases which are covered by a Certificate of
Ownership issued by the prescribed authority of the Central or State
Governments such as Forest or Revenue Officers, etc. or whose owner-
ship is otherwise established.
Protection
of the Lion.
Trading
in Trophies,
Skins, Furs,
Feathers
and Flesh.
Prevention
of cruelty to
animals.
Netting of
wild _ birds
and animals.
Export and
Import of
living ani-
mals
birds.
and
574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Note :— This provision will not apply to the re-export of trophies
sent to India for finishing on the production of a certificate of the
owner.
(6) that legislative control of internal trade in trophies should, for
the present, await the experience to be gained in the Bombay State
where legislation in this respect is being brought into force shortly,
(c) that, in the meanwhile, in order to discourage trading in tro-
phies inside the country and to prohibit (a) the netting of birds and
animals during ‘close’ periods, (6) their sale, (¢) the sale of venison,
(d) the sale of flesh and parts of other wild animals, the Government of
India should invite the attention of the State Governments to the advis-
ability of enforcing the provisions of Act VIII of 1912, as amended
from time to time, or such other legislation as might have been enacted
or extended for the purpose.
9. Whereas inthe interests of wild life, and for humane reasons, it
is necessary to prevent cruelty to animals and birds during captivity
and transit,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends
that the cooperation of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals (S.P.C.A.) should be sought in this connection and that
Honorary Wild Life Officers in every centre be requested to report all
cases of cruelty to animals and birds in captivity and during transit.
10. Whereas extensive netting of wild animals and birds is pre-
judicial to the maintenance of the Balance of Nature and is detrimental
to the wild life of the country,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends
that the netting of wild animals and birds should be stopped during |
‘close’ seasons and that no exemptions should be permitted on grounds
of tribal or caste customs, livelihood, profession or usage.
11. Whereas the unrestricted export of living animals and birds
tends to deplete the fauna of the country, and
Whereas the unrestricted import of animals and birds is not in the
interest of local fauna,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends :—
(a) that the Chief Controller of Imports and Exports be requested
to fix the annual limits for the export of each valuable species of wild
life to zoos, scientific institutions and circuses outside India on the
recommendation of the Secretary-General of the Board,
(6) that all requests for zmorts of living specimens of wild life
-by zoos, scientific institutions and circuses in India should be routed
through the Honorary Secretary-General of the Board,
(c) that the excise duty to be levied on the export of animals for
circuses should be double the duty levied on animals intended for dona
fide zoos and scientific institutions,
provided that gifts and exchanges between Jona fide zoos be exempt
from such duties,
(d) that the State Governments be requested to give priority to
the requirements of zoos in India in respect of species of wild life over
the requirements of foreign zoos,
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 575
provided that the restrictions contemplated in the aforesaid clauses
shall not apply to exports of species classified as ‘ vermin’.
Note:—The phrase ‘vermin’ is defined in the Bombay Wild
Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act (XXIV of 1951) as ‘ any animal
or bird specified in Schedule I and includes any animal or bird declared
to be vermin under Section 18’.
12. Whereas owing to Jack of uniformity in the periods prescribed
by different State Governments as ‘close’ seasons, it is difficult for the
Transport Authorities to keep a check on ‘close’ season offences,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends
that movements of living birds be prohibited from April lst to
September 30th which, for all practical purposes, will be. treated as
‘close’ season for purposes of transport.
Note:—This restriction will not apply to movements for dona fide
purposes, e.g., exchange of specimens by zoos and transport of birds
by circuses, etc.
13. Whereas it is essential for the Central Board to maintain statis-
tics of species of wild lite,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends
that all State Governments be requested to furnish information on
the following points to its Secretary-General :—
(a) surplus species held by their zoos for disposal,
(6) species required by their zoos, and
(¢) animals that can be captured in their forests.
14. Whereas it is necessary to focus attention on problems of edu-
cating the public on the value of wild life, and
Whereas zoos and national parks are institutions for such edu-
cation,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends
that symposiums should be held at an early date on the needs and
requirements of
(a2) Indian Zoos and
(6) management of National Parks and Sanctuaries so as to assist
in the formulation of policies in regard to the maintenance of wild life
exhibits in the Zoos and the management of Nationa] Parks and Sanc-
tuaries.
15. Whereas it is necessary to secure public co-operation in the
enforcement of measures for the protection of wild life,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends :—
(a) that members of the public interested in Nature should be
invited to become Alonorary Correspondents to the Board in matters re-
lating to wild life; and
(6) that members of the Board should be appointed as Honorary
Wild Life Officers on behalf of the Board in respect of the resolutions
and recommendations passed and such instructions as may be issued
from time to time by the Board.
‘ Close’
Season.
Compila-
tion of statise
tics.
Symposiums
Co-operation
of public in
enforcement
of measures
for the pro-
tection of
Wild Life.
Wild Life
Legislation.
‘Close’ sea-
sons, illicit
shooting,
etc
Crop pro-
tection guns.
576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
16. Whereas it is necessary to preserve wild life in the country as a
whole.
Whereas the existing machinery for the protection of wild life in
areas outside the purview of the Indian Forest Act XVI of 1927 or
adaptations thereof, is inadequate, and
Whereas the protection afforded to wild life in areas within the
purview of the Indian Forest Act XVI of 1927, or adaptations thereof,
requires strengthening,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends :—
(a) that necessary legislation ,be enacted at an early date by the
Centre or the States as the case may be.
Note:—The attention of State governments is invited to the exist-
ing legislation for the protection of wild life in various States and, in.
particular, to the ‘ Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection
Act, Act No. XXIV 0f 1951’ andthe Rules framed thereunder.
17. Whereas there is reason to believe that there is need for the
amendment of existing ‘ close’ seasons observed in respect of birds and
animals,
Whereas the list of animals and birds now treated as vermin needs
re-examination with a view to limiting it to only those animals and birds
which should be kept in check,
Whereas in some parts of the country there is wholesale destruction
of wild life with the help of dogs,
Whereas shooting from vehicles, with or without blinding spot or
head lights, shooting with torches, shooting over salt licks and water
holes, destroying animals by using poisons, explosives and poisoned
weapons, catching animals and birds by nets, traps, pits, snares, etc., and
killing animals by driving them in snow or by fire require to be dis-
couraged in the interests of the preservation of wild life, and
Whereas the use of buck-shot wounds rather than kills animals,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends :—
(a) that States do review, in consultation with the Central Board
for Wild Life, and, if possible with their contiguous States, their ‘ close’
seasons for the various animals and birds to be protected,
(6) that States should re-examine their lists of ‘vermin’ from
time to time to ensure that only harmful species are so classified, and
(c) that the attention of State governments be invited to the
urgent need for devising ways and means and of adopting such
measures, including enactment of legislation, to discourage if not to
prohibit, these practices in the interests of wild life.
18. Whereas indiscriminate slaughter of wild life is often indulged
in with the aid of guns ostensibly held for crop protection,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends :—
(a) that ways and means be devised to ensure that guns issued for
crop protection are used only for the protection of standing crops and
that the use of such guns for hunting or shooting should be prohibited
unless the licensee secures such other licences as are prescribed,
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 577
(6) that the quantity and type of ammunition available to the
holders of such guns should be restricted by the licensing authorities to
such as is required for protection of crops only.
Nolte :—Licences should be generally issued for single-barrel guns-
only.
19. Whereas much destruction of wild life goes on in areas conti-
guous to Sanctuaries, and
Whereas cattle-borne diseases are spread in such sanctuaries by
domestic cattle from the surrounding areas,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends
that buffer belts of sufficient width be declared around all sanctu-
aries within which no shooting, other than that required for legitimate
crop protection, will be permitted and within which no professional
graziers will be allowed to establish their cattle-pens.
20. Whereas many preventable cattle-borne diseases among herbi-
vorous wild animals result from contact with infected domestic cattle in
the neighbourhood of ‘ forests ’,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends
that State governments be requested to inoculate systematically and
periodically domestic cattle in the neighbourhood of national parks,
sanctuaries and reserves where and when necessary.
21. Whereas insufficient use is being made at present of-the exist-
ing facilities of publicity afforded by the Press, Screen and Radio, for
wild life protection,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends :—
(a) that adequate publicity material be issued from time to time
‘by the respective Central and State Publicity Departments in close
collaboration with Forest Departments and other organizations,
(6) that enthusiasts be approached to give publicity to wild
life,
(c) that documentary films dealing with various aspects of wild life
be produced by Governments in consultation with the Central or State
Boards for Wild Life for exhibition in both urban and rural areas,
(d) that amateur cinema-photography of wild life be encouraged,
and (e) that the All-India Radio be podnested to afford special facilities
for wild life broadcasts.
22. Whereas there is general lack of knowledge regarding conser-
vation of nature and the value of wild life, and
Whereas it is essential to educate public opinion in matters of wild
life,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends
that special steps be taken to popularise wild life by introducing
Stories in school text-books, by producing attractive charts, by organis-
ing special lectures and through the establishment of zoos and zoolo-
gical parks in the neighbourhood of large cities.
Buffer
Belts around
Sanctuaries.
Inocula-
tion against
cattle - borne
diseases.
Publicity.
Education.
Liaison,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Or
~I
1.8)
23. Whereas for the purposes of education and publicity co-ordina-
tion of such departments as Forest, Agriculture, Horticulture, Scientific
Research, Transportation (Tourist), and Information and Broadcasting
is essential,
The Central Board for Wild Life recommends
that steps be taken through the Central and State Wild Life
Boards to co-ordinate the activities of all connected departments in
matters of management, publicity and education concerning wild life.
NOTES ON FISHES FROM MAHABLESHWAR AND WAIL,
(SATARA DISTRICT, BOMBAY STATE)
BY
Hi. G. SIMAS, M.A., M.SC.
N.1I.S.1., Junior Research Fellow
(From. the Laboratories of the Zoological Survey of India)
(With one plate and four text figures)
INTRODUCTION
In April 1952, at the suggestion of Dr. 8S. L. Hora, I received an
invitation from the authorities of the Bombay Natural History Society
to visit Mahableshwar along with a party from the Society for an
investigation of the fauna of that place. This invitation was readily
accepted, especially as I was setting out on a fish survey tour to
the northern parts of the Western Ghats and Kathiawar. ‘Since
Annandale’s work on the fauna of certain hill-streams in the Bombay
State (Annandale, 1919), no fish collection seems to have been reported
from the Satara Districtt. The notes embodied in this paper are based
on collections made in the course of the tour from Mahableshwar and
from Wai on the Krishna River, about 20 miles east of Mahableshwar
lying on the Mahableshwar-Poona road. The main purpose of the
visit to Mahableshwar was to investigate the fauna of the famous
‘Robbers’ Cave’, and while there opportunity was also taken to make
collections from the streams in and around the hill-station. Among
the fishes collected one species has provel new to science: and is
described here.
Norks on LOCALITIES
Situated 17°56/N. and 73°40’E., Mahableshwar, with a general
elevation of over 4,500 feet, receives very heavy rainfall annually,
averaging over 290 inches. A number of streams originate from the
hill-sides which ultimately grow into four main rivers, the Krishna,
the Yenna and the Koyna flowing to the east, and the Savitri flowing
to the west. In April, most of the smaller streamis had dried up,
but collections were made mainly from the Lake, Yenna River, a pool
in a dried stream bed close to the Yenna Falls and from ‘Robbers’
Cave’. The lake on the hill-top, which has a surface area of about
30 acres, is fed by perennial springs and has water all round the year.
From a bog below the lake, the Yenna River originates, first as a small
streamlet, growing larger as it winds its way touching « number of
gardens. he stream bed is mostly rocky and collections were made
from the stream from its commencement upto the Yenna Falls.
—
1 Kulkarni, C. V. (1952, Rec. Ind. Mus., xlix, pp. 231-238) reports the is-
covety of a new genus of schilbeid catfishes from the Krishna River near Islampur,
Satara District and Panchganga River near Kolhapur, Bombay State.
4
580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Though there are a large number of caves in India, unfortunately
our knowledge of the fauna that they may possess is very meagre.
Reviewing our knowledge of the zoology of the caves of Burma and
Malaya Peninsula, Annandale and Gravely (1914) drew attention to
the fact that the fauna of the caves of this region was, as a whole,
far less specialised than that of the caves of Kurope and North America.
In India, this was well exemplified by the investigations of the fauna
of the Siju Cave, Garo Hills, Assam, where a majority of the animals
collected belonged to species which occurred usually outside the cave,
and the few species which did exhibit any adaptation to cave life were
only partially or incompletely modified. Reporting on the fishes
collected from the Siju Cave, Hora (1924) cited two instances of partial
colour loss, one in a loach, Nemachilus sp., and another in one
specimen of Ophiocephalus gachua Hamilton, while all the other six
species of fish collected from the cave showed normal colouration.
Our visit to ‘Robbers’ Cave’, which lies about four miles south east
of Mahableshwar, was fruitful in that some interesting observations
were made on the fish life in the cave. Of course, we were disappointed
to a certain measure in our hopes that the water inside the cave would
yield species of great zoological interest, but all the same we were
able to collect a number of specimens of one species of fish, Nemachilus
evezardt Day, which in its loss of colouration showed partial adaptation
to cavernicolous conditions of life. Notes on this loach are given at
the end (vide infra, p. 588). From Hora’s observations on the fish
fauna of the Siju Cave and the present investigations of “Robbers’
Cave’, it would seem that loaches of the Nemachilus type, which
usually find their way even to the very head-waters of hill-streains,
could, when they are isolated in caves, easily adapt themselves to such
environmental conditions.
The topography of the cave resembles that of a tunnel which ends
blindly. It is about a hundred feet long and about ten feet wide at
the mouth and in the interior the passage is about eight to ten feet
high and about twelve feet broad, while at the farther end it is much
narrower, the roof being very low. In recent years, the roof a few
feet from the mouth had fallen down, thus permitting entrance of
light that way also. The whole cavern pervades with the nauseating
smell of bats which were found in hundreds. ‘The air inside the cave
was also very stuffy and the passage to the interior was made difficult
by swarms of bats and bat-parasites. Our visit was at a time when
the water level was at its lowest and it was found stagnant confined
to two sections of the cavern, both being separated by a few feet of
slabs and boulders which had fallen from the roof, and remained
slightly higher than the water level. The first stretch of water which
was about 24 feet deep for the first 30 feet or so from the second
entrance was thoroughly polluted by bat-guano which formed a thick
bottom deposit as well as a scum on the surface. Even after repeated
nettings we could not obtain any fish or other aquatic organisms from
this stretch. The loach, N. evezardi, was obtained from the farther
end of the cave where the water was clearer, less deep, and was spring-
fed. Mr. Humayun Abdulal, who was with us and had earlier visited
the cave after the monsoons, said that there usually is a little outflow
of water at that time as the level of water inside the cave was
FISHES FROM MAHABLESHWAR AND WAI 581
considerably high making it even more difficult to wade through to the
farther end. Much of the deposits of bat-guano is washed out at
this time. Such an outflow of water from the cave would naturally
help in the immigration of loaches from the neighbouring watershed
to the cave. é;
The remaining collections were made from the Krishna River at
Wai. ‘The river is very rocky just below the bridge at Wai, and its
right bank at this place is lined for about half a mile by temple steps.
Being summer, the flow of water was not so great and collections were
made from this section of the river as well as from the upper course
‘of the river where the banks are rather low and overhung with grass
and trees.
In the following table are listed the species and the total number
of each, collected from different localities. For convenience, in the
table the localities are numbered as (1) Lake at Mahableshwar, (2)
Yenna River upto Yenna Falls, (8) Pool in dried stream bed close to
Yenna Fails, (4) Robbers’ Cave, Mahableshwar and (5) Krishna River
at Wal.
No. of
List of species specimens Localities
collected
Ly wee OP ae 25
Order Cypriniformes.
Division Cyprini.
Suborder Cyprinoidei.
Family Cyprinidae.
Subfamily Rasborinae,
Barilius barna (Hamilton) ... 14 se de iy oe EY
Barilius bendelists (Hamilton)... 4 Ses
Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton). 3 a 8 oe ee
Subfamily Cyprininae.
Puntius jerdoni var. macivert
(Annandale) Lie 15 2 a
Puntius kolus (Sykes) ses 1 ae es he Se
Puntius sahyadriensis sp. DOV. ... 102 BSNS ee,
Puntius ticto Hamilton me 22 an 8 es @ Nate he
Tor mussullah (Sykes) 500 5 Sor 7 alll oie oe
Subfamily Garrinae.
Garra mullya (Sykes) Se 4 aa Kees es lice
Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus 5s
( Annandale) 50C 18 ie Pe | Se aes
Family Cobitidae. \
Subfamily Nemachilinae.
Nemachilus evezardi Day «. 32 ee ER oie set
Nemachilus denisoni Day ... 7 = = > -— x
Order Ophiocephaliformes.
Family Ophiocephalidae.
Ophiocephalus gachua Hamilton 1 Seu hs pee ee glen 2
Ophiocephalus punctatus Bloch. 27 36) ety ASG se
582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
In addition to the fishes, the collection also includes two genera of
Mollusca (Lamellidens marginalis (Lamarck) and Parreysia cylindrica
Annandale, from the Krishna River at Wai), four genera of insects
(Oreitochilus sp., and Dinentus indicus Abue, of the family Gyrinidae
and Hydaticus uittatus Fabre, and Rantus sp. of the family
Dytiscidae}, a crustacean Palemon histnensis Tiwari (both from Wai
and Mahableshwar) and a number of frogs, tadpoles and three species
of bats.
NovES ON CERTAIN SPECIES
Most of the 14 species of fish mentioned in the table above are
fairly common and have a wide distribution. A description of the
new species Puntius sahyadriensis and notes on Nemachilus evezardi
Day are given below:
Puntius sahyadriensis', sp. nov.
DiS (8-95) Pals Veo Ago) Oe CnkorelmleZe 2a.
Puntius sahyadriensis is a small well-built carp in which the dorsal
profile is slightly more arched than the ventral. The length of the
head is contained about 4.8 to 5.2 in the total and 3 to 4 in the
—_———S ~
Sa
——<
aS SSS
_SSSSSS
SSS SS SESS =~
S SS SZ EN
>
Text-fig. 1. Scales of Puntius sahyadriensis sp. noy. (A) scale from bedy below
the dorsal fin x10. (B) scale from the lateral line x10. (C) scale from the caudal
peduncle x10.
standard length. The depth of the body is contained 2.6 to 83 times
in the standard length and is also equal to or more than the length of
A
1 The specific name sahyadriensis is derived from the vernacular name ‘Sahyadri’,
which denotes the Western Ghats. j
1ensis, SP. NOV.
Puntius sahyadr
(For explanation see p. 589)
FISHES FROM MAHABLESHWAR AND WAI 583
the caudal. The head is more or less blunt, the length of the snout
being less than the diameter of the eye. The eyes are large, with
free orbital margins and are situated more towards the anterior half
of the head. The diameter of the eye is contained 2.75 to 3.5 in the
length of the head. The inter-orbital width is greater than the length
of the snout, but almost equals the length of the post-orbital part of
the head. The mouth is small and slightly oblique, the lips being
fleshy and continuous at the angles. The barbels are totally absent.
The scales are well developed and on the lateral line which is
complete they number 23 to 24. There are nine rows of scales between
the base of the dorsal and the pelvic fins. The predorsal scales number
eight. The structure of three scales, one from the side of the bodv
below the origin of the dorsal fin, a second from the lateral line below
the dorsal fin and a third from the caudal peduncle are figured and a
general description given here. ‘The scales on the sides of the body are
slightly broader than long, while those on the caudal peduncle are about
as broad as long, or slightly longer. The basal margin of the scale which
is truncated or subtruncated is coarsely wavey and produced at the
angles. The lateral margins are generally broadly convergent with
convex curves. The apical margin is broadly rounded and the basi-
lateral angles of the scales on the anterior part of the body are
produced outwards. The radii are strong. ‘There are about 5 to 8
basal radu, which are about as long as the apical radii, which in turn
number 2 to about 6. Lateral radii on each side are either one, two
or none. The apical circuli are well developed in young specimens,
while they tend to become partially degenerate and modified into a
series of tubercles in older individuals. They are also more widely
spaced than the lateral and basal cireuli, which are very dense and
closely packed, ranging from about 10 to 55, their number increasing
posteriorly. A few incomplete radii are present in the scales. The
nuclei in the scales of the anterior part of the body are more elongate
in the dorsolateral axis than in the cephalocaudal axis. The nucleus.
is also broken up into a number of polygonal areas giving it the
appearance of a reticulated patch.
The origin of the dorsal fin is opposite or slightly behind that of the
pelvies, and is nearer to the tip of the snout than to the base of the
caudal fin. The dorsal spine is feeble, articulated and in larger
specimens is generally longer than the head. The pectoral fin extends
upto or slightly overlaps the base of the pelvic fin, except in large
female specimens where the pectoral fin is smaller and falls much skort
of the pelvic base. ‘The pelvic fins are almost as long as the pectorals.
The anal fin is short: The caudal fin is deeply forked. The caudal
peduncle is about as long as deep and its least height is contained
about 1 to 1.5 in its length.
The body colouration is very characteristic in the new species and
notes on both normal and sexual colouration are given below.
Normally a certain amount of variation is seen in the colour pattern
which cannot be strictly attributed to growth alone, for the variations.
figured are from specimens of about the same size (Text-fig. 2, A-D).
The typical pattern seen in most of the specimens examined is that in
which there are seven vertical dark blotches on the sides of the body
(Text-fig. 2, A). Of these one is just above the gill-opening; a second
£84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
on the lateral line in front of the commencement of the dorsal fin; a
third dorso-laterally placed midway between the occiput and the
commencement of the dorsal fin; a fourth just below the origin of the
Text-fig. 2. Schematic drawings showing the main colour variations seen in
specimens of Puntius sahyadriensis sp. nov. X11}.
dorsal fin, but not extending upto the lateral line; a fifth below the
posterior part of the base of the dorsal fin; a sixth on the lateral line
above the anal fin and a seventh just in front of the base of the caudal
FISHES FROM MAHABLESHWAR AND WAI 585
fin, on the caudal peduncle. The scales generally have a darker
margin.
During the breeding season, both the males and females show
brighter colouration, but the vertical blotches on the sides of the body
fall more or less within the limits of the variations already indicated
in Text-figure 2. In addition, in the female specimens the body is
reddish brown throughout, being darker in the anterior and upper
half of the body and lighter on the ventral surface. The pelvics,
which are black, are tipped with white and the outer ray of the dorsal
is also coloured black. In the males, the general body colour is
lighter, especially on the ventral surface and posterior part of the
body. The pelvics are coloured totally black or are black tipped with
white. The outer ray of the dorsal is also coloured black, while the
pectoral and the anal fins are slightly tinged dark in some specimens.
Secondary sexual characters seen in the male are the presence of
numerous tubercles on the snout, the lower sides of the head and the
ventral surface as far back as the pelvic base (Plate 1, figs. 1 and 2).
Also the skin on the outer ray of the pectcral and pelvic fins bear a row of
numerous short spine-like tubercles. A second row of smaller tubercles
are present on the outer half of the first ray of the pelvic fin (Plate 1,
figs. © and 6).
Bionomics: The gut contents of over 30 specimens of P.
sahyadriensis, ranging from 25 mm. to 70 mm. were examined and
it was found that they feed mainly on algae (Spirogyra sp.) which
formed about 90% of the food. The rest was composed of sand
particles and some digested pulpy matter. It would thus. appear
that the fish may prove to be very useful for the control of algae
and thus indirectly also help to eradicate mosquito larvae. Its beautiful
colouration and the abundance in which it is found in the streams in
Mahableshwar, a place so close to Bombay, should also make it a very
good indigenous aquarium fish.
Affinities: In the absence of barbels, the nature of the dorsal
spine, the number of lateral line scales, the colouration, etc., Puntius
sahyadriensis, can be easily distinguished from other species of Puntwus,
such as P. melanampyx (Day), P. arulius (Jerdon), P. nigrofasciatus
(Giinther), P. gelius (Hamilton), ete. From P. narayani (Hora) in
which species also the barbels are absent, it differs in the following
important characters:
Puntius narayani (Hora). Puntius sahyadriensis sp. nov.
1. Lateral line scales 22 Lateral line scales 23-24.
2. Commencement of dorsal Commencement of dorsal opposite
in advance of origin of or slightly behind origin of
pelvics. pelvics.
3. Colouration: 8 vertical At least 7 vertical blotches on sides
blotches on sides of of body.
body.
586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
In addition to these, the head in P. narayan is contained only
4 times in the standard length, while in the new species it is 8 to 4
times. Also in the former, the depth of the body is contained 2.5
times in the standard length while in the latter it is 2.6 to 38 times.
From distributional records it would seem that P. sahyadriensis is re-
placed further south in the Western Ghats by P. narayan, the more
deep bodied form with a lesser number of scales along the lateral line,
to: which it evinces greater affinity than to other species of Puntius
from Peninsular India.
Type specimen: No. F687/2
~The type as well as the co-types are preserved in the collection
of the Zoological Survey of India.
Type locality: Yenna River, Mahableshwar, Satara District,
Bombay State.
Notes on Growth: A large number of post-larvae of P.
sahyadriensis, ranging upwards from 6 mm., were collected from the
Yenna River and notes on some of the early post-larvel stages are
erven below.
6mm.stage: (Text-figure 3, A) By the time the larva is 6 mm.
long the yolk is very much reduced and is represcnted as a few black
pigment spots on the ventral side. The larval fin-fold is entire and
Text-fig. 3. Three early post-larval stages in the development of Puntius sahya-
driensis sp. nov. (A) 6 mm. stage x153. (B) 7.5 mm. stage X14 (C) 9 mm.
stage X13.
FISHES FROM MAHABLESHWAR AND W-AI 587
in the dorsal fin which appears as a slightly raised portion of the fin-
fold, the rudiments of fin rays are perceptible. The caudal fin rays
are better formed but not distinct. The anal fin is seen as a slightly
raised basally thickened portion of the larval fin-fold. Fin rays are
perceptible in the pectoral fin which is slightly pedunculate. The
eyes are comparatively large, while the snout is considerably shorter.
Black pigment spots begin to appear on the dorsal surface and a
few on the caudal peduncle.
7.9mm. stage: (Text-figure 8, B). The yolk is almost complete-
ly absorbed and the last trace of “yolk chromatophores’ is seen as
three black spots on the ventral side. ‘The dorsal fin rays ave gradually
formed and just behind the posterior limit of the dorsal fin the iarval
fin-fold is completely cut off. The ~caudal fin has become slightly
lunate and the fin rays are better developed. In the anal fin,
rudiments of four finrays are seen. The pre-anal fold extending Saar
behind the pectorals to the anus persists. The first indication wi the
pelvic fin is seen as a rudimentary thick portion which in origin is
completely ahead of the’ point of origin of the dorsal fin. ‘The posterior
margin of the operculum is slightly more curved than in the previous
stage. More pigment spots have appeared on the sides of the body,
and five small patches can be made out, the first at the origin of
the dorsal fin, a second posterior to the base of the dorsal fin, a
third at the base of the caudal fin, a fourth above the anal fin and a
fifth in the region above the air-bladder, above and behind the pectorals.
Two pigment spots are also present just above the gill-opening and
a few on the inner surface of the operculum.
9mm. stage: (Text-figure 3, C): The general shape of the tedy
is slightly changed from the previous stages, the dorsal profile being
more arched. ‘The larval fin-fold on the. dorsal side and the post-anal
part are much atrophied. The dorsal and caudal finrays are well
defined. The anal fin is free from the larval fin-fold and six finrays
can be made out in it. The caudal fin is slightly forked. The
preanal fin-fold shows a tendency to atrophy. ‘The fin rays in the
pectorals are well defined, while those in the pelvics are rudimentary.
More pigment spots have appeared on the sides of the body. ‘The
first indications of a few scales are seen just above the operculum
in the region of the nape. Under the microscope food particles | can
be made out in the alimentary canal.
11 mm. s tage: The dorsal profile is more arched than the ventral
profile. ‘The larval fin-fold has almost completely atrophied. The
snout is slightly more elongate and the outer margin of the operculum
is more curved. ‘The finrays are well developed in all the fins. Scales
appear on the nape and on the caudal peduncle. More pigment spots
are seen and the colour pattern is better laid out.
18 mm. stage: The scales are well developed all over the body.
The lateral line is faintly marked. By this stage the larva assumes
the shape characteristic of the adults and thus passes on from the
early postlarval phase to the late. _postlarval gee leading gradually
on to the juvenile fish. |
588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Nemachilus evezardi Day
Of the 82 specimens of N. evezardi collected on the tour, 23 were
from inside ‘Robbers’ Cave’. In all the latter specimens, the colour
was considerably changed and in no other respect did they exhibit
any adaptation to life in perpetual darkness. Normally the fish shows
a very bright colour pattern, but in those collected from the cavern
the colour was almost entirely absent and in one specimen except for
a faint blotch on the upper portion of the base of the caudal, there
SS
SP
Text-fig. 4. Nemachilus evezardi Day. (A) specimen from ‘Robbers’ Cave’,
Mahableshwar, showing only a faint dark blotch at the upper portion of the base
of the caudal fin. x23. (B) specimen from Yenna River showing normal colouration
x 23.
were no colour markings on the body at all (Text-figure 4, A). In
the specimens which varied from 18 to 55 mm. in total length, the
smaller ones exhibited better colour markings than the larger ones,
thereby showing that the loss of colour had taken place after the fish
had become isolated in the cave. Many of the larger fish collected
were gravid with eggs, which shows either the possibility of the fish
breeding in the cave or breeding in the streams lower down, finding
access to them through the outflow of water from the cave during the
monsoon. From the low degree of specialization of its fauna it would
also seem that the cave is comparatively of recent origin.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
IT am deeply indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora, Director, Zoological Survey
of India, for his helpful suggestions and guidance in the preparation
of this paper. I am also very grateful to both Mr. Salim Ali and
Mr. Humayun Abdulali, Honorary Secretaries, Bombay Natural History
Society, for making arrangements for the tour and further for the
FISHES FROM MAHABLESHWAR AND WAI 589
encouragement they gave us in the field by visiting us while collecting.
at Robbers’ Cave’. To Mr. V. K. Chari and Mr. C. J. Daniel of
the Bombay Natural History Society, I am grateful for their
companionship and constant aid in the field. e
REFERENCES
Annandale, N. (4919): The fauna of certain small streams in the Bombay
Presidency. V. Notes on Freshwater fishes mostly from Satara and Poona Districts.
Rec. Ind. Mus., Xvi: 125-138.
Annandale, N., Brown, J. Coggin, and Gravely, F. H. (1914): The limestone
Caves of Burma and Malaya Peninsula. Journ, Proc. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, ix: 391-
424.
Day, F. (1878): Fishes of India, II.
Hora, S. L. (1924): Tish of the Siju Cave, Garo Hills, Assam. Rec. Ind.
Mus., XXVi: 27-31.
— — — (1937): Notes on Fishes in the Indian Museum. xxvur. On three
collections of fish from Mysore and Coorg, South India. Rec. Ind. Mus., Xxxix:
5-8.
Kemp, S., & Chopra, B. (1924): The Siju Cave, Garo Hills, Assam. Rec.
Ind, Mus., XXvi: 3.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE
Puntius sahyadriensis, sp. nov.
. Lateral view of male specimen at the time of breeding x2}.
. Ventral view of same X 2}.
. Lateral view of head and anterior part of the body of female specimen x 2}.
. Ventral view of same X 2}.
. Outer ray of the pectoral fin of male specimen during breeding season showing
the spine-like tubercles x8.
Oo FB cw WO
6. Outer ray of the pelvic fin of male specimen during breeding season showing
the spine-like tubercles x8.
SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE
BY
WWW, IPS ILO
Part |
(With five plates)
In a recent article on the photographing of the Whitebellied
Sea-eagle (Haliaétus leucogaster), I wrote of it as if it. were a
Singapore bird. In fact it is a bird of extremely wide range which
extends from the ‘coasts of India, Ceylon and Burma, from about the
latitude of Bombay to the Malay Peninsula and through the Malay
Archipelago to Australia, Tasmania and Western Polynesia’.' The
photographs which illustrated my article were taken in South Johore,
one of the states of the Federation of Malaya, and separated from
Singapore by the narrow waters of the Straits of Johore. The illu-
strations for the present paper, were, however, all taken on the island
of Singapore itself, and form a pictorial record of some of the more
attractive citizens of a beautiful island.
The total area of Singapore is a mere 220 square miles. The
human inhabitants number just over a million, and are composed of
a number of different races. The bird population has never been
estimated, but Gibson-Hill’s ‘Checklist of Singapore Birds’ enumer-
ates 280 species, of which 151 are ‘almost certainly resident’. There
are curious gaps in the list which would surprise a visitor from India.
In the harbour there are no gulls, and indeed very few sea birds, so
that the offal and fishing rights are the exclusive province of a few
terns, the Brahminy kites and the sea-eagles. The reservoirs and
the larger ponds do not have their calm surfaces ruffled by the pre-
sence of any water birds, and except for an occasional whistling teal
or cotton teal, no ducks, by their arrival and departure, mark the
coming of winter or of spring. The Common Sandpiper, almost
alone, with a characteristic movement, bobs in the ‘autumn’ and bobs
out the ‘winter’. There are other gaps besides these, but it 1s not
my purpose to dwell upon them.
The field ornithologist—and, of course, no bird photographer is
ever a bird photographer pure and simple—will notice with interest
that for the 151 resident birds, breeding records exist for a mere fifty
or so. Rarity, in Singapore bird records, is not necessarily a measure
of scarcity, but more often of neglect. Singapore is thus a splendid
hunting ground for the field worker who, if he seeks will find, and if
patient will be generously rewarded. A number of the photographs
that follow represent first nest-records for which I claim no greater
credit than that I had sometimes leisure enough to seek, or was
fortunate enough to have generous friends, like Geoffrey Allen, give
them to me. Let my pictures, therefore, now speak for themselves.
—_
* Fauna of British India, Birds, 2nd ed., vol: V, p. 111.
PLATE I
Journ. Bompay Nav. Hist. Soc.
Author
)
.
JAVANICUS
Little Green Bittern (Butorides striatus
JOURN. BOMBAY
AD eLLISIe SOC:
BQQ QA
Blacknaped Tern (Sterna s. sumatrana)
Note bird’s tongue in top photo
PLATE II
SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE 591
Little Green Heron. Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsf.).
This secretive little heron, although not uncommon about. the
coastal fringes and mangroves of Singapore, hides its light under a
bush, if not a bushel. Known to be resident—young birds had been
seen on several occasions—actual nests were not found until 10952,
when they were discovered in two separate mangrove swamps on the
island. The birds are solitary little fellows to be seen, quiescent and
lonely, waiting patiently to pick up a meal beside a pool in the swamp,
or at the edge of the mud when the tide is out. Kelham, one of the
early naturalists, reported seeing in the Johore Straits ‘hundreds of
small green herons (Butorides javanicus)’ which when approached ‘rose
in regular flocks’, but this record seems to belong to the good olds
days when everything was plentiful. Nowadays, Butorides the
Striated, answers more to Stuart Baker’s description of it as ‘a very
solitary little bird’.
ven in the breeding season, it prefers a roomy nursery to a
crowded maternity ward. I found three nests on the morning of June
24th, more by accident than design, when I was taking a walk in
the mud in a mangrove swamp near Loyang, on, the north shore of
Singapore island. ‘All the nests were placed about twelve to fifteen
feet high, in mangrove trees: the first nest was still a-building; the
second contained two pale green eggs with shells of a rough texture;.
and the third was occupied by a single bird in the clambering stage
of youth. None of the nest trees grew very close together.
I marked down nest number two for photography, but my good
intentions were elbowed out by business problems so that it was not
until August 2nd that I was able to rendezvous at nest number one,
which by now contained two young birds in an advanced stage of
growth.
The juvenile birds, in down and quills, had the comical hunched
look of tiny old men, the grey down on their heads lending them a re-
verence beyond their years. Their boundless energy and inquisitiveness
belied these looks, and the vigour with which the adult’s bill was
seized and the ‘oliver-twist’, or asking-for-more-wrench, administered,
was certainly a lesson in how to take liberties with one’s parent. As
is usual with birds of the heron tribe, the young were fed by regurgita-
tion. When alarmed, the nestlings also operated their dumb waiter
and brought up their food, which they swallowed again later when left
in peace. If I came too close to the nest, however, they lunged
out furiously with their sharp bills, a form of attack not to be taken
too lightly.
Feeding occurred only at long intervals. After each meal, one
adult, the female, always hopped on a nearby branch and spent many
minutes scratching and meticulously preening her feathers. The
male, unable fully to reconcile himself to the machan and the hide,
approached the nest with caution, quickly delivered the groceries, and
then beat a hasty retreat. The young, too, spent much of their spare
time preening and scratching, in the process loosening feathers which
drifted away in the wind. One little fellow tried to stand on one
leg while he scratched his head with the other, but he lost his balance
and fell over. Anything moving about in the sky, especially aero-
planes, was watched intently.
592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
After my first visit, there was to be an interval of a week before
I could go to the nest again. By this time the young were so large
that their home, flimsily built of sticks thrown roughly together, was
too small to hold both birds at once. The larger bird ot the two—
the difference in size was very noticeable—kept peering over the edge
of the nest, flexing his legs and seemed ready to jump. In the end,
ne did jump, and soon clambered out of sight of my lens. Not
long after, a thunderstorm which had been brewing all morning
suddenly broke and the rain came down in torrents. Wet to the
skin, I, like the male heron, beat a hasty retreat, nor did I ever go
back to the nest again because it was clear that the other youngster
*was also ready to leave the nest, and would have done so before my
next visit.
Barred Bustard-Quail. Vurnix suscitator atrogularis (Eyton).
The Bustard-Quail is a lover of grassland wherein it moves ‘softly
with no visible feet’, and hides its little, round body so effectively
that it is rarely noticed. Although, like all good birds it is heard
and not seen, the Bustard-Quail is probably not quite so uncommon
as might at first appear. There is a note in my diary which records
with some surprise my discovery, in 1946, of one of these birds
‘within sight of the workers’ flats at Tiong Bahru’, in a buiit-up area
of Singapore.
Eha (E. H. Aitken) wrote in the ‘Common Birds of India’, ‘one
of the eccentricities of the Bustard-Quail is that the female makes
all the noise. The male, as far as I know, is silent. He is smaller
than she, and though I cannot say whether he is literally henpecked,
there can be little doubt that he is ‘‘sair hauden doun’’. He has to
stay at home and mind the babies while she goes gadding about and
fighting with her female neighbours. This is not scandal, but a
fact.’
It is indeed an odd fact that Turnix atrogularis is, by a reversal
of the ordinary laws of nature, polyandrous. Among Indian and
Malayan birds, it shares this peculiar distinction only with the Painted
Snipe (Rostratula bengalensis). The female which is the larger bird,
and very pugnacious, fights for the hand of her gentleman love,
winning it in the public lists. Her inability to live at peace with her
fellow women gets her into trouble because the wily Malay trapper,
playing upon this weakness sometimes uses another hen as a decoy,
and so succeeds in catching her.
The henpecked male, so timid in the sight of his Amazonian spouse,
is nevertheless a veritable tiger in the defence of his family.
Smythies, in his ‘Birds of Burma’, says that ‘After hatching the eggs,
which takes about 12 days, the male looks after the young and brings
them up, performing his duties in an admirable manner; he feeds and
tends them with the greatest solicitude, brooding them at night and
fighting for them against all possible enemies, sometimes including
their own mother, with the greatest bravery.’
My photographs ‘were taken at the edge of a newly re-planted rubber
estate, which borders one of the fairways of the Island Golf Club.
The nest was a hollow in the ground, and contained four large eggs.
I spent several afternoons in my hide, and when not concentrating
SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE 593
on the bird, used to amuse myself watching the familiar figures of
familiar friends, sometimes using familiar language, as they hit off
their balls from the raised platform of the old fourth tee.
Blacknaped Tern. Sterna s. sumatrana Raffles.
This pretty little sea tern clearly finds the territorial waters of
Singapore not absolutely to its liking. Although counted among the
resident birds, its numbers have always been so small that the first
nests were found only in 1949. In winter, there is usually an influx
of visitors which slightly augments the local population. Outside
the Malay Peninsula (an area in which it is nowhere very plentiful),
the range of this bird is said to be, ‘Tropical Indian and Pacific
Oceans. - Breeds on coral islands from Madagascar and the Seychelle
Islands to the Malay Archipelago and northern Australia, southern
China, the Philippine Islands, Liu Kiu Islands, and Samoan Islands.’!
The Blacknaped Tern exhibits a particular fondness for small
islands, or even large rocks, whereon to place its nest. My photo-
graphs were taken on a large rock, lying in mid-stream in the Straits
of Johore, just off the seaside resort of Loyang. Two pairs of
breeding birds were using the site, and we discovered one young,
almost ready to fly, and one egg. The usual clutch is said to be
two, but it seems unlikely that the Malay fishermen had raided this
small colony, although F. G. H. Allen when he first discovered it on
June 12th, 1949, reported finding three breeding pairs, two with
clutches of 2 eggs, and one with a clutch of 3.
I spent a whole day, on June 26th, 1952, photographing the
birds. The tide was well out when we arrived at the rock at 8.30 a.m.,
and I had some difficulty in climbing it. Once on top, the high wind
prevented me from erecting the cloth hide, and it is doubtful whether,
even on a calm day, the tent could have been held erect on the bare
surface. Eventually, the problem was solved by using what since
that day has come to be known as a ‘purdah’ hide. I first set up
_ the camera on its tripod, then draped the cloth of the hide over it,
at the same time anchoring down the ends of the tent firmly with
a few bricks. While my friends who had brought me out in the
boat went off fishing, I crawled into this upright sack, taking care
not to raise my head too high. Fortunately it was a relatively cool
day without too much direct sun, otherwise the top of my head, pro-
tected merely by a single thickness of khaki cloth, might have come
to the boil long before the job was finished.
At first the birds were suspicious, as was to be expected. At
long last after three hours of patient waiting, they returned,
and thereafter showed very little more fear of the hide which, being
well held down, never flapped in the wind. During the entire period
of waiting, the young bird which I was watching kept perfectly
immobile, never so much as batting an eyelid.
The adult birds differed in size, as well as in colour: one was
slightly larger than the other, and had pale grey wings; the smaller
bird was almost pure white. Even with the sun behind clouds, they
looked startlingly bright against the dark grey sea. When they
1 W. B. Alexander, ‘Birds of the Ocean’, p, 194.
594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
flew around, they uttered impatient grating cries, and always called
when they landea on the rock. The illustration at page 591 distinctly
shows the tongue of the bird as it makes its landing cry.
I finished my photography at three o’clock in the afternoon. By
this time, after sitting doubled up for 6$ hours in the hide, I felt
and probably looked, exactly like a boiled prawn.
Lesser Crow-Pheasant, Centropus bengalensis javanensis (Dumont).
Cuckoos, as a family, generally live up to an evil reputation. In
ISurope, now, as in Shakespeare’s time,
When daisies pied and violets blue
And lady-smocks ali silver-white
And cuckoo-buds of yellow hue
Do paint the meadows with delight,
The cuckoo then, on every tree,
Mocks married men; for thus sings he, Cuckoo;
Cuckoo, cuckoo; O, word of fear,
Unpleasing to a married ear!
And unpleasing, not only to human ear, but also to the ear of birds.
In Europe, or India, or Malaya, or wherever the parasitic cuckoo
is to be found, its presence is not welcomed by the avian population
which frequently: mobs it. Even in a family of black sheep, there
must be a few white ones; one of the white ones, in an otherwise
predominantly black family, is Centropus bengalensis, known also as
the Lesser Crow-Pheasant, Coucal or lWUark-heeled Cuckoo. This
member is thoroughly respectable, building its own home and rearing
its own family. And, I regret to say, like many nice, respectable
people, it is also rather dull.
Its body and tail are black, and wings dark chestnut, The bill
is black, as also are its legs and feet. Whereas the adult bird looks
dull and behaves in an equally dull manner, the voung 1s positively
ugly. In the down and quill stage, black skin covers its whole body,
and stiff white hairs sprout from the top of its head. When I put
my hand on the nest, it hissed violently at’ me like a snake, causing
a sudden and quite unpremeditated withdrawal.
The adult bird, with its rounded wings, is not a strong flier but
progresses by means of several quick wing-beats, followed by a glide.
The usual call is a loud hood-hood-hood, which it utters from the
top of some low bush or patch of thick lalang-grass. When the
parent bird approached the nest, it called a rapid chick-chick-chick-
chick-chick, followed by a slower kwok, kwok, kwok, kwok.
The nest at which my photographs were taken was found in
heavy lalang, in wet ground near a small stream. It was a domed
structure, made by pulling down the tops of the grasses and weaving
them into the nest. The inside was lined with green leaves of the
cashew-nut tree, and was far from clean. It was through noticing
a bird with a green leaf in its beak which first led me to the nest.
For a bird of its size, it was surprising how often the young was
fed. The food consisted of grasshoppers, several praying mantis, a
number of small frogs and one small lizard. - The parent bird always
JourN. BoMBAy INAg, laheir, Soc,
PLATE ITI
Whitecollared Kingfisher (Halcyon chloris humiz), Singapore.
The bird is nesting inside a live nest of termites
x
Lesser Crow-Pheasant (Centropus bengalensis javanicus)
Author
PLATE IV
JourN. BomsBay Nar. Hist. Soc.
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SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE 595
flew into a heavy patch of lalang just behind the nest, then approached
it with a curious, side-stepping, ambling gait. After feeding, it
would make a leisurely stay, sometimes waiting for the young to
present its ‘registered package’, and then away it would go with
flopping flight and long legs trailing behind.
The single young in this nest came to a sad end. On my second
visit, more than a week after the first, the little bird had grown so much
that when I put my hand on the nest to push back a few loose grasses,
it hopped out and jumped into the lalang. My assistant, Ah Luan,
rushed round to try and catch it, but in doing so stepped on and
squashed it to death. In death, as in life, it was not a pretty
creature. ;
My fellow countrymen are said to esteem this bird for its medi-
cinal properties when soaked in alcohol. Its black skin would
certainly indicate to Chinese people its health-giving properties.
Malays, too, put the bird to medicinal use.
Altogether, a black knight in shining armour!
Whitecollared Kingfisher. Halcyon chloris humi Sharpe.
This common bird of a Singapore garden discloses its presence
by its loud, raucous laughter. It is particularly vocal in the early
morning, greeting the new day with a harsh, but cheerful voice.
The pure white body and collar, and green-blue wings, make it so
conspicuous that it cannot fail to be noticed. Water is not essential
to its well-being, and although most in evidence in the mangrove
belt, or near the seashore, it also lives and breeds some miles from
the sea. Nor does it depend solely upon sea-food for its diet, but
thrives equally well on the insects of an inland garden. 1 have seen
it feed its young with grasshoppers, mole-crickets and even a medium-
sized centipede.
This kingfisher has a curious preference for ants’ nests wherein
to place its own. A termite’s nest is found to be a highly desirable
place for a nursery, and black ants’ nests are also used. Stuart
Baker, when told of this curious story of symbiosis by Kellow in 1913,
could not quite believe it to be true; he placed aside the collection of
eggs which the latter had sent to him ‘until this strange story could
be confirmed or contradicted’. The fact was soon confirmed, and
Stuart Baker quotes in full a long account of the breeding habits of
Sauropatis chloris chloris, by E. G. Herbert of Siam, of which I give
below an interesting extract :—
‘. . . Another situation was in a white-ant’s hill, which was about
3 feet high. This white-ant’s hill was close to a native house in a
fruit-garden near Paklat, and the first time I visited the place was
on 16-5-13. On this occasion the young had left the nest and were
sitting on a tree close by. The owner of the house offered to show
me the nest, and chipped a line around the side of the ant-hill at the
level of the entrance-hole, so that the top could be lifted off complete.
This he did, exposing to view the nest and entrance tunnel. He said
that he had taken the top off in this way on several occasions and
that the birds had not deserted. He also said that the birds nested
there every year at about the same time. The following year I
5
596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
again visited the spot and the man opened the nest in the same way,
showing me on this occasion three half-fledged birds. The parent
birds were exceedingly noisy, but shortly after we had finished one
of them entered the nest, so there was no fear of them deserting.
The ants’ nest was “‘alive’’, and the ants set to work at once to join
the top with the main block.’
My photographs were taken in the Sime Road area of Singapore,
near MacRitchie reservoir, but some distance from the séa. The
kingfisher’s nest was placed inside a termites’ nest, situated in an
Albizzia falcata tree some 15 feet from the ground. The ants’ nest
was alive, and the photograph clearly shows the way in which areas
of bark have been stripped off the tree. Before I had an opportunity
to examine the birds’ nest, however, its contents were robbed by
some young urchins.
One day, after a spell of photography I emerged from the hide
at the top of the wooden tower, just as a Malay woman, of ripe years
but youthful instincts, passed by beneath :
‘Eh, ba!’, said she in surprise “what are you doing up there?’
‘I am taking pictures of birds’, I replied.
‘Oh ho!’, she said ‘you can’t fool me. That’s as cleverly dis-
guised a human love-nest as ever I’ve seen.’ And laughing another
sensual laugh, she continued on her way.
(To be continued)
HOST PLANTS, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF
THRIPS (THYSANOPTERA) OF BOMBAY STATE!
BY
NARAYAN G. PATEL, M.SC. (Agri.)
Entomological Officer-in-Charge, DDT and
Allied Insecticides Scheme
AND
(Go AN, IPAM, WSC. ELD, (Comal),
Agricultural Entomologist to Government of Bombay State
In the Bombay State, the natural order Thysanoptera has not
been studied previously and from the survey of the scattered published
and unpublished reports it had become abundantly clear that a large
scope existed in studying the distribution and abundance of thrips
fauna in this State. Further, in the past, though several persons
have worked on the systematics of Thysanoptera in the Indian sub-
continent, little information has been published as to the host range
of the species so far described. Hence an attempt was made to survey
the Bombay State with a view to collect and identify the species
prevalent in this area, and record their hosts, the plant part ordinarily
infested, the intensity of abundance and the period of the year when
the insect can be found.
During 1950 and 1951 insects were collected from the following
localities: Viramgam, Detroj, Pavaghadh, Baroda, Anand and Surat,
in Gujarat; Bombay suburbs; Khandala, Lonavala, Poona and its
surroundings in Deccan.
From a survey, lasting over two years, it is estimated that a total
of nearly 70 species of the suborders Terebrantia and Tubulifera are
in our collection. Out of these so far we have been able to positively
identify 17 species of the suborder Terebrantia. The remaining are
under study and the information pertaining to them will form the
matter for a subsequent communication. The identified species are
the following :—
Suborder TEREBRANTIA Haliday
Family Aeolothripidae Uzel.
1. Aeolothrips fasciatus Linn.
Family Heliothripidae Shumsher.
Subfamily—Heliothripinae Karny.
2. Hercothrips indicus Bagnall.
3. Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood.
4. Tryphactothrips rutherfordi Bagnall.
* Being a part of the thesis for M.Sc.. (Agriculture) Degree of Poona University,.
presented by the first named author under the guidance of the latter.
598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Family Thripidae Uzel.
Subfamily—Chirothripinae Karny.
5. Chirothrips manicatus Haliday.
6. Neocrynothrips (Ramakrishnothrips) jonnaphila Ramakrishna.
Subfamily—Thripinae Karny.
7. Achaetothrips mundus Karny.
8. Anaphothrips flavicinctus Karny.
9. Anaphothrips (Dantabahuthrips) sacchari Shumsher.
10. Anaphothrips (Scirtothrips) dorsalis Hood.
11. Ayyaria chaetophora Karny.
12. Frankliniella sulphurea Schmutz.
13. Microcephalothrips brevipalpis Karny.
14. Scolothrips asura Ramakrishna and Margabandhu.
15. Scolothrips sexmaculatus Pergande. .
16. Thrips (Isothrips) orientalis Bagnall.
17. Thrips tabaci Lindeman.
While collecting these species, notes were made as to the locality,
hosts, part of the plant infested and the abundance. This information
along with the relevant information published by earlier workers 1s
put together and given below.
Suborder TEREBRANTIA
Family Aeolothripidae
1. Aeolothrips fasciatus Linn. (1761)
The existing information pertaining to the hosts, parts of plants
infested and the locality are tabulated below :—
; | | Period
Family of Host species | Elant pat Locality of Reference
host plant | infested collezGon
|
| | = ee
Anacardiaceae| Mangitera indica Flowers Pusa | 1910 | Bagnall
| (1919)
Compositae ...| Carthamus tinctorius | 5p | Delhi | 1910 Hood
| | (GES INS)
Cruciferae ..., Brassica campestris | |
| var. dichotom | 29 [hank § | — _| Shumsher
| (1949)
9? x? | 9° | 3) | )
var. Sarson 5 ss | e
|
Graminae...| Saccharum officin- — lite | 1910 |Ramk. &
arum | Marg.
| (1913)
Leguminosae | Lathyrus odoratus Flowers 56 | Shamenes .
| | (1049)
L. sativus - | ms | SOR
|
| |
Medicago sativa | Leaves Fr 1910 | 5,
THRIPS (THYSANOPTERA) OF BOMBAY STATE 599
Several examples of this species were collected at Poona in January
1951 on leaves and leaf sheaths of S. officinarum (Gramineae) and a
few examples on flowers of Allium cepa (Liliaceae). The intensity
of infestation was mild on the former host plant whereas it was in-
significant on the latter.
Family Heliothripidae.
Subfamily—Heliothripinae.
2. Hercothrips indicus Bagnall (1913).
Information regarding the range of host plants, the plant part
infested and the distribution recorded in India is given below :—
Plant | Period
|
Family of Host species | part Localit of Reference
host plant ‘ | infested | ‘ collection
| | ;
Araceae _...| Colocasia sp. — N. Cirears = Ramk. (1928)
Cruciferae Brassica oleracea — Bombay - a ff
Leguminosae Arachis hypogaea Flowers | 8. Arcot — %, a
Crotolaria juncea — Pusa == 94
Palmaceae ...| Date palm — Sirguppa — on
Solanaceae...| Solanum melon gena — Surat -- a *
S. tuberosum — | Bombay — i 3
This species has been found on the leaves of Gynandropsis gynandra
(Capparidaceae) in a mild form at Anand in January 1950. Similar
infestation has been also noticed on leaves and flowers of Dianthus
plumeri (Caryophyllaceae) in the month of March 1951 at Poona while
moderately heavy infestation on the leaves and stems of Carthamus
tinctorius (Compositae) have been seen mildly infested in September and
February 1950 at Poona. The flowers of Antirrhinum sp. (Scrophu-
lariaceae) had mild infestation in January 1951 in the same localities.
In addition to brinjal and potato reported by Ramakrishna (1928) this
species has been found to infest mildly the leaves of tomatoes
(Lycopersicon esculentum, Solanaceae) in the month of October 1950
near Anand, while at Poona the species has been observed infesting
potato crop in February 1951.
The other host plants of the species are Foeniculum vulgare
(Umbelliferae) and Cannabis sativa (Moraceae). Mild infestation on
the leaves and stems of the former has been observed at Anand in
October 1950, while the infestation on leaves and stems of the latter
was moderately heavy in December 1950 at Poona.
As the species causes considerable damage to cultivated plants, it is
one of the agriculturally important species. It is however interesting
to note that though this species is a serious pest on cotton in Sudan
(Corbett 1920) the earlier (Ramk. 1932) and present observations for
1950 and 1951 in many localities have curiously shown that it was
neither present on cotton nor on any plant of the family Malvaceae to
which cotton belongs. But just recently in September-October 1952,
we have recorded this insect as a pest on cotton and F. vulgare, causing
severe damage at Viramgam, and in other N. Gujarat districts.
600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
3. Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood (1910).
This insect is also of considerable agricultural importance, as
a large number of economic host plants have been found to be
infested.. Ramakrishna Ayyar (1928) has described the injury caused
by this insect on grapes. The existing information as to its host,
range, etc., is given below :—
Plant Bee
Family of Host species part Locality | Reference
host plant infested eciteeee
Anacardia-
ceae a
otic ort ebay ape ogi
Mangifera indica “Lemes Lyallpur ie Ramk. &
45 Bf | Flowers | | Coimbatore
Combreta-
ceae Terminalia ayjuna|, Leaves | Lyallpur ~ Ramk. &
Mimoseae Prosopis spicigera a Maddur 1928 | Karny
Myrtaceae Eugenia sp. a Coimbatore 1924 |Ramk.
Punicaceae . 55 | Lyallpur — Ramk. &
y i ,, | Lyallpur = &
Punica granatum |
Rosaceae Rosa sp. - Coimbatore |
A F | Palur | — Karny
Vitaceae Vitis vinifera 43 | Coimbatore 1923 | Karny
i | Bezwada — Ramk.
_ | Madura — |Ramk. &
55) 3 | Travancore — Ramk. &
(1925)
E 2p 60 ? Bangalore _— Ramk.
|
In addition to T. avjuna reported earlier (Ramk, and Marg, 1939),
this species has been found to infest mildly the leaves of T. catappa
in August 1951 at Anand.
In the family Myrtaceae and Punicaceae Psidium gujava and Punica
granatum have also been found to be infested in the Poona region.
The infestation of the former has been mild in September 1951 while
the species is present in insignificant numbers on the leaves of the
latter. The mild infestation on the leaves of Rosa sp. has again
been observed in August 1950 the month in which the specimens were
also collected in 1923 at Coimbatore (Karny 1925).
THRIPS (THYSANOPTERA) OF BOMBAY STATE 601
The species has greater economic importance as a pest on grape
vine (V. vinifera). In the Bombay State it is particularly abundant
in Nasik, whereas, moderate damage on the leaves has also been
observed on this host in September 1951 in Poona.
4. Tryphactothrips rutherfordi Bagnall (1915).
So far this species has only been collected from the leaves of
Gossypium herbaceum (Malvaceae) at Coimbatore (Ramk. 1928) and
from the flowers of Datura sp. (Solanaceae) at S. Arcot (Pergande
1894).
From the collection made by us it is observed that the species
has a wide host range. It has been found to infest mildly the leaves of
Calotropis sp. (Asclepiadaceae) and Acalypha sp. (Euphorbiaceae) in
the month of July 1950 at Poona. Mild infestation on the leaves of
Morus indica (Moraceae) has been observed in September. 1950 in the
same locality. Further the leaves of Santalum album (Santalaceae)
and Sapindus trifoliatus (Sapindaceae) have been observed to have
few specimens of the species in January 1950 and October 1950 res-
pectively at Baroda.
Family Thripidae.
Subfamily—Chirothripinae.
5. Chirothrips manicatus Haliday (1836).
The species has only been reported on Nicotiana tabacum from
Coimbatore (Ramk. and Marg. 1931). In the Bombay State however
few insects have been obtained from sweeping from grasses in April
and August 1951 at Poona, and in December 1951 at Detroj.
6. Neocorynothrips (Ramakrishnothrips) jonnaphila Ramk. (1928).
The species has been observed on the flowers of Brassica campestris
var. Sarson (Cruciferae) at Delhi (Shumsher 1949). It is also common
on the members of the family Graminae. It has been observed on
leaves of Saccharum officinarum and in leaf sheaths of Sorghum vulgare
(Ramk. 1928) at Coimbatore. It has also been collected from tassels
of Zea mays at Guntur (Ramk. 1928).
Mild and moderate infestations of this thrips have been noted at
Poona in the leaf sheath of S. officinarum and S. vulgare in August
1950 and April 1951 respectively.
Subfamily—Thripinae.
7. Achaetothrips mundus Karny (1925).
Formerly this species has been collected on wild host at Taliparamba
(Karny 1925). However in Poona mild infestation on tender shoots
and leaves of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas, Fam. Convolvulaceae)
has beeen observed in September 1950.
8. Anaphothrips flavicinctus Karny (1912).
Members of the family Graminae are most commonly infested by
this species, however three other families of host plants also have
602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 51
been previously recorded. Detailed information pertaining to them
is tabulated below :—
EB BE TE a
: Plant . | Period
Eee oe Host species part Locality of | Reference
Sua infested | collection
Gramineae ... | Oryza sativa Leaf- | N. India | — | Shumsher
sheath |} | | 1949
Penni setiui Leaves | . — Shuimsher
spicatum 1949
Saccharum Leaf- ~ — Shumsher
officinarum\| sheath | 1949
Sorghum vulgare | Leaves '| S. India -- Shumsher
: 1949
r, =A Ear heads! Boilpatti — | Ramk.
1928
Triticum aestivum| Leaf- | N. India a Shumsher
shealth | 1949
Zea mays Cobs a — | Shumsher
1949
Lythraceae ... | Lawsonta inermis Flowers | i — Shumsher
1949
Marantaceae.. | Arrowroot Leaves |Taliparamba —_ Ramk.
1928
Solanaceae ... | Vicotiana tabacum | Flowers N. India — Shumsher
| 1949
Some of the members of the family Gramineae reported above have
also been observed by us to be infested by this species. Thus,
moderate infestations in the leaf sheath of P. spicatum have been noted
in September 1950 at Viramgam and Detroj; and mild to heavy
infestation on leaves and leaf sheaths of S. vulgare at Poona, Nasik,
Anand, Baroda, Detroj and Borivali in the post-monsoon and early
winter months of September, October and December 1950. The species
was also present in moderate to heavy proportions on all aerial parts
of T. aestivum in Poona, Bombay and N. Gujarat in the winter months
of 1950 and 1951. ‘The life history of this species has been worked
out and is to be published separately. Few specimens have also been
collected from the leaves of Zea mays in September 1950. It is also
common on other grasses throughout the year in Poona and N. Gujarat.
In addition to the graminaceous hosts mentioned above mild in-
festation on the leaves of Avena sativa and Echinochloa stagnina have
been observed in September 1950 at Poona. It has also been seen
in mild abundance in the leaf sheaths of Cynodon dactylon in February
1951. The other host observed is Eleusine coracana, the leaves of
which have shown mild abundance in September and October 1950 at
Poona and Anand respectively.
As in N. India (Shumsher 1949) this thrips has been also observed
on the flowers of N. tabacum in September 1950 at Poona, while few
insects have also been collected from the leaves of Lycopersicon
esculentum (Solanaceae) at the same place and time.
Apart from the families mentioned above a few examples of this
species have been collected from the leaf sheaths of Canna indica
(Cannaceae) and flowers of ‘Lagasca mollis (Lobeliaceae) in September
1950 at Poona.
THRIPS (THYSANOPTERA) OF BOMBAY STATE 603
9. Anaphothrips (Dantabahuthrips) sacchari Shumsher (1940).
The species was described from specimens on the leaf sheaths of
sugarcane (S. officinarum, Fam. Gramineae) at Rupar, N. India (Shum-
sher 1949). At Poona insignificant population has been observed on
leaves of grasses, P. spicatum and the leaf sheath of maize (Zea mays) in
post-monsoon months of 1950 and 1951. It has also been collected
from leaf-sheaths of grasses from Baroda in October 1951.
10. Anaphothrips (Scirtothrips) dorsalis Hood (1910).
In India, this is probably the most important economic species of
the order Thysanoptera. As a pest on chillies (Capsicum annuum) it is
known to cause the leaf curl locally known as ‘Murda’ disease. Its
life history has been worked by Ramchandra Rao in the year 1928. In
the Bombay State it is not only a serious pest on chillies but also on
the newly evolved long staple varieties of cotton. The bionomics
and control of this species which is under study will be published
separately.
The species has been recorded in Coimbatore on shoots of Ricinus
communis (Euphorbiaceae) on the flowers of Poinciana pulcherrima
(Leguminosae) on G. herbaceum (Malvaceae), on flowers of P. granatum
(Punicaceae) and on Solanum melongena (Solanaceae) Ramk. (1928).
According to our observations this thrips has got a much wider
range of host plants and can be called a truly polyphagous species.
In addition to the five families of host plants mentioned above it has
now been collected from twelve more families.
Mild infestation has been seen on the flowers of M. indica (Ana-
cardiaceae) and C. indica (Cannaceae) in October 1950 at Anand and
Baroda respectively. The flowers of Echinops echinatus and Gerbera
of the family Compositae have been found to have insignificant popula-
tion in January 1950 and August 1951 respectively at Poona. In the
post-monsoon months of September and October of the same year,
mild infestation of the species has been observed on the flowers and
leaves of Raphanus sativus (Crucifereae) at Anand and Poona. At
the latter place a few-specimens have also been collected from the
leaves of Dioscoria argeria (Dioscoriaceae) in the same season. As
reported by earlier observers (Ram. 1928) the species has been collected
on R. communis, from Anand and Detroj from Gujarat ; mild infestation
was found on its flowers and leaves in December 1951. ‘The leaves
of Setaria indica (Gramineae) have also been found to have insignificant
population in November 1950 at Poona.
In the family Leguminosae mild abundance on the. flowers of Acacia
arabica, insignificant population on the leaves of Dolichos biflorus and
on the shoots of Phaseolus mungo have been noted in September 1950
at Poona. Among the different species of cotton, G. hirsutum has
shown mild to heavy incidence on all aerial parts from August to
October at Poona, Jalgaon and Surat, while the infestation was
mild on G. herbaceuwm in September 1950 at Poona and in December
1951 at Anand. In the same season of 1950 the species has been
mildly abundant on flowers of Prosopsis spicigera (Mimosae), while a
few specimens were also collected on flowers of Psidium gujava
(Myrtaceae) and buckwheat at Poona. At the same place and in nearly
the same season mild infestation has been noted on leaves and tender
604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
parts of Rosa sp. (Rosaceae). The leaves of Mimusops hexandva
(Sapotaceae) and Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae) have been observed
to have few specimens in September and October of 1950, at Anand
and Poona respectively.
In the family Solanaceae mild infestation on the flowers of Datura
metel in July and insignificant population on the leaves of 'L. esculentum
in September 1950 have existed at Poona.
11. Ayyaria chaetophora Karny (1926).
The species has been previously recorded on R. communis and
garden croton (Euphorbiaceae) at Samolkot and Coimbatore (Ramk.
and Marg. 1931). In Bombay State an additional host Acalypha
sp. of the same family has been noted with mild infestation on its
leaves in July 1950 at Poona. Negligible infestation on an unidentified
host species locally known as Dudhakado was found at Pavaghadh
(Gujarat) in October 1950.
The flowers of Vigna catjang (Leguminosae) have been mentioned
as the host from Talimparamba in September 1908 (Karny 1925).
The other known host of this family is Canavalia ensiformis from
which insects were collected in 1933 by Javeri at Poona, the slide of
which is in our collection.
The only other family of host plant noted is that of Amaryllidaceae
a few examples on the flowers on Hymenocallis sp. have been collected
in July 1950 from Poona.
12. Franklimella sulphurea Schmutz (1913).
This insect has a wide range of host plants and is generally more
abundant in flowers and causes less damage to leaves. The host plants
recorded so far are listed below :—
: | Plant Period
Family of Host species part |Locality|of col- Reference
host plants ‘infested lection
| |
onvolvula- | | |
7 ceae Convolvulus sp. Flowers|Lyallpur| — Ramk. & Marg. 1939
Cucurbita- |
ceae ... | Benincasa ceritera Leaves - si
| Citrullus vulgaris op ” | ”
| Cucurbita maxima 50 ” ”
| Lutfa aegyplica Flowers ” ”)
Momordica charantia ” 4 | ”
Legumino- | |
sae .. |Crotolaria juncea » ” ”
Malvaceae... Mzbiscus cannabinus eet fort 59
| se esculentus a | ” | ”
Rosaceae ... Aosasp. iy oe »
Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens | * | ” Ramk. 1939
| - 3 Bagiven | Ramk. 1928
In addition to the six families of host plants stated above
EF. sulphurea has been found on fifteen other families. In October
1950 mild infestation has been observed in the flowers of Celosia
THRIPS (THYSANOPTERA) OF BOMBAY STATE 606:
argentea (Amaranthaceae) at Pavaghadh and some specimens were also
collected from flowers of Nerium indicum and Vinca rosea of the
family Apocynaceae at Viramgam. The flowers of Dianthus plumeri
(Caryophylaceae) have been observed with mild intensity in ‘April
1950 at Poona.
The flowers of five species of the family Compositae have also
been observed as host plants, on all of which the infestation was of
a mild nature. The collections from Chrysanthemum sp., Helianthus
annuus, tegetes erecta were made in October 1950 at Pavaghadh,
Anand and Viramgam respectively. At Poona mild infestation has
been observed on Dahalia sp. in August 1950 and in 1951 on Echinops
echinatus.
The flowers of Ipomea sp. (Convolvulaceae) have been observed to
have mild infestation in November 1950 at Poona, while similar
infestation was observed on the flowers of Lagenaria siceraria
(Cucurbitaceae) in October 1950 at Pavaghadh. . The flowers of
Trichosanthus alba and Momordica charantta of the latter family have
been observed to have mild and insignificant infestation in August
and October 1950 at Poona and Anand respectively.
A few specimens of the species have also been collected from the
flowers of Geranium sanguineum (Geraniaceae) and Ocimum canum
(Labiateae) in October 1950 at Poona and Viramgam respectively.
In the family Leguminosae so far the insects have been observed
on flowers of C. juncea (Ram. and Marg. 1939). The flowers of four
more plants of this family have now been recorded as hosts. These
are Delonix regia in October 1950 at Viramgam, Dolichos lablab in
August 1951 at Poona, Lathyrus sativus in November 1950 at Poona
and Medicago sativa in July 1951 at Mahableshwar. On al] these
except M. sativa the infestations have been of a mild nature while
from L. sativus only a few specimens were collected.
Lagasca mollis and Lobelia nicotinifolia (Lobeliaceae) also have
shown the presence of a few examples in October 1950 and March
195t at Poona and Mahableshwar respectively. In addition to the
two species of Hibiscus mentioned earlier (Ramk. and Marg. 19309),
the flowers of Hibiscus rosasinensis have been observed with mild
infestation in the month of October 1950 at Viramgam. A few indi-
viduals were noted on flowers of H. esculentuws at Poona in July
1950. Further, scanty abundance of this thrips has been observed
on flowers of Sesamum indicum (Fam. Pedaliaceae) in September
1950 at Poona and Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginceae) in October
1950 at Pavaghadh.
Moderate infestation on the flowers have been observed on Portulaca
sp. (Portulacaceae, July 1951); Zizyphus rugosa (Rhamnaceae) Sep-
tember 1950; Citrus grandis (Rutaceae) December 1950; Acras sapota
(Sapotaceae) July 1950 and on Antirrhinum sp. (Scrophulariaceae) July
1950, all of them at Poona.
As reported earlier (Ram. 1928 and Ramk. & Marg, 1939) C.
frutescens has also been observed as host in October 1950 at Anand,
the flowers of which were infested with a few of these thrips.
In addition to the said plant of the family Solanaceae the flowers of
L. esculentum and S. melongena have also shown similar infestation
in August 1950 at Poona. The only other family noted is Verbenaceae,
606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the younger leaves of Clerodendrum phlomoides of which have been
seen with mild infestation in December 1950 at Poona.
13. Microcephalothrips brevipalpis Karny (1926).
This insect was originally described from specimens collected on
flowers of Chrysanthemum (Compositae) August 1913, Coimbatore
Karny (1925). It has also been collected from Coonoor on the same
host (Ramk. 1928).
In addition to Chrysanthemum mentioned above the species has been
now collected from the flowers of Cosmos sp., T. erecta and Zinnia sp.
of the same family. The observed infestation at Poona on Cosmos sp.
has been very little, while those on the second host moderately heavy
and on Zinnia sp. in mild abundance. The collections from these hosts
were made in September, August and July 1950 respectively.
The five other families from which this insect has been collected
are Amaryllidaceaé, Caryophylliaceae, Leguminosae, Lobeliaceae and
Solanaceae. The host plants among these families are: Hymonocallis
sp., Danithus chinensis, Cyamopsis psoralioides, L. mollis and H. escu-
lentum respectively. A few specimens were collected from the flowers
of the first four plants while in the case of H. esculentum the leaves
were found to be slightly infested. The collections from these hosts
were made from July to September 1950 at Poona.
14. Scolothrips asura Ram. and Marg. (1931).
Original record of this species was from leaves of Banana (Musa
paradisiaca, Fam. Scitaminaceae) at Coimbatore (Ram. and Marg.
1931).
At Poona this species has come to our notice on the leaves of
Santalum album (Santalaceae) in January 1951. The male of this
species which has hitherto not been observed, has been collected by
us the description of which will be published later.
15. Scolothrips sexmaculatus Pergande (1894).
This species is known to be a predator on mites on Cholam shoots
(Ramk. 1928). Besides this, from Coimbatore, the species has been
collected from the leaf sheaths of S. vulgare (Gramineae) (Pergande
1894) and the flowers of P. granatum (Punicaceae) (Karny 1925).
We have observed this insect as a predator on mites on chillies,
Colocasia sp. (Araceae) and cotton. Mild population was found on
the former plant in February 1952 at Poona. A few specimens also
were collected from Capsicum frutescens (Solanaceae) and cotton in
April 1951 from Poona.
16. Thrips (Isothrips) orientalis Bagnall (1915).
In India the species has been known from Coimbatore on flowers
of Jasminum sp. in September 1913 and Morinda tinctorum Fam.
Oleaceae, April 1919 (Karny 1925).
We have also observed this species in small numbers on flowers
of Jasminum sp. in September 1950 at Poona.
THRIPS (THYSANOPTERA) OF BOMBAY STATE 607
17. Thrips tabaci Lindmen (1888). rg
This species is of world wide occurrence; in India the host plants
recorded are A. cepa (Liliaceae) at Bellary (Ramk. 1928), G. herbaceum
(Malvaceae) at Coimbatore (Karny 1925), Tea from Ooty (Ramk. and
Marg. 1939) and B. oleracea (Cruciferae) at Bombay (Karny 1925).
On the first host, namely onion, the insects are found on leaf sheaths
while on cotton they have been collected on flowers and shoots.
In the Bombay State as in other places the species is a pest on onion
and moderately heavy infestation has been observed in September 1950
at Poona, Anand, Detroj and Viramgam.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks are due to the Agriculturai Entomologist, Madras State,
Coimbatore ; Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta; and Head
of Entomology Department, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi, who kindly loaned their identified insects for comparison.
REFERENCES
5 Bagnall, R. S. (1918): Brief description of Thysanoptera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
8) 2. :
—- — — (1915): Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 15.
— — — (1919): Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) 4.
Corbett, G. H. (1920): Observation of cotton thrips in Guzira Sudan—1918-19.
Bull. ent. Res., 14: 95-100.
*Haliday, A. H. (1936): Entomological Magazine.
*Hood, J. D. (1919): On some new Thysanoptera from South India. Insecutor
Insecitiae Menstruus, 7: 90-103.
*Karny, H. H. (1912): Gallevbewohnende Thysanopteran aus Java. Marcellia.
414: 115.
*—- —- — (192): Bull. Deli. Profest. Sumatra No. 23.
*— —- — (1926): Studies on Indian Thysanoptera. Mem. Dept. Agri. India
Ent. Ser., 9 (6): 187-239.
*Lindemen (1888): Die Schadlichen Insecten auf tabak.
*Linne, C. A. (1761): Fauna sevetica stockholmiae.
*Pergande, Theo. (1894): Trans., St. Louis Acad., 5.
*Ramachandra Rao, Y. (1928): Administration Reports of the Government
Entomologist, Coimbatore for 1928-29. Coimbatore Agri, Res. Inst. pp. 38.
Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. (1928): A contribution to our knowledge of the
Thysanoptera of India. Mem. Dept. Agri, India Ent. Ser.,.10 (7): 217-316.
Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. & Margabandhu, V. (1931): Notes on Indian Thy-
sanoptera with brief description of new species. J.B.N.H.S., 34 (4): 1029-40.
Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. (1932): Bionomics of some thrips injurious to
cultivated plants in South India. Agri. and Livestock in India, 2: 391-403.
Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. & Margabandhu, V. (1939): Notes on some Indian
Thysanoptera) with description of new species. Indian Jour. Ent., 1 (3): 35-48.
Shumsher Singh (1949): A contribution to our knowledge of Indian Thysanoptera
Indian Jour. Ent., & (2): 111-135.
Schmutz, K. (1913): Zur Kenntnis der Thysanopterenfauna von Ceylon. Sitzungs-
berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 122 (7).
* Original articles not examined.
ECOLOGICAL NOTES ON A COLONY OF SMALL
SWALLOW-PLOVERS IN MYSORE STATE
BY
C. BROOKE WorRTH
[NA RIOLD_ UsCUL 1O5N
In the journal for December, 1951, pp. 405-406, a report was
given of a colony of Small Swallow-Plovers, Glareola lactea Temmnick,
that had been observed briefly in 1951 on a sand bar in the Hemavati
River at Sakleshpur, Hassan District, Mysore State (1). During
1952 it was attempted to extend observations on these birds, and
also to study the avifauna and history of the nesting site in relation
to the swallow-plovers. Owing to only sporadic opportunities to visit
the river, the following comments do not present as continuous a
story as might be desired, but a seasonal trend of events can never-
theless be discerned.
As indicated in the original note about these birds, the Hemavati
rose in response to the deluge of the southwest monsoon, and the
island was inundated by 12th June, 1952. No swallow-plovers could
be detected at that time nor for the remainder of the monsoon period,
the sand bar also remaining concealed beneath the rushing surge of
the river. When the rains abated in late August, sand bars reappear-
ed in the previous vicinity, where the river made a rather abrupt bend,
but it was at once obvious that the configuration of various islands
was drastically altered. The main sand bar, which had been the former
site of the colony, was now divided into a small upstream segment
and a larger segment below, separated by a narrow but deep channel.
The lower segment, moreover, reached closer to the western bank
of the river, so that as the flood continued to subside, it became
evident that the entire series of sand bars, including numerous narrow
strips flanking the two main islands, would be more accessible from
shore in 1952 than in 1951. Sand and gravel had been deposited
by river currents in such a fashion that the upper island had the
least elevation above low water, but a gradually rising slope toward
the downstream tip of the lower island led finally to a terminal sand
bank that must have been at least three feet higher than the least
elevated portion of the upper island.
Table 1 indicates the dates on which the river was visited and
records the birds noted on each occasion. Since some of the trips
had to be very brief, complete observations of birdlife were not
invariably made. However the swallow-plover census was meticulously
taken in every instance.
The Little Green Heron, Butorides striatus, a species that was
not noted in the survey of Mysore birds by Salim Ali (2), has already
been reported to that authority on the basis of a Bangalore sight
record. The table contains two additional new species records for
Mysore State, namely the Pied Harrier, Circus melanoleucus, and
SMALL SWALLOW-PLOVERS IN MYSORE STATE 609
Temminck’s Stint, Evolia temminckii. Further comments on the
species may be made as follows.
TABLE 1. Birds seen in 1951 and 1952
Hemavati River, Sakleshpur, Mysore State
led eb:
27 Feb.
13 Mar.
29 Mar.
14 April
22 Jan,
| 30 Jan.
—
NO
pa
White Wagtail
Large Pied Wagtail
Malabar Crested Lark
Pied Kingfisher
Common Kingfisher
Brownheaded Storkbilled
Kingfisher
Whitebreasted Kingfisher
Crested Serpent-EKagle
Pariah Kite
Pied Harrier
Small Swallow-Plover
River Tern
Blackbellied Tern Oeulee
Little Ring Plover Griliaae
Redwattled Lapwing bee || te
Green Sandpiper ab
Common Sandpiper ogo || a
Wood Sandpiper S00 || 0
Greenshank so || &
‘Temminck’s Stint 500 :
|
\
Ne
=
Do DH
pes
St ay
—
=
Oo ee
Jungle Crow br
2
13
nN
IS eS) O41 MOHD oe
thor bo
Ps
MN
Od vo
NG)
mmMe
ee OM Oe
NH PD SP D = bo
hb OO >)
Whitenecked Stork
Little Egret
Little Green Heron
iS)
oa
a
:
bs
.
fa
1
1. Jungle Crow, Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler.
Undoubtedly crows are more frequent visitors to the island than
indicated by the records in Table 1. The species was listed only when
it occasioned special notice as when, on 13 March, I worried about
the terns’ chick, and on 12 May, when a pair of lapwings chased a
Jungle Crow into a tree. 3
The apparent defencelessnes of swallow-plovers makes it difficult
to understand why crows might not invade the colony at any time,
drive them from their nests and consume the eggs or young. But
even in the absence of such aggressive manoeuvres there were oppor-
tunities—probably daily—to rob ‘the colony when. human intruders
disturbed the incubating birds. On my own visits I usually tried to
make observations through binoculars at as great a distance as
consistent with accurate visualization, but the record of footprints
in the sand, plus occasional direct evidence, disclosed that local Indians
frequently crossed the river at this point, using the island as a stepping
stone. Often they drove cattle or buffaloes onto the island in order
to wash them, and women also laundered clothes at the lower end
of the large islands Remains of small fires were found in the vicinity,
610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SSOCIEDY, Vol. 51
of the dhobies. Finally, some people merely wandered along the
margins of the island looking for useful debris, or sometimes stranding
tiny fish in shallow pools in order to scoop them up onto the sand
to dry. But I was never able to detect that any of these intruders—
human or animal—took a direct interest in nesting birds.
These many visitors, although arriving and departing sporadically,
afforded multiple opportunities for crows and other predators to invade
the nesting territory, for the circling parent birds were a conspicuous
emblem of circumstances in the area. However I did not see any
crow approach a nest; nor did I find eggs that had obviously been
broken by marauders.
2. White Wagtail, Motacilla alba Linnaeus.
Although recorded by Salim Ali as a ‘fairly common’ winter visitor
in Mysore State, this wagtail was observed only irregularly by me
in the Sakleshpur region. Its occurrence on the island is not signi-
ficant.
3. Large Pied Wagtail, Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin.
This wagtail is undoubtedly to be considered as part of the island’s
fauna, for there was little question that the birds were breeding
nearby and used the island as one of their foraging grounds. On
April 14, a pair was seen in evident courtship. The presumed male
lifted its wings over its back and ran back and forth in front of
the other bird. The same or another male was observed later on the
same day singing from the top of a small tree on the west bank of
the river.
Relation to Swallow-Plovers: possibly the active pied wagtails
serve to warn swallow-plovers of the approach of intruders. No
evidence of competition between the species was obtained.
4. Malabar Crested Lark, Galerida malabarica (Scopoli).
A pair observed on the island on April 14 impressed me as behaving
‘suspiciously’, for they seemed reluctant to leave a certain small area
of sand and gravel. Since, however, there is abundant suitable nest-
ing terrain on a sparsely-grassed slope about a furlong beyond the
west bank of the river, no reason why the island should have presented
special attractiveness for this purpose was apparent. This is a frequently
seen species in Sakleshpur in open habitats. Significance to Swallow-
Plovers: probably nil.
5. Pied Kingfisher, Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus).
Sdlim Ali (2) met this species uncommonly in Mysore State, but
I have found it the second most abundant kingfisher in Hassan, Mandya
and Mysore Districts, being exceeded in numbers only by the White-
breasted Kingfisher. On repeated automobile journeys along the same
roads, I have seen it time and again at the same locations, suggesting
that it may be rather sedentary and patchily distributed. The ones
at the Sakleshpur island probably nested in a sand-bank at the
river’s edge; several likely sites with holes in them were seen, and
the birds’ fishing activities marked them as residents.
SMALL SWALLOW-PLOVERS IN MYSORE STATE 611
No relationship between swallow-plovers and any species of king-
fisher could be defined. )
6. Common Kingfisher, Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus).
The remarks under the preceding species must not be construed
as an indication that Common Kingfishers are uncommon at Sakleshpur,
even though Salim Ali found them generally so in Mysore State (2).
On the contrary they could usually be seen on visits to the river,
and I feel confident that they nested in one of its banks. On May 12,
I saw a kingfisher catch one of the tiny fish that have already been
mentioned as being collected by local Indians through a stranding
device. Small as its prey was, the kingfisher first flew to a perch in order
to knock the fish into insensibility before swallowing such a morsel.
7. Brownheaded Storkbilled Kingfisher, Ramphalcyon capensis
(Linnaeus). | |
To the single record at the island on February 27, may be added
two other closely contemporaneous records—of a pair—seen about
fifteen miles downstream where the banks of the Hemavati are flanked
by overhanging trees and fringing groves of bamboo. The species
is probably resident but must be uncommon.
8. Whitebreasted Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus).
Whitebreasted Kingfishers were often seen and heard throughout
the Sakleshpur area and elsewhere in neighbouring districts, despite
Salim Ali’s statement that it is not a common species in Mysore
State (2). Since this bird is somewhat emancipated from the immediate
vicinity of water, the solitary record at the island on February 27 should
not be taken as representing its local status: |
‘9. Crested Serpent-Eagle, Spilornis cheela (Latham).
Next to kites and vultures, serpent-eagles are among the commonest
raptorial birds of the Sakleshpur region, being seen alike in areas
of heavy and moderate rainfall. The three eagles noted over the
island on February 27 circled past at a low elevation with much
screaming, as if a ‘triangular’ courtship were in progress. They took
no evident notice of the swallow-plovers, but there is no valid reason
to discount serpent-eagles as potential predators in their occasional
passage over the nesting’ site.
10. Pariah Kite, Miluvus migrans (Boddaert).
Like the Jungle Crow, Pariah Kites were seen at or near the
island far more frequently than listed in my note-book. The one
recorded on January 22 was mentioned because it alighted and drank
from the river. Brahminy Kites, Haliastur indus (Boddaert), were
also numerous in the vicinity, especially over paddy fields along the
east bank. Both species of kite must be regarded as_ constant
threats to breeding swallow-plovers, not merely to their eggs and
variously grown young, but to the parent birds themselves. But no
evidence to support this opinion can be advanced from field obser-
vations.
6
612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
jl. Pied Harrier, Circus melanoleucus (Pennant).
An adult male of this species flew over the island on January 22.
Hitherto unrecorded from Mysore State, this species had, I believe,
already appeared twice through my binoculars,—once in the previous
winter in Sakleshpur, and once during that same season high over
Bangalore. In the latter instance my attention was drawn to the
soaring bird by the sudden upturned eyes of pet pigeons that were
ingesting driveway gravel. As an aside, I recommend the keeping
and close observation of domestic poultry to those who wish to spot
high-flying birds—no better look-outs exist.
Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus), although not re-
corded in my notebook, were seen also to visit the Sakleshpur island,
occasionally alighting to drink from the river. Neither species of
harrier is likely to have had an ecological relationship with swallow-
plovers.
12. Smal] Swallow-Plover, Glareola lactea ‘Temminck.
This, the chief breeding species of the Sakleshpur island, has been
selected as a centre around which to relate other birds occupying the
same habitat. Yet so far as can be determined, the swallow-plovers
lead a serenely detached existence in which other species may come
or go without making a scrap of difference.
Actually the swallow-plovers must afford one of the best available
lessons in the danger of taking field observations to one’s anthropo-
morphic heart, for the apparent placidness of these birds is no sure
indication that they are not vividly and vitally aware of each impending
danger to themselves and their colony. A snail, threatened by a
blackbird, may appear equally unperturbed, but in that case we may
be confident that the snail has no premonition of its danger. But
when a warm-blooded vertebrate, especially a bird, is concerned, we
are accustomed to think of it in terms of a scatter-brained hen or
even a frantic mouse. Nevertheless it cannot be proved that tranquillity
may not be a species trait entirely compatible with such awareness of
danger as characterizes more demonstrative forms. Actually such
tranquillity in some cases may have definite survival value to the species,
so that it comes to denote as important a protective device as the
more conspicuous manoeuvres for defence or escape of such note-
worthy, if diverse, organisms as mice, muntjacs and women.
Following the disappearance of swallow-plovers from the Saklesh-
pur island during the southwest monsoon of 1951, no systematic
attempt was made to ascertain the date of their return, since it was
not known with assurance that this species uses the same nesting
site year after year. Their continued absence’on 20 November, when
the island was again exposed, may be an indication that such birds
practise a distinct annual migration to an alternative habitat, but as
will be disclosed in the next paragraph, this conclusion cannot be
drawn from my field data.
On 22 January, 1952, the island was again devoid of birds. But
about one furlong upstream, towards Sakleshpur, I came upon thirteen
swallow-plovers on a different island. It occurred.to me that they
might have been at this site when I visited the river two months
previously, for on the former occasion I limited my inspection to the
breeding island.
SMALL SWALLOW-PLOVERS IN MYSORE STATE 613
The swallow-plovers were all resting on the sand, most of them
near the water-line. Nine were on the island itself and four were
on the opposite bank of a narrow channel. They sat with their
breasts facing the sun, but they turned their heads to watch me if
I were not in a direct line with them. They rested singly for the
most part, although there was one group of three within a foot of
one another. The others were scattered five to ten yards apart. The birds
were squatting on the sand, one of them in a natural depression, but
gave no sign of being (or pretending to be) incubating parents. They
were not at all disturbed by my presence and allowed me to get within
the closest range of my 8x binoculars. Even then one bird merely
walked away a few steps, rather than flying.
One swallow-plover that I disturbed flew some distance and landed
in front of another one. As it alighted it bent forward in a deep bow,
as if it had stopped too quickly and had ‘nosed over’ like an airplane.
I could not see the other bird’s immediate response, but they next
walked rapidly past one another, turned, and again walked rapidly
past one another. One of the birds then withdrew to a distance of
several yards. No other symptom of awareness of one swallow-plover
about other swallow-plovers was displayed. I did not hear any of the
flock make a sound.
The birds may have been on this island because of human activity
(dhobies and fishermen) on the breeding island at the time. They
clearly exhibited no activity suggesting early territorialism at a nesting
site.
Now that it was known that the small swallow-plovers had
‘returned’ to Sakleshpur, observations were carried out more regularly
and, when possible, in greater detail. A brief visit on 30 January,
revealed the birds as still present on the upper island. A group of
six were sitting at intervals of about a foot from each other. The
rest were scattered. One, on a small sand-bar below the island, had
‘the gapes,’ repeatedly turning up its head and spreading its mandibles
to their maximum extent. This behaviour was not observed again.
On 7 February two swallow-plovers were found on the breeding
island, while at least eleven could be counted on the upper one. They
were definitely more scattered than previously. However, they still
showed no resentment towards me or any social behaviour among
themselves, other than the fact that they formed an assembled flock.
On 27 February twenty to twenty-five swallow-plovers were present,
all of them now on the original breeding island. The considerable
increase in numbers, plus the return of all birds to a former nesting site,
were suggestive of an influx of native birds from an extended sojourn
elsewhere. This is perhaps the strongest argument that can be offered
in favour of the theory of an annual—if local—migration by members
of this species.
A number of scooped-out hollows in the sand were observed where
the swallow-plovers had been resting. But the birds did not behave
aggressively or defensively, being on the whole undisturbed by my
presence. Perhaps scooping out false nests at this season is a harbinger
of stronger urges soon to be felt. Another portent of increased
activity was a soft rasping note, uttered infrequently however.
On 13 March many depressions in the sand, but no eggs, were
noted. The eighteen swallow-plovers seen were well scattered over
614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the island, some in pairs, others singly or in small groups. They
behaved as if slightly disturbed, gave a few mild whistles and flew
about a bit.
This behaviour, considering the undemonstrativeness of swallow-
plovers, should probably have been interpreted in terms of high passion,
for on the following visit to the island on 29 March the first nest of
the year was discovered. It contained only one egg, but it was
among a large number of scooped-out hollows that appeared to re-
present the center of impending reproductive activities. This precocious
egg antedates Major Pythian-Adams’s clutch from an island in the
Cauvery River by only twelve days (2), so that a highly consistent
annual rhythm in breeding biology of swallow-plovers in Mysore State
seems to have been outlined.
The nest hollows on the Sakleshpur island, begun long before
the appearance of eggs, may have served as more than stimuli to
dormant sexual urges, for there was evidence that they were being
used at night for sleeping purposes. Many of them had collections
of fecal material at their centres, or frequently at a point near the
edge. Since swallow-plovers, as observed by day, were usually seen
near the margins of the island, fecal accumulations must have been
deposited during the hours of night. Nesting- or sleeping-hollows were
situated close to the centre of the island. Some of them appeared
to have been made entirely by the birds, while others looked more like
old cattle, buffalo or human foot-prints that had been adapted for use
with the least possible amount of architectural modification.
The evidence of fecal accumulations in hollows indicated that each
bird might occupy more than one such dormitory on successive nights,
for the number of hollows with signs of tenancy exceeded the number
of birds—twenty-one—that I was able to count on this occasion.
Most of the hollows, including the one containing an egg, were in
gravelly parts of the island, although there were both gravelly and
sandy stretches in equally elevated and otherwise ideal places. The
actual nest and the other hollows were five or six inches in diameter
and about an inch to one-and-a-half inches deep. I could not discern
that the birds brought any extraneous material whatsoever to contribute
to the construction or decor of their nests.
The behaviour of the swallow-plovers remained sedate on this
occasion, despite the fact that many of them must have been on the
verge of laying eggs. They sat about in groups and moved only
when I approached closely. Then some flew a short distance, while
others went as far as the lower end of the island. There were no
outcries of wing-dragging. The owners of the egg could not be dis-
tinguished by their differential antics.
Between 29 March and 14 April something must have happened
at the breeding island to cause a profound disturbance among the
swallow-plovers. On the latter date I first saw no birds at all, but
soon I discovered about twelve of them on a small island just above
the main one (not the upper island mentioned in January).
At the site of the nest found on 29 March on the main island a
swallow-plover flew about near me calling, but I could not find the
nest. The bird seemed agitated. I found no other nests here and
the scraped hollows seemed not to have been recently worked. At
the small upper island I found three nests with two eggs and one
SMALL SWALLOW-PLOVERS IN MYSORE STATE 615:
nest with one egg. The birds were excited, flying about calling or
else squatting on false nests or feigning injury. They did not drag
‘broken’ wings, but settled on the ground and beat both wings
simultaneously against the sand. They would often run for short
distances and again feign injury to entice me away.
This island was not built up as high above river level as the main
breeding island. It was also less gravelly, consisting principally of
a mixture of sand and mud. The color blended with that of the
eggs, but owing to texture of the ground, eggs were easy to see.
Some nests were next to land-marks such as sticks or wisps of grass,
others not so related.
A few swallow-plovers were feigning injury on a. still smaller
island just upstream from the current nesting area, but no nests or
eggs were found there and it is possible that the birds were merely
trying to draw me farther away from the new breeding site.
There were no marks on the original breeding island to indicate
why it had been abandoned so abruptly. Since most of the female
birds must have been on the point of egg-laying, a strong stimulus
would be required to force them to seek other nesting territory at
such a time. The fact that only twelve birds remained nearby also
points to a major deterrent event at the main island, so violent that
some of the birds left the area entirely. Presumably the ones that
merely moved upstream for a short distance must have scooped out
nests and laid eggs almost at once.
Between this visit and my next one on 28 April, Sakleshpur received
its first annual ‘blossom showers’, eagerly looked forward to by the
coffee planters. This rainfall, which may be heavy although of short
duration, further obscured the history of nesting swallow-plovers.
For on this day no nests were to be seen and only four birds remained
in the vicinity. These were at the recent breeding site and behaved
like nesting birds, flying about calling, or alighting with ‘false nest’
actions. No young birds were found despite a careful search in an
environment that afforded almost no chance for their concealment.
It appeared inescapable to me that tragedy had overtaken the
colony. If young birds had been fledged, at least the twelve adults
seen two weeks previously should still have been present. Perhaps
a heavy shower had caused a sudden temporary rise in the river and
washed away the eggs and young. Or perhaps the negative force
experienced at the main island had now been directed at the new
breeding area; if so, all traces of its nature had been obliterated by
the rain. Former nests could not be identified in the sand and even
what appeared to be numerous recent buffalo or bullock tracks could
not be ascribed definitely to that category.
On 12 May there had again been several heavy showers. No
swallow-plovers were at the recent breeding site, but I located three
pairs near the spot where they were first seen in January, 1952. They
behaved in a slightly ‘territorial’ fashion but not like nesting birds.
No fledglings were present.
On 29 May twelve birds were seen at the January site. No
fledglings were among them and they behaved in an unconcerned
manner.
The 1952 monsoon set in early in June, and on my next visit to
Sakleshpur all the islands in the Hemavati River were submerged.
616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
By 25 September it was again possible to search the river banks
and some of the islands. On this occasion I took pains to look up
and down stream for a considerable distance beyond the breeding
center but no swallow-plovers were found. It would seem that they
really do go elsewhere during the monsoon.
13. River Tern, Sterna aurantia Gray.
This species has been seen along the river on more occasions than
the single listing of its presence on 22 January in this series of
notes. A pair was observed several times in 1951, but it is doubtful
that they nested within the narrow spatial limits of my survey.
14. Blackbellied Tern, Sterna melanogaster Temminck.
Major Phythian-Adams’s failure to find a nest of the Blackbellied
Tern prompts me to cite the first breeding record of the species in
Mysore State. In Table 1 it will be seen that at least one pair of
these terns was resident constantly at Sakleshpur.
On 20 November it was noted that the terns were in breeding
plumage, having by this time recovered from their post-nuptial
appearance.
On 7 February both birds flew close over my head, one of them
uttering a short nasal ‘a-a-a’. This was on the swallow-plovers’
breeding island and at a time of year when the latter birds were still
behaving in non-aggressive fashion. The terns were definitely court-
ing. One alighted on a sand bar and the other went off to fish.
Presently the second one caught a minnow and brought it to the
sitting bird. “But instead of giving up the fish, the captor immedi-
ately flew away with it, as if inviting pursuit. The sitting tern
followed half-heartedly and soon landed on another sand bar. This
time the fisherman came down and yielded the minnow, whereupon
the recipient dashed off with it, the donor following in enthusiastic
chase. The game of tag was quickly over and the terns reverted
to quiet behavior.
Although three birds were present on 27 February, two of these
were obviously already a mated pair. These two were agitated by
my presence and swooped so close to my head that I could hear the
wind in their wings as they veered away. One did the ‘broken-wing
act’ on the swallow-plovers’ island, although I could not find a nest.
The terns sometimes dived at a group of swallow-plovers and
put them to short flight. They also chased a Jungle Crow from the
island.
It was therefore not astonishing on my next visit, 13 March, to
locate a tern that was brooding over “a newly-hatched chick on the
swallow-plovers’ island. The baby ;was in a hollow in the sand
that resembled a true nest. However there were no signs of egg
shells or of other chicks. The parent birds dived at me in great
dismay but did not resort to subterfuges to lure me away. On my
quick withdrawal one of the birds returned promptly to shade the
chick, for the sunlight was strong.
On 29 March only one tern contested my presence, but it did
so vigorously, and I concluded that the chick was concealed some-
where nearby.
SMALL SWALLOW-PLOVERS IN MYSORE STATE 617
The next visit, on 14 April, was on the day that I discovered the
first disruption of the swallow-plovers’ colony. Two terns were on
the same small island to which the swallow-plovers had moved, but
as this was separated from the first breeding area by a deep, swiftly-
flowing channel, it seemed unlikely that fledgling terns could have
accomplished the crossing. The adult terns flew about me to some
extent and called, although they were not nearly so demonstrative
as on my last two visits. One was carrying a small fish. The chick
was not seen.
Terns were not noted on 28 April. On 12 May the pair that was
present gave me a cursory inspection, uttering one or two cries, and
then flew off. The pair seen on 29 May was merely noted as present
in breeding plumage. No terns were seen on 25 September after
the southwest monsoon. It is probable that the Sakleshpur pair of
birds failed to rear even a single chick and that they left the region
during the rainy season.
Relation to swallow-plovers: Nesting terns of either species should
help to protect swallow-plovers’ nests by their own aggressive behaviour
toward intruders. However we here encounter two opposed’ methods
for accomplishing the same end, for the swallow-plovers’ lack of
exhibitionism, which may cause them to be overlooked, must be
counteracted in some degree by terns’ behaviour that is very conspicuous
indeed during the birds’ efforts to drive enemies from the spot.
There is no evident competition for food between terns and swallow-
plovers, since terns subsist chiefly on fish while swallow-plovers hawk
insects on the wing (3). Hence their common breeding ground could
result in strife only if it became over-crowded, which was not the
case at Sakleshpur. The occasional diving at swallow-plovers by
terns during my visits to the island cannot be interpreted as evidence
of antagonism between the two species; the manoeuvre resembled
an act of hyper-excitement on the part of the terns and did not
arouse a strong response in the swallow-plovers. The harrying of
a Jungle Crow over the island by terns would be of definite value to
swallow-plovers and any other species sharing the habitat for breeding
or other purposes. Terns may be considered, on the whole, as dis-
tinct ecologic assets in the economy of swallow-plovers, failing in their
beneficial potential only by virtue of their rarity.
15. Little Ring Plover, Charadrius dubius Scopoli.
Census figures for this species along the Hemavati River do not
suggest that the northern form, C. d. curonicus Gmelin, was present
during the winter months, although Salim Ali collected it at that
season in his survey of Mysore State (2). On the contrary, ring
plovers were more scarce in January and February than in the breeding
season later on. Hence Sakleshpur birds can probably be ascribed
to the resident subspecies, C. d. jerdom (Legge).
The first evidence of nesting activity was observed on 27 February,
when several pairs of birds were on the swallow-plovers’ island or on
near-by sand bars. On this date one bird was seen to squat as if on
a nest, although investigation proved that this had been a deceiving
manoeuvre. However on 13 March only one ring plover was detected.
On 29 March two pairs were present, and on 14 April, observing the
same number of birds, I found one nest with three eggs on a sand
618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
bar flanking the main island near the west bank of the river. On
withdrawing from the nest, I saw a parent bird quickly return to
the eggs and stand over them to provide shade. The nest was partly
overhung by a small clump of grass.
As will be disclosed in a moment, it is not possible to state whether
the clutch was complete at this time. In both Whistler’s book (3)
and Salim Ali’s ‘Book of Indian Birds’ (4) the full clutch of the Little
Ring Plover is given as four eggs, but Major Pythian-Adams’s set
from Mysore State, taken at the same time of the year, consisted of
only two (2).
‘On 28 April, the date on which all the swallow-plovers’ nests had
disappeared, the Little Ring Plover’s nest had also vanished and I
saw only one bird close by. The abundance of ring plovers—12
birds—on 12 May was associated with breeding behaviour on the part
of some of them, although no nests or chicks were located. Perhaps
some of the plovers were recently-fledged young that I failed to
distinguish from their parents.
Relationship to swallow-plovers: Little Ring Plovers, being of
mild disposition, appear not to impinge on the equally placid swallow-
plovers. The two species commingle in harmony without evident
competition or conflict from any standpoint.
16. Redwattled Lapwing, Lobivanellus indicus (Boddaert).
During cold weather lapwings were commonly met along banks
and sand bars of the Hemavati River. But there was no occasion
later, when the breeding season approached and arrived, to suspect
that nesting of lapwings on the island was imminent, although the
behaviour of the remaining pair or two strongly indicated that they
were rearing young in the environs of paddy fields east of the river.
Nevertheless the lingering sentinels performed good service to the
swallow-plovers when they foraged on the island, not only by their
alarm notes on any pretext whatsoever, but by their active pursuit
of Jungle Crows. On 12 May the lapwings challenged not only me,
but harried a crow until it took refuge in a thick tree on the eastern
bank. Even then one of the lapwings continued to make sallies at
the lurking bird but was unable to move it from its sanctuary.
Relationship to swallow-plovers: No direct association between
species observed; certainly not a competitor. Sentinel activities are
in the same category as those of the terns, viz., beneficial if it helps
swallow-plovers to be surrounded by noisily conspicuous and aggressive
species.
17, Green Sandpiper, Tvinga ochropus Linnaeus.
This species may have been more common along the river in winter
than noted by me, since it was only during the period of these obser-
vations that I first identified it.
Relationship of all sandpipers to swallow- -plovers: No evidence of
any association whatsoever was noted except in the possible case of
Greenshanks’ activities as sentinels.
18, Common Sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos (Linnaeus).
No new observations were made on this species.
SMALL SWALLOW-PLOVERS IN MYSORE STATE 619
19. Wood Sandpiper, Tringa glareola Linnaeus.
No comments can be made.
20. Greenshank, Glottis nebularia (Gunnerus).
The opinions of Salim Ali that this is a rare winter visitor and of
Major Phythian-Adams that it is only occasionally seen (2) are
belied by my experience at Sakleshpur (see Table 1). The occurrences
of one bird on 12 May and thtee on 29 May are surely late dates for
a ‘winter visitor’. However the species had not returned by
25 September, 1952. My experience with Greenshanks seems obviously
to illustrate the lacunae that exist in the knowledge of birds of Mysore
State—gaps that cannot possibly be filled by brief collecting or obser-
vational surveys, but that can be bridged only by prolonged residential
studies. Alas that I cannot serve further in this respect, and that
bird-watching in Mysore State seems to have no other advocates!
21. Temminck’s Stint, Calidris temminckii (Leisler).
A certain confusion regarding this species exists in my mind,
since I first identified all stints at Sakleshpur as Little Stints, Evrolia
minuta (Leisler), on the basis of Salim Ali’s record (2). When I became
aware of written descriptions of Temminck’s Stints, however, I, began
to make careful field studies of individual birds. It then transpired
that all the specimens that I could approach to the point of straining
my eyes through the minimum focal adjustment of my binoculars had
white outer tail feathers and greenish legs. There is no assurance
that Little Stints did not occur at Sakleshpur, but the Temminck’s
Stints listed in Table 1 were all satisfactorily identified and constitute
a new record for Mysore State.
Loose flocks of stints along the Hemavati River sometimes num-
bered as many as a dozen or fifteen birds, the first ones being noted
on 22 January.
22. Whitenecked Stork, Dissoura episcopus (Boddaert).
Not met with by Salim Ali’s survey (2), but seen rather frequently
by me in Mysore State. The pair that was present on the island on
7 February had obviously alighted only to spend the mid-day hours
and had no relationship to the swallow-plovers’ present or future
activities (not that they would have refused to snatch up a half-dozen
chicks or eggs, had they been available).
However the storks provided an amusing twenty minutes for me,
since I was able to observe them at close quarters for the first time.
I approached within about too feet of the birds, causing them to
retreat slowly. They either walked ahead or flew across small channels,
not seeming alarmed. Once when they came down they began to
sun themselves. One bird rotated the wings forward so that the lining
was uppermost. The wing-tips then touched in front of the stork, and
the lining of the wing was therefore horizontal. It stood on one
leg the while. The stork looked as if it were holding up an apron
to receive a load of potatoes. Then both birds stood with their wing's
properly folded but held out at an angle of about thirty degrees from
the body. They looked then like penguins on stilts, the wings resem-
bling flippers. Finally the storks flew away and soared in high circles.
Their wing positions while perched may have been antics related to
620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the dissipation of heat, for it was a hot day, particularly warm on
the sand bar.
23. Little Egret, Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus).
More common than noted in Table 1. No relationship to swallow-
plovers could be noted.
24, Little Green Heron, Butorides striatus (Linn.).
The single specimen seen on 30 January, constituting the second
sight record for Mysore State, was perched on a low branch of a
tree overhanging the east bank of the river. On my disturbing it,
it flew to a similar perch not far away, bobbing its tail upon alighting.
Observation through 8x binoculars at close quarters was entirely satis-
factory to me.
IDI SOwWS SiO sy
Whistler (3) cites the rising level of rivers as chief among the
dangers to nesting swallow-plovers. To this opinion I freely subscribe
in view of my own brief observations at Sakleshpur and my resultant
suspicions. However the foregoing account suggests that there may
occasionally be incidental factors that contribute to nesting failure.
An attempt to evaluate all the forces is presented in Table 2. Briefly
summarized, the adversities may be defined as:
1. Exposure of eggs and fledglings to excessive sunlight at times
when human beings or other intruders wander into the nesting area.
2. The possible direct notice taken by human beings of nests and
young as the resultant of parental displays of anxiety, whether by
swallow-plovers or by associated nesting species, presumably more
often the latter.
3. Opportunity for predators, especially crows and kites, to rob
nest while adult birds are disturbed by intruders.
4. Accidental destruction of nests by wandering cattle and buffaloes,
or those driven to the breeding island by their owners.
It is mysterious how swallow-plovers are able to survive. Obser-
vations to date would make it seem of particular interest, from the
standpoints of evolution and ecology, to study this species carefully
in an effort to define its suitability for survival, including: defence
against enemies, food habits, relation to other birds and _ selection
of breeding habitat. So far, only island nesting emerges as a pro-
tective form of behaviour, but this seems insufficient to account for
species survival, especially in colonies such as the one at Sakleshpur.
Furthermore, adherence to unfavourable breeding grounds, as at
Sakleshpur, also seems disadvantageous. Man, perhaps, is a most
significant enemy. If so, swallow-plovers may soon become a vanish-
ing species. On the other hand, they must have survived for centuries
with mankind as at present represented by rural Indians along India’s
rivers.
SMALL SWALLOW-PLOVERS IN MYSORE STATE 621
TABLE 2
Presumed potential relationship of associated factors to Small
Swallow-Plovers on an Island in the Hemavati River near Sakleshpur,
Hassan District Mysore State, in 1952.
Beneficial Innocuous Harmful
Large Pied Wagtail ...| White Wagtail Man
River Tern ... | Malabar Crested Lark Cattle
Blackbellied ‘Tern ... | Pied Kingfisher Buffaloes
Redwattled Lapwing ...| Common Kingfisher Jungle Crow
Greenshank ...| Brownheaded Stork- Crested Serpent
‘Island Breeding ...| billed Kingfisher Eagle (?)
Whitebreasted King- | ; Pariah Kite
fisher Brahminy Kite
Pied Harrier Climatic Factors
| Marsh Harrier :
Little Ring Plover
Green Sandpiper.
Wood Sandpiper
Temminck’s Stint
Whitenecked Stork
Little Egret
Little Green Heron
Common Sandpiper
SUMMARY
1. An account of the annual cycle of Small Swallow-Plovers,
Glareola lactea Temminck, in 1952 is given against a background of
brief observations during the previous year at Sakleshpur, Hassan
District, Mysore State, India.
Do It is attempted to demonstrate the ecologic relationship of this
species to other birds observed on the breeding island, as well as to
intruding men and animals and to climatic factors.
3. The evidence suggests that breeding species—swallow-plovers,
terns and ring plovers—all failed to rear young in the 1952 season.
4. Reasons for nesting failure could not be defined, although
several possibilities are suggested.
5. The evidence suggestive of local annual migrations of swallow-
plovers in South India is considered.
6. Temminck’s Stint and the Pied Harrier were recorded for the first
time in Mysore State, while a second sight record of the Little Green
Heron was obtained.
7. The first known instance of nesting of the Blackbellied Tern in
Mysore State is recounted.
8. Modification of opinion of the status of several other birds in
Mysore State is suggested.
622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
g. The seasonal succession of birds in a habitat restricted to a
small river island is traced from winter to the onset of the south-
west monsoon. Many of the birds listed were only incidental visitors.
Others participate in the ecology of inhabitants of the island.
REFERENCES
1. Worth, C. Brooke (1951): A Nesting Colony of Small Swallow-Plovers,
Glareola lactea Temminck, in Mysore State. J.B.N.H.S., 50 (2): 405-406.
2. Salim Ali (1942-43): The Birds of Mysore. J.B.N.H.S., 43:44: parts I-Y.
3. Whistler, Hugh (1949): Popular Handbook of Indian Birds, Fourth Edition.
Revised and Enlarged by Norman B. Kinnear, pp. 1-560. Gurney and Jackson,
London. :
4. Sdlim Ali (1946): The Book of Indian Birds. Fourth Edition (Revised and
Enlarged), pp. 1-440. The Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
THE DETERMINATION OF AGE AND GROWTH OF FISHES
OF TROPICAL AND SUB-TROPICAL WATERS?
BY
M. DeEvipas MENON
In modern fishery investigation the determination of the age and
rate of growth of fish occupies a very important place, since the
knowledge of the age and growth is of notable significance from both
scientific and commercial aspects. The evaluation of age provides
a means to understand the composition of a fish population with
regard to the age classes and to find the role of particular year
classes in the fluctuations of the stock. The study of the growth-rate
ef fish leads to an effective and conclusive assessment of the sus-
taining power of the stock in a fishery, viz., a stock of fast growing
fish can sustain a more intensive fishery than one of slow growth by
its ability for fast recuperation. ‘The determination of the rate of
mortality of the different year classes, their survival rate and success
oi the individual year broods, that are of fundamental importance in
the forecast and scientific exploitation of a fishery, are based on the
knowledge of the age and growth-rate of the fish. The beginning
of this century saw Norwegian workers engaged in a detailed study
of the age and growth-rate of commercially important fishes like the
Cod, Herring and Salmon. This was followed by several fishery
workers in Europe and America working on many commercial and
non-commercial fishes. Based on a detailed study of the age and
growth-rate and the fluctuation of year classes in the population,
short-term forecasts are made in recent years with reference to fish
whose biology has been fully studied.
All this development in fishery research has been so far restricted
to the temperate waters. There have been a few individual attempts
to determine the age and growth-rate of some fishes in tropical and
sub-tropical waters. An attempt is made in this paper to review this
work.
AGE INDICES
The principle of age determination in fishes depends on the
‘annual’ growth marks that are formed in certain skeletal parts of
fish, like the scales, otoliths and bones. These growth marks
are really the growth checks formed on skeletal parts as a result
of fluctuations in the growth of the fish. The growth of a fish,
normally, is not uniform throughout the year or its life. The
fish grows fast during a certain part of the year and slower or
even ceases to grow during another part of the year. This fluctuating
periodicity of fast and slow growth of the fish expresses itself annually
on the skeletal parts of the fish as a periodic structure of fast growing
(i.e., wide) and slow growing (i.e., narrow) zones. On the scales
_-——
1 Published with kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Madras.
624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the fast growing zones are represented by wider sclerites or circulii
and the slow growing zones by narrow sclerites arranged very close
together in the form of bands or rings. The fast growing zones on
the otoliths and bones are broad, opaque and white regions and the
slow growing zones are narrow, thin and transparent ones: Euro- —
pean and American ichthyologists have more or less established that
these rhythms of growth are seasonal and that there is a very close
relation between the periodic structure of the skeletal parts and the
growth of the fish. The difference of opinion amongst the various
workers has been mainly on two questions.
1. In several instances the skeletal structures show some
secondary rings besides the normal ‘annual rings’. The doubt has
been as to the qualifying characters of an annual ring and a
secondary ring.
2. The causative factors that are responsible for the formation
of the growth checks or the ‘annual rings’ on the skeletal parts of
the fish are still not known. )
Monastuirsky (1926), Graham (1929), Van Oosten (1929) and Menon
(1950) have reviewed the opinions of various workers on the first
question.
CAUSATIVE FACTORS IN THE FORMATION OF THE ‘ANNUAL RINGS’ |
A short summary of the interesting observations on the second
question is given below since it is important to postulate the utility
of the skeletal parts of tropical fishes in the evaluation of their age.
It has frequently been assumed that growth-rate is greater during
the period of higher temperature. Lea (1911) observed in the young
herring that the rate of increase in length deduced from the scales
was greatest when there was a rise of temperature in spring but it
fell off before the temperature attained its maximum. Fraser (1917)
also made a similar observation in Onchorhynchus tschawytscha.
Experimental work has been reported by Fulton (1904), Cutler (1918),
Dannevig (1925), Thompson (1920), Gray and Setna (1931), Brown
(1946) and Molander (1947). Fulton (1904) noticed that the growth-
rate increased in fish kept in warm tanks during the winter. But
Cunningham (1905) examined the scales of a whiting from Fulton’s
experiments and found that although this fish had béen kept in a
warm tank during the winter, ‘the winter ring was recorded on the
scale’. Cutler (1918) found that temperature was a controlling
factor of sclerite width in the scales of Pleuronectes. A higher
temperature produced wider sclerites corresponding to the so-called
summer zone of the scale and lower temperature produced narrow
sclerites or the winter zone of the scale. The experiments of
Dannevig (1925), gave just the contrary results, that the sclerite
width was greater at lower temperature and lower feeding. Dannevig
(1925), Thompson (1926) and Graham (1929) observed that there was
a marked correlation between sclerite width and growth-rate. Graham
(1929) also suggested that ‘the main maximum of growth-rate (with
high sclerite width) is an inherent rhythmical response’.
No well defined summer or winter zones were noticed by Gray
and Setna (1931) on the scales of Salmo irideus that had been fed
AGE AND GROWTH OF FISHES 62a
continuously throughout the year. ‘This fact seems to eliminate the
suggestion that the periodicity of the circulus width found in other
members of the Salmonid family under natural conditions is due to
an inherent rhythm over which the environment has no control. It
also suggests that temperature alone is not invariably a decisive
factor.” They also found that abundant food could effect an increased
growth-rate and that wide rings (summer rings) could be formed in
winter as well. The scarcity of food caused a reduction in the ring
width. Hoffbauer (1899) and Thomson (1904) attributed the forma-
tion of the annual rings on the scales to the variations in food supply.
Dannevig (1925) found that the wider sclerites were formed in winter
and narrow ones in summer. According to Duff (1929) there was
a drop in the growth of the scales and the production of the circulii
during the period of most rapid growth of fish and he attributed it
to the diversion of energy to other parts of the body during the
growth in length of the fish. Duff put forward a hypothesis that
there is no growth of fish or scale in winter and the zone of broad
circulii is formed during the first half and the zone of narrow circulit
during the latter half of the growth season.
The assumption by Gray and Setna (1931) that the periodicity of
an inherent rhythm has no part in the periodicity of the scale growth
does not hold good for the brown trout (Salmo trutta) in which Brown
(1946) found that the annual cycle of growth was clearly expressed
on the scale with an autumn check. Brown observed that this was
presumably the result of an annual physiological cycle of changes in
the internal environment, possibly the variation of the secretion of an
endocrine organ such as the pituitary gland .... ‘Since this cycle
occurred in the absence of variation of any environmental factor, it
cannot depend on the existence of environmental time markers.’
The brown trout kept under controlled conditions became sexually
mature at the same age and season as those of the same stock kept
under natural conditions.
Hickling (1933) also held more or less similar opinion in his study
of the hake in which he attributed the formation of the transparent
zones on the otoliths to a physiological rhythm, they being laid down
during the period of greatest physiological stress. ‘In the mature
fish this is the exhaustion due to spawning and in immature fish to
its precursor in the innate physiological rhythm which can be detected
in the somatic tissues.’
Molander (1947) made a detailed study on the formation of the
annual rings in the otolith of the plaice under controlled hydro-
graphical conditions in aquaria. He concluded that (1) ‘the growth
of the plaice is clearly less in an experimental aquarium with constant
cold water than in one with constant warm water and (2) independent
of the different hydrographic milieu in the cold and warm experimental
aquarium, one finds in both aquaria a coincidental annual growth
rhythm on the part of the plaice, which is reflected in the formation
of the annual rings on the otoliths. This growth rhythm coincides
with an annual rhythm in nutrient intake and is probably due to
internal genetic causes.’ ;
From the above it is clear that the causative factor in the forma-
tion of these growth checks is not yet very clear or conclusive. The
626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCITEDRY, Vols 51
main factor that emerges out of the experimental studies of Dannevig
(1925), Thompson (1926), Gray and Setna (1931), Brown (1946) and
Molander (1947), is that the role of temperature variations in the
periodicity of the structure of the skeletal parts of the fish has been
over-emphasised.
The narrow zones in the scales and otoliths of cod (Dannevig,
1933) and the transparent zones in the otoliths of hake (Hickling,
1933) and the supra-occipital crest of the Poor Cod (Menon, 1950 b)
have been observed to be formed in the majority of the specimens during
the latter part of the summer and autumn. In-several other fishes
these growth checks are laid down during the period of lowest tem-
perature. This apparent contradiction in the relation of temperature
to the formation of the annual growth checks itself throws doubt
on the possible influence of temperature in the phenomenon of the
periodicity of the structure of the skeletal parts of fish.
The role of the variations in food supply also appears to be in-
decisive. In Salmo irideus, Gray and Setna (1931) found that speci-
mens which have been fed continuously throughout the year did not
show any well defined summer and winter zones. Brown (1946)
cbserved just the opposite, that, even in specimens kept under
controlled temperature, food, light, flow of water, composition and
aeration of water and amount of living space, the annual periodicity
was markedly visible on the scales.
The observations of Graham (1929), Hickling (1933), Brown (1946),
Molander (1947) and Menon (1950 b) suggest an inherent physiological
rhythm as a more possible causative factor in the formation of the
growth checks. Fage and Veillet (1938) suggested that the matura-
tion of the gonads was generally followed by a decrease in the
growth-rate. It has been noticed in several fishes that there is a
decrease in the rate of feeding and amount of food consumed with the
maturation of gonads (vide Hardy, 1924, Hickling, 1933, Menon,
1950 b). Food is an important factor in the growth of an organism
and maturation of gonads is a momentous physiological event in
the growth history of a fish. The reduced feeding and the maturation
of the gonads occurring simultaneously may perhaps play a great
and effective part in the periodic formation of the annual growth
checks in the skeletal parts of the fish. In the Indian Chub Mackerel
(Rastreliiger kanagurta) it was noticed that there was a decrease in
the amount of food consumed with the progressive maturation of the
gonads. Schneider (1910) has suggeésted that an internal factor is
largely responsible for formation of rings in the scale of the herring.
He defined this factor as the cessation of feeding at the spawning
time ‘associated with the drain on the reserves of the fish to supply
material to the gonads; in short to a heavy excess of expenditure
over income of materials’ (Hickling, 1933).
LITERATURE ON THE AGE AND GROWTH-RATE OF TROPICAL AND
SUB-TROPICAL FISHES
That growth checks similar to those found in the temperate
fishes occur in the skeletal parts of tropical and sub-tropical fishes
has been more than sufficiently proved by Mohr (1910), Hornell and
°
AGE AND GROWTH OF FISHES 627
Naidu (1924), Chevey (1930), Devanesan {1943) and Nair (1949).
The validity and the interpretation of these growth checks or age
indices remain to be decided. None of these workers examined the
problem on the basis of the critical analysis enunciated by Graham
(1929) and Van Oosten (1929) which alone can substantiate the
validity of the annual nature of the growth checks that they all
presupposed in their studies. Mohr (1921) investigated the age and
growth-rate of Rasbora vulgaris from Kuala Lumpur, Rk. elegans from
Kuala Jalai, R. daniconus from Vakvella, Ceylon, Tvrichopodus
trichopterus from Kuala Lumpur, Barillus guttatus from Pahang
River, Ambassis commersoni from a river in New Pommern and
Polynemus indicus from the north coasts of New Pommern. There
are marked climatic changes of rainy period and dry period in Ceylon
whereas the temperature and climatic conditions are uniform through-
out the year in the localities in Malaya from where the fishes were
collected. The examined species included in them both fresh-water
and marine forms having either cycloid or ctenoid scales. In all of
them Mohr found very well defined scales showing distinct and sharp
zones just as in the temperate fishes. Mohr did not explain the
validity of the annual nature of the rings. But it is clear from the
data given by him that increasing length groups of fish could be
arranged in successive groups according to the number of rings. _
Mohr refuted the idea that the rings were only the results of seasonal
changes and temperature fluctuations.
Whitehouse (1923) made some interesting observations on the
growth-rate of the young fishes of the Silvatturai Lagoon in their
first year by length measurements and following the Peterson method
of size analysis. He investigated the monthly growth-rate of Gerres
lucidus, Teuthis java, Gobius criniger, Lutjanus quinquilineanis,
Lethrinus cinereus and Equula edentula during the first year of the
life of the young ones in the lagoon. It is unfortunate that this
interesting study was not continued for the larger size groups.
The detailed study of the life-history of the Indian Sardine
(Sardinella longiceps) by Hornell and Naidu (1924) gives certain
interesting details on the question of the age and rate of growth of
the fish. They studied the rate of growth of the oil sardine by size
analysis and computed the age by the Peterson method which was
further substantiated by the scale reading. From these studies
Hornell and Naidu gave the average life span of the oil sardine as
3 years, the lengths attained being 14, 15.5 and 16.4 cm. respectively.
According to this the growth increments of the oil sardines are 14
cm., 1.5 cm. and 0.9 em. in every succeeding year of life. It is
rather surprising that the growth-rate diminishes at such an alarming
rate. I feel that this calculation is questionable and erroneous.
The error must have naturally been due to the fact that Hornell and
Naidu did not examine fully developed scales. In the scalimetric
study of the age of fishes, several workers (Thompson, 1922, Oosten,
192g and Monastiursky, 1930) have shown clearly that scales from
different parts of the body of the fish give very different and con-
flicting readings. It may be that Hornell and Naidu did not examine
the scales from the same part of the body of the oil sardine in all
the specimens.
7
628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Ranga Rao (1934) followed the Peterson method in determining the
growth of Therapon jarbua (Day) collected in the estuaries of Adyar
and Cooum and the sea at Madras. ‘The details of his work remain
unpublished. In the abstract of his paper he maintained that the fish
migrates into the sea in its second year to attain sexual maturity and
that the growth is greater in its second year during its life in the
sea than in the first year in the brackish water. The growth was
also found greatest during the colder months of December to January.
During the summer months of April to July it was slowest.
The otolith was found very effective and useful in the determina-
tion of age and growth of Psettodes erwmei (Bl. Schn.) by Ranga Rao
(1935). Rao observed successive zones of growth on the otoliths and
these were demarcated distinctly and clearly. Like Nair (1950) and
Mohr (1910) Rao also presupposed without valid evidences that these
zones were annual.’ But unlike these two, Rao observed that in most
specimens the otoliths showed distinct beginnings of the opaque zone
at the outer edges during August and September, which period was
found to be the height of the feeding season. It is indeed a pity that
this paper also, like the previous, is available only in its abstract
condition. Due to the absence of the detailed paper the details of
Rao’s work remain unknown.
The age of the oil sardine was again studied in greater detail by
«Devanesan (1943). He examined the scales of the oil sardine from
the pectoral region, unlike Hornell and Naidu (op. cit.), who collected
the scales from the middle region. The scales were mounted in egg
albumen and glycerine. Devanesan noted that the scale of oil sardine
‘does not suffer so much from supernumerary rings as from suppression
or obliteration of its so-called ‘‘Winter rings’’’. Still, vestiges of these
rings are visible on the scales from which the real nature of the ring
could be reconstructed. The age reading became more difficult with
older age groups due to the greater obliteration of the rings on the
scales. Devanesan’s study was only a preliminary investigation
which yielded sufficient results for a more detailed analysis of the
problem. He calculated the growth of the oil sardine graphically
and estimated the sizes of seven year classes.
Hora and Nair (1940) studied the growth of Hilsa ilisha in its
earlier phase of life by observation in the settling tanks of Pulta
Water Works. They found that the rate of growth in the first three
months was rapid and then it declined. The fish reached a size of
I2 in. in 10 months. They also examined the scales of a few
adult Hilsa from Allahabad and found that scales of specimens
of about 304 mm. showed 4 or 3 rings, those of specimens of 200 mm.
and less showed one or roughly two rings and specimens of about
235 mm. showed 2 to 3 rings. Hora and Nair also observed from
the nature of the edge of the scales that in April and May the cessation
of growth takes place and this they attributed to the possible effect
of low water level and scarcity of food in the hot and dry months.
Hora and Nair’s work revealed that in the life-history of fish there
is a seasonal rhythm of growth.
Chacko, Krishnamurthy and Zobairi (1948) working on Hilsa
ilisha observed that on the scales of the fish occurring in the Godavary
Delta there were transversely arranged radii, the number of which
AGE AND GROWTH OF FISHES 629
corresponded to the length of fish in inches. Based on Job’s (1942)
assumption that the Hilsa grew at the rate of 1 in. per month, they
observed that one radius was laid down per month on the scale. It
is possible that the formation of the radii is related to a monthly
physiological rhythm depending on the tidal periodicity as in the case
of the maturation of the gonads noted in Leuresthes tenwis by Clark
(1925) and Enchelyopus cimbrius by Battle (1930). The conflicting
part of the paper of Chacko, Krishnamurthy and Zobairi, however,
is that in the published diagram of the Hilsa scale, they have shown
some transverse lines marked as ‘radii’ and four horse-shoe shaped
lines spaced more or less at equal distance which are denoted as
growth rings. What are these radii? What are these growth rings?
Are they annual or half-yearly ‘growth rings’ or are they some
spawning checks or marks impressed on them by their annual migra-
tion from sea to fresh-water and vice versa? The point requires a
very detailed study and clarification and until then the conclusion
that the number of radii correspond to the length of the fish in inches
has to be regarded as a pure accidental coincidence.
Nair (1949) found the otoliths. very useful in the age studies of
the oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps). He treated the otoliths in a
successive series of alcohol and xylol and then mounted them in
Canada Balsam. When viewed with reflected light, he observed the
growth zones as alternating translucent dark zones and opaque
white ones, parallel to the margin of the otoliths. False rings could
be picked out by their line-like appearance and by their tendency to
join a growth ring. Nair presumed that these rings were annual,
formed probably during December to April when scarcity of planktonic
food has been noted. He is of the opinion that the life of the oil
sardine is 3 years only and concurs with the findings of Hornell and
Naidu. No indications are given as to how he considers these rings
as annual. Perhaps more information will be forthcoming in the
detailed account he has promised to make available soon.
Chacko and Krishnamurthi (1950) in their further studies on
Hilsa ilisha of Godavary clarified the significance of the ‘growth
rings’ on the scales observed by them in their earlier studies (1940).
According to them there is a period of starvation concurrent with the
spawning act, and during this period there is a general absorption
of all the tissues of the body, the scale also being affected by the
formation of a ring. A ring on the scale thus denoted a period of
spawning and from the number of rings present on the scale the
number of times the fish spawned could be determined. They inferred
from this growth ring count that Hilsa spawned for a maximum
ot eight times in its life. The ring could not be treated as an index
of age as it was not yet ascertained whether the mature Hilsa bred
Once every year or not.
Chidambaram (1950) in his studies on the length frequency of the
oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps) examined the question of age from
the basis of the predominant size groups. Following the methods
of Heincke and Lea he examined the fate of the three predominant size
groups in this fishery from 1937-38 to 1942-43. Based on this study
Chidambaram concludes that ‘the life of the oil sardine is between
630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
3 and 4 years, the average lengths of the oil sardine being 10.0, 14.5,
18.3 and 20.5 cm.’ in the respective years.
Chacko and Dixitulu (1951) examined the smaller size groups of
Hilsa ilisha and again reiterated the findings of Chacko et al. (1948)
that in Hilsa ilisha there is one radius on the scale for every inch
in growth of the fish.
Sundara Raj (1951) supported the findings of Chacko et al. (1948)
in the use of radii of scales to determine the age of Hilsa ilisha.
Adducing evidence from the scales of Hilsa ilisha collected from
different parts of India, Raj ventured to suggest that since the
number of transverse radii corresponded more or less with the size
of fish in inches and since this relation was found to be fairly con-
stant, ‘the radii in Hilsa scales should be used for age determination’.
Jones and Menon (1951) found that the scales started formation
in Hilsa ilisha when the fish was 21 mm. in length. Commenting
on the work of Chacko et al. (1948) they remarked that there was no
correlation between the number of radii and the length of fish in
inches and that it was difhcult to accept the relationship between
these two factors as drawn by Chacko et al. (1948). Jones and
Menon have made observations on the appearance of the number of
radii on the scales during the growth of the Hilsa ilisha in its larval
and post larval stages. They observed one distinct ‘growth ring’
and two incomplete rings on the scales of a fish of 213 mm. in length.
Their significance was left uninterpreted.
In the studies of the age and growth rate of the Indian mackerel
Rastrelliger kanagurta, Chidambaram and Krishnamurthy (1951) used
the otoliths. The number of growth rings on the otoliths had a
close relation with the size groups. It was found too difficult to
read the number of rings in the otoliths of specimens of 20 cms. and
more in length.
Seshappa and Bhimachar (1951) working on Malabar sole
(Cynoglossus semifasciatus) made certain interesting observations.
They found clear rings on the scale which, by observation of the
marginal nature of the scales, were found to be annual. They con-
cluded that the rings were formed under the influence of the south-
west monsoon season and thought it appropriate to call the rings as
‘monsoon rings’. They correlated the check in growth to the
depletion of food in sea bottom and opined that ‘the lack of food
leading to starvation’ was the main factor in the formation of
the rings. The work is of special importance as for the first time
in tropical fisheries research has a proper method been employed and
effort made to fix the validity of the annual nature of the rings.
Seshappa and Bhimachar also observed that the otoliths showed no
rings.
I am giving an abstract of Chevey’s papers towards the end of
this communication because of the critical observations in them that
are of special interest to the work in our region.
Chevey (1930 a, b, c and 1932) made an interesting study on the
value of the method of age determination by scales as applied to the
fishes of Indo-China, Cochin-China and Cambodia. He found con-
centric zones of growth in the samples of Synagris japonicus, Scolopsis
bimaculatus, S. vosmeri, Pristipoma argenteum and Sciaena vulgaris
AGE AND GROWTH OF FISHES 631
collected from Tonking in North Annam. But the samples of the
same species collected from Cochin-China did not reveal any such
zones of growth. He interpreted this variation as due to the
occurrence of a winter condition in Tonking area and its absence in
Cochin-China. The temperature of the surface water in Tonking
and North Annam seems to be 27°C. to 28°C. in summer and 23°C.
to 24°C. in winter, ‘a difference of 4°C. to 5°C. seems to be sufficient
toe provoke the slowing of growth in fish and the marking of the
scales’. He observed a similar phenomenon in the regions around
Cape Varella. The species caught near Cape Varella showed a
regular and continuous growth. Chevey attributed this to the effect
of the cold current coming from the north during the north-east
monsoon affecting only the coastal regions and not the bay. But
in Cochin-China the fishes from the mouth of the rivers Meking and
Bassac showed clear growth rings on their scales, a feature quite
different from his previous observations on the fishes from the
adjacent oceanic areas of the same. regions. The reason for this,
according to Chevey, is that during October to March every year,
as a result of heavy rains, ‘the Meking and Bassac put into the sea
an enormous quantity of nitrogenous food material which provoke the
temporary yet very thick concentration of the whole marine popula-
tion of the neighbourhood. It appears to me without doubt that
this rhythm of concentration and dispersion of the food material of
the fish gives the marks on the scales, increasing the growth if
there is a concentration provoked by abundance of food material and
slowing of growth with the phase of dispersion’.
This phenomenon concurrent with the ‘flooding’ of the waters
was further observed by Chevey in all the fishes of the rivers of
Cochin-China and Cambodia and of the Grand Lac where all the
scales of Cyclocheilichthys enoploides, Albulichthys kvempfi, Lepto-
barbus hoeveni and Labeo pleurotaena showed marks of this periodic
rhythm. Chevey stated that ‘the stoppage of growth occurs with
the lowering of the water, which is the winter for these fishes
physiologically’. He made very interesting observations on the effect
of the flooding of the Grand Lac and Tonle-Sap. He found that in the
scales of fishes from both these fresh-water areas, the growth checks
occurred with lowering of the water level and as this lowering of
water level occurred only once every year these checks were valid
indices of the age of the fishes. He compared the rate of growth of
Labeo chrysophekadion, Hampala_ macrolepidotus, Leptobarbus
hoevent, Cyclocheilichthys enoploides and Puntius bramoides from
these two regions by a study of their scales and found that the speci-
mens from Grand Lac showed a faster growth rate than those from
the other regions. The reason he gave was that the Grand Lac
during the flooding season overflooded thick verdant forest regions
which provided a large amount of nitrogenous material for an enrich-
ment of the food of the fish, whereas the Tonle-Sap overflooded only
the fringes of such regions without any opportunity of enriching the
waters with nitrogenous material.
These observations are interesting as they definitely agree with
the findings in the temperate regions, that the temperature alone plays
only a very indirect if not insignificant part in the stimulation of the
632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
growth checks. It might be of interest to compare the conditions
that Chevey gave for the Indo-Chinese waters with those occurring
on the West Coast of Madras Presidency. Chidambaram and Menon
(1946) and Jacob and Menon (1947) have shown that there is a marked
seasonal fluctuation in the surface temperature, salinity, total volume
of plankton, copepods and diatoms in the West Hill sea. During
the first part of the period of the south-west monsoon all the above
hydrographic and biotic factors are at their lowest values. ‘The
environmental conditions in the inshore area during monsoon months
(June to August) are quite distinct from those during the other months
of the year and are characterised by a sharp fall in salinity and tem-
perature, a high turbidity and turbulence and above all by the sea
bottom becoming severely depleted of the organisms’ (Seshappa and
Bhimachar, 1951). The plankton production increases steadily after
this period and the diatoms have their maximum period in August-
September immediately after the enrichment of the region with the
nutrient salts carried into the sea by the rains of the previous period.
Following the diatoms there is the copepod maximum in the succeed-
ing month. With the onset of the dry period the surface temperature
and salinity increase culminating in the high temperature and salinity
conditions of the summer months when the plankton production is at
its minimum. In the studies on the oil sardine (Hornell and Naidu,
1924 and Devanesan, 1943) and the mackerel (Jairam Naidu) it was
shown that the actual growth of these fishes occurred during the
months of August to December when the region is very rich with
planktonic food material. Hornell and Naidu (1924) observed
that there was complete cessation of growth in the oil sardine during
the months, January to May, i.e., the summer months. It has also
been observed (Devanesan and Chidambaram 1949) that in the majority
of the investigated fishes of the West Coast the spawning occurs
during the monsoonic months just prior to the months of planktonic
abundance. It is thus noteworthy that this period just prior to the
monsoonic months when growth is actually arrested most possibly
due to the maturation of the gonads and further aided by the lack
of sufficient food material and the immediately succeeding period of
monsoonic months when the temperature is lowered by 4°C. to 6°C.
and when the actual spawning occurs, have in them all the possible
ecological and physiological factors to impress the effect of this
annual rhythm on the skeletal parts of the fish.
The observations of Delsman (1929) and Hardenberg (1939) are
very sceptical on the question of determination of age in tropical
fishes by the methods established in other climes. In fact Delsman
(1929) opined that due to the ‘absence of summer and winter’ which
accounts for the ‘absence of winter rings on the scales of sea fishes’,
‘a very valuable method in studying the biology of fishes must conse-
quently be abandoned’, Hardenberg (1938) dilated on this opinion
further and stated that due to the absence of any periodicity, year
rings could not be ascertained and thus neither the growth nor the
age of a fish could be made out. Without detailed examination of
this important problem on the lines suggested by Graham (1929) and
Oosten (1929), it is not possible to accept the statements held out by
Delsman (1929) and Hardenberg (1938). It is a well-known fact that
AGE AND GROWTH OF FISHES 633
the index for age determination varies from fish to fish. In some
the scales are useful, in others otoliths and in some others some
specific bone. It is to be regarded as highly injudicious to accept
that the growth of a fish in the tropics is uniform and that there is
no rhythm in its growth in the year. There is periodicity in the
physico-chemical and biological factors of the tropical waters. There
is a periodic rhythm of spawning. It is not possible in the face of
the periodicity of these various factors to accept that there is no
periodicity in growth alone. The work of Chevey, Mohr, Rao,
Seshappa and Bhimachar and several others given above completely
go against these suggestions of Delsman and Hardenberg.
A critical study of the method using scales, otoliths and bones of
the fish simultaneously and on the lines suggested by Graham (1929)
is absolutely necessary to decide its validity in tropical and sub-
tropical waters. It is also of interest to note that the conditions
in tropical waters are extremely useful to decide the issue of the
causative factor for the formation of these growth checks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am extremely grateful to several ichthyologists of United
Kingdom and France who gave very valuable suggestions and
criticisms on these problems in my discussions with them. My special
thanks are due to Dr. T. J. Hart of the ‘Discovery’ Investigations,
Mr. H. W. Chang of Academy Sinica, Prof. P. Drasch of Natrang
Biological Station, Prof. L. Fage and Prof. M. Fontaine of the
Natural History Museum, Paris. I am thankful to Dr. N. K.
Panikkar and Dr. T. J. Job for kindly going through the typescript
and offering much valuable criticism.
LITERATURE
Battle, H. I. (1930): Spawning periodicity and Embryonic death-rate of Ench-
elyopus cimbrius (L) in Passamquoddy Bay. Contrib. Canad. Biol. and Fish N.S.
5: 363-380.
Brown, M.\¥. (1946): The Growth of the Brown Trout (Salmo trutta’ Linn.) 1.
Factors influencing the growth of the trout fry. Journ. Exper. Biol., 22 (3 and
4): 118-129.
— — — (1946): The Growth of the Brown Trout (Salmo trutta Linn.). 2. The
Growth of 2 year old Trout at a constant temperature of 11.5°C. Journ. Exper.
Biol. 22 (3 and 4): 130-144.
— — — (1946): The Growth of the Brown Trout (Salmo trutta Linn.). 3. The |
effect of temperature on the growth of 2 year old Trout. Journ. Exper. Biol.
22 (3 and 4): 145-155.
Chacko, P. I., Zobairi, A. R. K. & Krishnamurthy, B. (1948): The radii of
scales of Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton) as an index of growth and age. Current Science,
Bangalore, 5: 158-159. May 1948.
Chacko, P. I. & Dixitulu, J. V. H. (1951): Further observations on the radii of
scales of Hilsa ilisha (Ham.). Proc. of 38th Indian Science Congress, Bangalore,
1951. Abstracts Part II]: 227.
Chacko, P. I. & Krishnamurthy, B. (1950): A biometrical study of the Hilsa ilisha
(Ham.) in the Godavary river. Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 49 (2): 315-316.
Chevey, P. (1930): Sur la Valeur de la methode de la lecture de écailles appliquee
aux poissons de la zone intertropicale. C.R, Acad. Sci. Paris, 190: 207-208.
— — — (1930): B. Sur divers rhythmes autre que des rhythmes thermiques
susceptibles de murquer les éscailles de la zone intertropicale. C.R. Acad, Sci., Paris,
190: 280-281.
634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Chevey, P. (1930): C. Essai d’ application de la method de lecture des écailles 4 1’
étude de la croissance de poissons du Grand Lac du Cambodge et du Tonle-Sap, C.R.
Acad, Sci. Paris, 191: 1475-1477.
— — — (1932): Sur la nature de 1’ influence exercée par la forét inondee du Grand
Lac du Cambodge sur la vitesse de croissance des poissons. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris,
195: 1108-1110.
Chidambaram, K. (1950): Studies on length frequency of the oil sardine, Sardinella
longiceps, Cuv. & Val. and on certain factors influencing their appearance on the
Calicut coast of Madras Presidency. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., Xxxi: 252-286.
Chidambaram, K. & Menon, M. Devidas (1946): The correlation of the West
coast fisheries (S. Kanara and Malabar) with plankton and certain Oceanographical
factors.. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 22; 3&5-367.
— — — (1946): The diatoms of the West Hill Sea. Paper read before the
Ecological Society. Madras (Unpublished).
Chidambaram, K. & Krishnamurthy, C. G. (1951): Growth rings on tke otoliths
of the Indian Mackerel, Rastrelliger kanagurta Russell. Proc. of 38th Indian Sci.
Congress, Bangalore 1951, Abstracts Part III: 223.
Clark, F. N. (1925): The life history of Leuresthes tenuis, an Atherine fish with
tide controlled spawning habits. Fish and Game Commission. Calif. Fish. Bull.,
10: 1-15.
Cunningham, J. T. (1905): Zones of growth in the skeletal structures of Gadidae
and Pleuronectidae. 23rd Ann. Rep. of Fish Bd. Scotland, Part II. Sci. Invest.
pp. 125-140.
Cutler, D. W. (1918): A preliminary account of the production cf annual rings
in the scales of Plaice and Flounders. Journ. Mar. Biol, Ass. U.K. IL: 470-496.
Dannevig, A. (1925): On the growth of the Cod and the formation of annual
zones in the scales. Rep. Norweg. Fish & Marine Invest., III. 6: pp. 23.
Delsman, H. C. (1929): The study of pelagic fish eggs. 4th Pacific Science
Conference. Batavia Bandoeng (Java), May-June 1929.
Devanesan, D. W. (1943): A brief investigation into the causes of the fluctuations
of the annual fishery of the oil sardine of Malabar Sardinella longiceps, Cuv. &
Val. Determination of its age and an account of the discovery of its eggs and
spawning grounds. Rept. No. 1, Madras Fish Bull., 28: 1-38.
Devanesan, D. W. & Chidambaram, K, (1948): The common food fishes of the
Madras Presidency. Dept. of Industries & Commerce, Madras, pp. 79.
Duff, G. L. (1929): Factors involved in the preduction of annual zones in the
scales of the Cod (Gadus callarias Linn.). Contr. Canad. Biol., IW N.S: 283-303.
Fage, L. & Veillet, A. (1938): Sur quelques problems biologiques liés a |’ Etude
de la croissance des poissons. Rapp. et. Proc. Verb. des Reunions. Cons, Perm.
Internat. Pour L’ Expl. de la Mer. C. VIII, pp. 46-48.
Fraser, C. M. (1917): On the scales of the spring Salmon. Rep. Dep. Fish.
Ottawa. Supp. pp. 21-28.
Fulton, T. W. (1904): On the rate of growth of fishes. 22nd Ann. Rep, Fish.
Bd. of Scotland, pp. 141-241.
Graham, Michael (1929): (a) Studies of age determination in fish. Part J. Fish
Invest. Min, Agri. Fish, Ser. II. xi (2).
— — — (1929): (b) Studies of age determination in fish. Part II. A survey
of the literature. Fish. Invest. Min. Agri. Fish. Ser. I1, xi (8).
Gray, J. & Setna, S. B. (1931): The Growth of Fish, IV. The effect of food
supply on the scales of Salmo irideus. Journ. Exper. Biol., 8 (1): 55-62.
Hardenberg, J. D. F. (1938): Marine Biological Fishery problems in the Tropics.
Archiv. Neerland. Zool., 3 (Supplement): 68-73.
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Ver. Band II.
Hickling, C. F. (1933): The natural history of the Hake, IV. Age determination
and growth rate. Min. Agric. Fish, Invest. Ser., 2, xiii (2): 120.
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Allgem. Fisherei Zeitung. Miinchen., 23. Jahrg.: 341-343.
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fishery, of the Indian Shad Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton) in Bengal waters. Rec, Ind. Mus
42 (1): 35-50. i
AGE AND GROWTH OF FISHES 635
Hornell, J. & Naidu, M. R. (1924): A contribution to the life history of the
{Indian Sardine with notes on the plankton of the Malabar coast. Madras Fish.
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Vili : 427-429.
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Sardinella longiceps. Cuv. & Val. Curr. Sci., 18: 9-11.
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THE ANALYTICAL CHARACTERS OF SOME OF THE
MARSHY VEGETATION OF BOMBAY AND
SALSETTE ISLANDS
BY
B.S. NAVALKAR
Biology Department, M. N. College, Visnagar (N. G.)
(With a plate)
INTRODUCTION
While studying the ecology of mangrove vegetation from several
places in and around Bombay and Salsette Islands, (4,5) it was thought
to study a certain number of analytical characters for each assemblage
of plants and association. Though early workers like T. Cooke (3), and
Blatter (1) have described certain mangrove plants with their flowering
and fruiting periods, no work has been done so far from the ecological
point of view.. Hence an attempt is made to record certain analytical
characters of marshy vegetation as given in the Vocabulary of Plant
Sociology (2).
These characters come under the study of plant sociology. It is
inentioned in the Vocabulary that for each assemblage of plants and
each example of the association a certain number of analytical characters
can be obtained from direct observation.
These characters give an idea as to how fara particular species is
abundant or dominating in a particular area, and thereby can withstand
the vital competition which is more rigorous in more highly differenti-
ated communities. The causes of competition are multiplied by severa]
factors such as (1) number of species, (2) the diversity of biological
forms, (3) the specialisation from the ecological point of view, etc.
There are a number of characters for the analytical study but in this
work only the important ones are observed for this particular type of
vegetation. The characters noted are (a) the dominance and (6) the
sociability.
(a2) Dominance: Thecorrect idea of this term as given in the
Vocabulary of Plant Sociology (2) is that it means the extent of the area
occupied by or covered by the individuals of each species. Further
the Vocabulary says that in the communities where there are several
strata of vegetation, the dominance must be evaluated separately for
each stratum. To evaluate the dominance, exact meanings have been
given to the figures for each species as follows:
1 = Covering very feeble.
2 = Species covering from 1/20 to 1/4 of the area studied.
3 = 29 2 99 Wes to We ” 2: 2
4 = 29 9 oe) 1/2 to 3/4 29 ee) )
5
» more than 3/4 of the area studied.
-
»
ANALYTICAL CHARACTERS OF MARSHY VEGETATION 637
But this method is only applicable to relatively small surfaces. So
when larger surfaces are dealt with, like the present mangrove
vegetation, a convenient scale was adopted which simplified the matter
in actual practice about the two EASES of abundance and dominance.
The scale is as under:
+ When the number of individuals and the area covered are
both very small.
1 = When the number of individuals is rather large but the area
covered is small.
2 = When the individuals are numerous and the area covered at
least 1/20 of the surface.
3 Any number of individuals covering from 1/4 to 1/2 of the
area.
4 = Any number of individuals covering from 1/2 to 3/4 of the
area.
5 = Any number of individuals covering from more than 3/4 of
the area.
l
l
(6) Sociability: By this term the manner in which the indi-
viduals of the same species are disposed in relation to one another is
expressed (2). Five degrees of sociability can be expressed as follows :
= Shoots (or individuals) growing singly.
= %, - x in small groups.
Es <5 in greater groups.
ee Bs 53 in small colonies,
= = A; 3 in pure populations.
Cn H> GO OD
METHOD
The actual observations are made from the quadrat study of the
area. The measurement was carried out by means of a thin white
rope 40 meters long, and this was made into 10 meter square. The
length of each meter was shown by a small knot to which a small
wooden splint was tied. At every 10 meters (at corners) a rather
bigger splint was used. When measuring a locality, a suitable spot
was chosen and the measured rope was spread along upto 10 meters
and then it was turned at right angle upto 10 meters and the process
(of turning at right angle) was continued till the two ends met. Care
was taken that the bends were at right angles so that a perfect quadrat
of 10 x 10 meters was formed, and then the counting was carried out
after noting the plants in the field book, symbolically according to
the figures shown above. Then keeping one side fixed, the rope was
adjusted to form another quadrat in asimilar way. ‘So in this manner a
block of 100 sq. meters was covered each time, and thus a considerable
portion of the vegetation was recorded. It must be remembered that
as the vegetation was on marshy ground, it was sometimes very difficult
to have all the four sides of the quadrat, covering the area. Insuch
cases only three or sometimes even two sides had to be taken into con-
sideration to make up the particular quadrat complete, and the area of
the complete quadrat was estimated or rather judged by the eye. ‘This
is mentioned only to show the extent of handicaps under which a field
observer, in such a wet or muddy soil (which is sometimes knee deep
638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 51
or even more), has to work in order to get a sufficiently accurate data in
spite of such unsurmountable difficulties.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
From the tables (Appendix) it will be observed that the results are
tabulated under 6 different headings, viz. (1) the date on which the
reading was taken; (2) place and the actual spot of the locality; (3)
dominance; (4) sociability ; (5) the plant or the vegetation concerned;
and (6) remarks as regards quadrat, flowering, fruiting, etc.
The first measurement was taken at Bandra (Table 1) towards the
eastern side along the railway lines. Here the dominant vegetation is
of Avicennia alba. <Aeéeluropus repens grows also sufficiently on drier
patches and the Clerodendrum inerme is poorly scattered. In the 2nd
quadrat near the slaughter house, 4. alba is thickly populated giving
the figures for dominance and sociability as 5: 5. The 3rd quadrat was
taken on crossing the railway bridge, on the opposite side. Here
Sesuvium portulacastrum gave the figures as 4:4. Towards Mahim
side Avicennia recorded 4: 4 with small patches of Aeluropus repens
1:2 inthe 4th qdt. Still further towards the west the 5th qdt. gave
4:4 for A. albaand+:1 for Sonneratia apetala. Near the vehicle
traffic bridge the vegetation abounds in 4, a/éa which is represented as
4:5 inthe 6th qdt. In this way a sufficient number of quadrats were
recorded wherever possible to get an idea of the vegetation. From
these figures itis evident that Avicennia alba is dominant throughout
this locality.
In Mahim (Table 2) nearly 22 quadrats were recorded, the first of
which was along the railway lines on the westernside. The area is nearly
covered by A. alba giving figures 3: 4 with one or two trees of Sonne-
vatia apetala and a few scattered Cer7ops. The 2nd qdt. was on the side
banks and included Acanthus dlicifoltus and Avicennia alba having 2:2
and 1:3 figures respectively. The 3rd qdt. was alsoon the side banks
including Clerodendrum inerme vegetation having 1: 3 figures. On the
drier soils the 4th qdt. had Aeluropus vepens as 2: 3 and some patches
of Sesuviam portulacastrum. The 5th one was taken towards the
bridge road having 3: 4 as figures for Avicenna alba, with little patches
of Aeluropus repens and Sesuvium portulacastrum. Towards the east
side from 6th to 15th qdts. Avicernia grows abundantly throughout,
especially in 6th, 7th and &th qdts. where a pure population or a pure
colony is found. In 9th to 15th quadrats, due to a lot of human influ-
ence, where people cut the plants for fuel and other purposes, the
population was not so thick as in the former cases. The 16th to 19th
quadrats were taken near the shore of the creek. Even in the Sesuvzum
portulacastrum vegetation which in the 16th and 17th qdts. bore figures
4:4, Avicennia alba was found to bear 2: 2 and + : 1, and Aelurupus
vepens had + :2and-+:1. In the 18th qdt. the vegetation was domi-
nated by A. vepens and S. portulacastrum having 4:4 and 3: 3 figures
respectively. This vegetation also bore Avicennia alba to the extent of
+:1.
Towards the west side 5 quadrats were recorded and they showed
the Avicennia alba vegetation throughout with slight mixture of Sesuvium
portulacastrume which can be easily marked from the table.
ANALYTICAL CHARACTERS OF MARSHY VEGETATION 639
Thus in 23 quadrats covering an area of 2,300 sa. meters, the domi-
nant species which can be noticed easily, was Avicennza alba, though
sometimes patches of Aeluropus repens and Sesuvium portulacastrum
occasionally occurred.
From Diva(Table3) near the creek towards the north-east direction
three quadrats were recorded. The Ist consisted of grass vegetation like
Sporobolus glauctfolius and Finebristylis ferruginea and the corresponding
figures for dominance and sociability were 4: 4 and 3: 1 respectively.
The 2nd qdt.consisted of 4eluvopus repensand Acanthus ilicifolius which
were in flowers and fruits, and the figures obtained for them were + : 1
andl: 2. The 3rd qdt. included Cerzops and Sonneratia having figures
for both +:-+ and +:-+. The Sonneratia trees had their flowers
fallen down, and were in fruiting condition.
Still further along the creek, the 4th qdt. gave Paspalum vaginatum
bearing figures 2: 3 and a cyperaceous plant (having quadrangular stem)
bearing 2: 4 as the figures. The 5th qdt. bore Aeluropus repens and
Avicennia alba, giving 4:4and 3:4 as the numbers. <Avicennia was
found near the railway line and the grass on the drier land.
On the west and southwest side of the Diva-Mumbra creek, the vege-
tation chiefly consisted of Acanthus zlicifolius, occasionally interrupted
with Aeluropus repens on the drier land, with a solitary bush of Avzc-
ennia alba. An almost constant number for Acanthus tlictfoltus was
4: 4throughout allthe area covered. The following numbers were
obtained for the different qdts.
Ist qdt. <Acanthus ilicitolius, 4:4 Aeluropus repens, +: 1
2nd 99 oy) ” 4 ° 4 d9 3 ar = ote
SiGuer a an 4:5 _ a tos
4th ,, > %0 4:3 » %3 ap 6 dl
Towards the south east two more quadrats were possible, i.e. the
5th qdt. consisting of Acanthus tlietfolius, Avicennia alba and Aeluropus
repens in the order 4: 4, +: land + :-+ respectively. The last or the
6th qdt. gave numbers for the above three plants as 4:3, 1;1 and
+ ;-++ respectively. The vegetation of Acanthus iictfolius was in
flowering and fruiting stage when the records were made, on 2-5-39.
Again some 20 more qdts. were recorded on 21—5-39 which could
give an idea of the vegetation which was mainly consisting of Acanthus
ilicifolcus with occasional small trees of Sonneratia apetala and patches
of Aeluropus vepens. ‘This is clearly seen from the Table. This side
of the area was dominated by Acanthus ilictfolius but in spite of this
dominance, Avicennia alba was occasionally seen along with Aeluropus
vepens. Thus a keen competition was evident fromthe presence of
Avicennia alba, even in spite of so much local dominating species like
Acanthus ilictfolius and Aeluropus repens. ‘This behaviour on the part
of Avicennia further reveals that the plant tries to avail itself of every
opportunity to establish itself anywhere in spite of the odds that come
in the way.
Bhandup (Table 4), Vikhroli and still further towards Ghatkopar
along the railway lines nearly 18 quadrats were taken, and it was found
particularly in all the quadrats that Avicennia alba was dominating in
these areas.
Similarly a number of quadrats were recorded from different spots
on the Vadala shore (Table 5) right upto the oil tank pier and it showed
640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
that the shore had a pure population of Avicennia alba, on a major part
of the area, though occasionally on drier land patches of Aeluropus
repens could be noticed along with the main vegetation.
The numbers for the dominance and sociability in the area near
Sion station along the Bombay Agra Road (Table 6) showed the
Acanthus tlicttolius vegetation ; though on the opposite bank of the
creek Avicennia alba seemed to be dominating. Nearly 15 quadrats at
different spots were recorded.
Again a number of quadrats were measured in Thana (Table 7) along
the railway lines, near the creek, in the south-east direction, near the
creek shore and on the western side. It was noted that near the creek
Avicennia alba dominated while on the drier soils patches of Aeluropus
vepens and Sesuvium portulacastrum dominated with the presence of
Salvadora persica, Acanthus tlietfolius and Sporobolus glaucitolius.
A few measurements were recorded at Colaba (Table 8) reclamation
area on 18-1-39. Here also the dominating species was found to be
Avicennia alba with an occasional presence of A. officinalis which could
be noticed from the (Table 8.) giving 4:4 for A. alba and +-:1 A. offi-
cinalis as the numbers for dominance and sociability. Due to muddy
nature of the soil it was not possible to note a number of records, but
whatever number of records taken, it clearly showed the dominance of
A. alba.
The same difficulty was met with at Ghodbunder (Table 9) on account
of knee-deep mud, to take a quadrat reading, and hence only a few re-
cords were possible which showed that the vegetation was not of one
species of pure type of Avicennia alba, but was mixed with other man-
groves like Rhizophora, Ceriops, Acanthus, Sonneratia, ete.
On the shores of Elephanta Island (Table 10) a few readings were
made which showed that Sonneratia acida dominated on the eastern side
having figures 4:4 and the interrupted patches of Avicennia alba
having 1:1 as the number. lt was further found that Sozneratia
vegetation was about 15 feet behind the Avicenna alba vegetation from
the shore. Patches of dry land bore grasses having numbers 2:1
and 1:1. Near Shetbunder Avicenna alba shrubs were found on the fore-
shore representing the numbers for the dominance and sociability as
328
Similarly near the village (of the Elephanta [sland) Sonmeratia and
Avicennia alba, even in spite of the destructive influence of human
beings and animals the numbers were found to be 3:3 and 2:1 res-
pectively thus giving an idea of the dominance and the sociability of the
species that grew near the island.
Quadrat records were made at Trombay (Table 11) along the rail-
way lines near Chembur giving the number as 2: 3 and on the east of
the Trombay Hill near the shore the number came to 2: 2 for Avicennia,
alba. And also a few quadrats were noted from Mudh Island on the
eastern side (Table 12) giving the numbers as 3: 3 and 2: 3 for Avicennia
alba.
CONCLUSION
It was almost physically impossible to measure up all the area in all
the places and localities, due to their situation and the muddy nature of
the soil; and hence to get a clear idea of the complete vegetation some
eipueg-Ullyey, WOI;
vole ued jes eyepeA WOI, wNAYspIDINJAod wniansas UOI}LJISIA VIUUAIIAP IY} ULSSUT[PIeS S4t YYIM vsoYdoz1y ay
A0YIN
UPI(] UOT} S901} DIV DIUNIIIAP
|
~
ANALYTICAL CHARACTERS OF MARSHY VEGETATION 641
extent of judgment and discrimination were required. Nevertheless,
what actual measurements were made on the spot were quite sufficient
to give a clear and definite idea about the type of vegetation and the
dominance and sociability of the same. These observations showed
clearly that (1) dominating mangrove vegetation in and near Bombay
and Salsette islands in general’ was Avicenniza alba with a few local
exceptions in particular spots; and such spots were always present within
such a large area of the big islands Jike Bombay and Salsette.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My sincere thanks are due to Professor F. R. Bharucha, pD.sc., P.N.1.
for taking keen interest in the work and Professor S. P. Agharkar F.N.1.
for svggestions from time totime. I have also to thank Rev. Fr. Dr.
H. Santapau for coriecting the paper critically and making useful
suggestions. This work was cairied out in the Botany Department of
the Institute of Science, Bombay.
REFERENCES
Blatter E. (19(5): The Mangrove of Bombay Presidency and its
Biology. Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., XVI.
Braun-Blanquet, J.
& Pavillard, J. Vocabulary of Plant Sociology, Translated By
F. R. Bharucha, Botany School, Cambridge.
3. Cooke, T. (1908) :
4. Navalkar, B.S. &
Bharucha, F. R.
The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay.
Studies in the Ecology of Mangroves of Bombay and
Salsette Islands.
I, Ili, IV, V, VI (1940, 1942, 1948, 1949 & 1950), Jour.
Unt. Bom.
Succession of Mangrove Vegetation of Bombay and
Salsette Islands. Jour. Bow, Nat. Hist. Soc. 50
(1), Aug. 1951.
5: Navalkar, B.S.
APPENDIX
TABLE 1
Analytical characters of Maishy Vegetaticn of Bandra 10 x 10 Meters Quadrat
eG
| a |
Date Place BS Plant Remarks
=|)
© || ©
A) | we
30-7-38|Bandra along| 3] 4 | Avicennia alba In fruiting
the Rly. lines} 1 | 3 | Clerodendrum inerme Ist Odt.
towards NE. (bushes)
2| 3 | Aeluropus repens (patches)
18-11-38|Near slaughter] 5 | 5 | Avicennia alba 2nd QOdt.
house
BA further to- 5 5 a ee 3rd Qdt.
wards west, | 4) 4 99 9p 4th Odt.
|beyond vehicu-
! lar bridge. +. 1 | Sonneratia apetala eqnage
9-5-59) i 4} 5 | Avicennia alba 5th Qadt.
11 5-39, NE. side 3 | 2 o 4 6th Qdt. fis.
m3 6 Sileno - 3 in pure 7th
” 9? 2 | 9 on) ” 8th Qadt.
in pure colony.
642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
TABLE 2
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Mahim.
| poop | |
Date Place lies Plant Remarks
SS lcim| |
[e) e) |
A) a | |
30-7- -38| Mahim near | 4] 4 | Seswvium Ronn: wm | Ist Oat.
bridge, to-|
| wards east. | |
18-11-38) Still further to-| 4) 4 | Avicennia alba 2nd ,;
| wardsMahim| 1 2 | Aeluropus repens ah
| Railway Stn. | |
a Still along the} 3 | 4 | Avicennia alba MSE 55
Ry. line. | 3 | 3 | Avicennia alba énd,,
| _ 2 | 2) Acanthus ilicifolius with ] or 2 Sonner-
,, | Stillondry soil, 1 | 3 | Clerodendrum inerme alia & a few
21-11-38 Towards vehi- | Ceriops.
| cle bridge & 2 | 3 | Aeluropus repens (patches of Sesu-
road. | 3| 4 | Avicennia alba | vium) 3rd Qadt.
| 4th Qat.
| | with tittle
| (
11-5-39 Towards East.
”) )
” } ”
|
”? i ”?
~
“
East near the
shore of the |
Creek.
is, as fh ale alb,
PEAT PSUR SS Ie SS U2 aS 2 BO Be AR SOP BOIS GOES GOES IN CORD ING GNIS
RRR OH RH Pe PR eS PR PWD BMW NHH WWW wU
| Avicennia alba
) ”
”) ”)
) ”
) ”)
) ”
9) )
Sesuvium portulacasirum
Avicennia alba
Aeluropus repens
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Avicennia alba
Aeluropus vepens
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Avicennia alba
Aeluropus repens
Avicennia alba
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Avicennia alba
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Avicennia alba
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Avicennia alba
Sesuvium portulatastrum
Avicennia alba
Sesuvium portulacastrum
(patches of A.
repens S. portulas-
trum.
In pure population
in spite of human
influence, for fuel
| 29 ‘3
ree ec cee
Note.—On 244-39 and 5-5-39 the following plants along Mahim-Bandra,
railway lines (on both sides) between Mahim and Bandra, were in flowering and
fruiting stage.
ANALYTICAL CHARACTERS OF MARSHY
TABLE 2—(contd.)
VEGETATION
643
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Mahim—<(conid.)
Date Place
a
rE ED SENT SPR SPE SE CORR BY A EE AI
Dominance
Socia bility
Plant
Acanthus ilictfolius
Rhizophora mucronata
Suaeda truticosa
Sonneratia apetala
Ceriops candolleana
Sesuvtum portulacastrum
Clerodendron iner me
Aeluropus repens
Bruguiera parvitlora
Avicennia officinalis
Avicennia alba
TABLE 3
Remarks
| In fls & fts.
} bh) +)
99 9)
» only.
| 99 ie
9 5 9?
| only in fts.
29 9
{n Ass & fts,
Not in fis.
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Diva.
10 x 10 Meters Quadrat.
| 2 | 2
| ais
Date | Place le |e Plant Remarks
fo 8/3
| | eS
|
19-9-38 Diva near the| 3 1 | Fimbristylis ferruginea pee olauct-
_ creek nortir folius vegetation.
east. 4| 4 | Sporobolus glaucitolius Ist Quadrat.
3 1 | 2 | Acanthus ilicitolius [In fls. and fts.
‘ + | 1 | deluropus repens 2nd QOdt.
ns + | + | Ceriops candolleana 3rd Odt.
| o + | + | Sonneratia apetala In fts. Fs. fallen
| down.
Still further | 2 | 4 | Cyperaceae 4th Qdt.
along 2 3 | Paspalum vaginatum
the Creek.
PS 4 4 | Aeluropus repens ‘On drier land near
Ry. lines 5th Qdt.
56 3} 4 | dvicennia alba. | 50 3 ey
2-5-39 | Diva-Mumbra| 4 | 4 | Acanthus ilicifolius Ist Qdt. In fis, and
Creek, west laeehitce
to south- + | 1 | Aeluvopus repens
| west. 4) 4 | Acanthus ilicifolius 2nd Qdt. In tls. and
| fts.
0 + | + | Aeluropus repens
e 4} 5 | Acanthus tlicifolius In fis. and fts 3rd
Odt.
3» + | + | deluropus repens
A 4 | 3 | Acanthus ilicifolius In on and fts. 4th
é dt.
59 + 1 | Aeluropus repens.
644
Date
TABLE 3—(contd.)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Diva |
Place
2-5-39
21-5-39
Towards
south-east.
9)
+?
‘Diva Mumbra.
Creek North-
east.
9)
| ”
Diva Mumbra
Creek,
| North-east.
——
9?
‘North West.
10x 10 Meters Quadrat—(conid.)
+. |Dominance
I Oo k4G) Go ET
oo
Sociability
Plant
Lb (Ly oe AK
Tate USS ES HSTOOLOT GO) || Goll Colt | ea SO ed > petty ts ome hat Go teal Go et eg
{
oooF et oo ee
1
G2! G69 DO
+ btu G9 Gd Uo IB 69 HRB DOB et 6 Ot OO Yt bo Oo HY HR Be pb oo Ht De
|
|
|
- |
|
|
Remarks
Acanthus ilicttolius
Avicennia alba
Aeluropus vepens.
| Acanthus iicifolius
| Avicennia alba
Aeluropus repens
| Sonneratia apetala
| Acanthus ilicifolius
| Aeluropus repens.
Sonneratia apetala
| Acanthus ilicitolius
Sonneratia apetala
| Acanthus ilicifolius
Sonneratia apetala
Acanthus ilicifolus
Aeluropus vepens
Sonneratia apetala
| Acanthus ilicifolius
Aeluropus repens
| Sonneratia apetala
Acanthus tlicifolius
Aeluropus repens
Sonneratia apetala
Acanthus ilicifolius
Aeluropus vepens
Sonneratia apetala
Acanthus ticifolius
Aeluropus vepens
Sonneratia apetala
Acanthus ilicifolius
Sonneratia apetala
Acanthus ilicifolius
Acanthus ilicifolius
Aeliuropus repens
Acanthus ilicifolius
Aeluropus repens
Acanthus ilicitolius
Aeluropus vepens
Acanthus ilicifolius
4. »” x,
Aeluropus vepens
Avicennia alba
| In fis. and fts.
Sth Odt.
In fls. and fts.
6th Odt.
Ist Odt. in fis.
mainly fts.
fils. and fts,
In fis. and fts.
| 2nd Qdt.
| In fils. and fts.
3rd Oat.
'In fis. and fts.
4th Oat.
In fis. and fts.
)
| ”
Sth Oat.
In fis. and fts.
| ”
6th Odt.
|In fils. and fts.
| 7th Oat.
|In fis. and fts.
”)
| 8th Qdt.
In fls. and fts.
JehyOd tyne.
10th Odt. both
In fis. and fts.
and
In fls. and and fts.
11th Qdt.
In fis. and fts.
| 12th Odt.
i In fis. and fts.
13th Qdt ©
In ‘fis. and fts.
14th Qdt.
iSytdet Orolo, 5
16th i) ”)
thie ss “
L8the 45 as
19th ” ”
20th ,,
ANALYTICAL CHARACTERS OF MARSHY VEGETATION 645
TABLE 4
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Bhandup-Vikhroli.
Date Place
19-5-38|Kurla to Ghat-
kopar along
Rly. After
the Station
2-5-39 |Near Wenare
koper.
ni Still further
along Rly.
lines.
9) 2)
) ?
2-5-39 |Vikhroli, East
and N. East.
?) | 3?
19-5-38|Further upto
Vikhroli St.
2-5-39 |Further upto),
Bhandup.
1) 3)
» |Bhandup,
North-East.
a
Oo
q
oO
‘=
ot
q
je)
| (2
re! GO Ne
1
T 69 Go Rt GO DO
oo ine)
Sociability
© 0 DR Go bo DO GS DO GD Gd
Plant
Aéluropus repens
1 | Avicennia alba
2 | Aeluropus repens
3 | Avicennia alba
Aeluropus repens
i"
Avicennia alba
| Aeluropus repens
Avicennia alba
Aeluropus repens
Avicennia alba
Aeluropus repens
Avicennia alba
Aeluropus vepens
Avicennia alba
Aeluropus repens
m4 GD OS 9 FH WD DO WF GS
Avicennia alba
Aeluropus repens
bo
3 | Avicennia alba
3 | Aeluropus repens
2 | Avicennia alba
3 | Aeluropus repens
2 | Avicennia alba
1 | Aeluropus repens
3 | Avicennia alba
-+- | Aeluropus repens
| Avicennta alba
1 eseiges repens
| Remarks
In patches or drier
soil.
ist Odt.
On dry soil,
| Ist Qdt.
)
2nd Oat.
3rd Oat.
‘4th Oat.
3
Ist Odt.
promesy
| 1st Qadt.
2nd QOdt.
On dry soil.
3rd Odt. ”
An@dty
9
Ist Odt.
| 2nd Oat.
3rd Odt.
yy)
TABLE 5
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Vadala.
bifurcation of
646
: o
1)
q
os
Date Place a
g
fe)
a)
23-11-38] Siwri, near
fish wharf.
10-12-38 is |
oh
Siwri dock in
Kolivada. On 2
dry soil +
12-8-37| Vadalasaltpan| 4
area. 2
i
23-11-38 ig
10- 5-39] Vadala_ shore
from Siwri
to the Creek
9 5B)
9) 9
) ’
9) 9)
be) ”?
Along Port
Trust Ry. to
| the bridge
50 Near the P. T.
Ry. bridge
on both sides
2) | 9
» |Still further
along the Ry.
lines upto the
Oil Pipe line.
Do = 0
ep 09 ©)
On GH He GO U1 ee On >
G2 43 W WHE GB Oo Go bo GO
Sociability
—
ht bet be
MH OO U7 re DO
Un er ©
mann nontinn oa
O29 G9 G2 G2 G2 G2 Go IB OD GD
Plant
Remarks
Avicennia alba
_ Aeluropus repens
| Sesuvium portulacastrum
Aeluropus repens
Suaeda fruticosa
_ Aeluropus repens
| Sesuvium portulacastrum
Salvadora persica
Clerodendrum inev meé
Avicennia alba
| Avicennia alba
7 officinalis
Avicennia alba
76 officinalis
Avicennia alba
55 officinalis
Avztcennia alba
, officinalis
| Avicennia alba
v9
)
| ist Qat. In
Ist Odt.
2nGe,)
US fans,
2nGa5
USE. 59
Ist Oat. fls.
) 9)
) ”
| Suaeda almost
disappearing.
Ist Odt. Fts.
”)
pure
population.
| 2nd Qat.
3rd ) x)
4th ”? )
Sth ) ”)
Gta, 55
7th ) ”
HOULlen,, 5
| 9th_,, 9
| 10th 9 ”
| Aeluropus repens
in patches on
drier soil.
Clerodendrum
znerime on the
bunds.
Ist QOdt.
2nd QOdt.
| 3rd Qadt.
Ath Qat.
| Ist Qdt. with
2nd ,, bushes of
3rd_,, A. repens
ANALYTICAL CHARACTERS OF MARSHY VEGETATION 647
‘TABLE 5—(contd.)
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Vadala—(contd.)
Oo | &
@ | 8
Date Place SG Jeeiate Remarks.
ae
=) | R |
10-3-39] Along the Pipe| 4 | 3 | Avicennia alba Ist Qdt.
line and|
south of
Mahul coast ; |
» a 3 3 . % 2nd Qdt.
9? ») 4 4 : +) > 3rd )
”? 9 4 § ») ” | 4th ”
”? 9”) 4 3 ” ” | oth ”
oD On the opp. 3 3 7 5 | WSS 'y5
side of the |
| Pipe line up- |
to Pir Pau’s
tomb.
3 3 2 3 we | 2nd QOdt.
” ” 3 | Z ” ”) | 3rd ”
” On the North
IRG7o “I i OS
along the
creek 3 2 ) ” Ist Qdt. With
” ” 3 3 ” ” 2nd ” A,
op 3 3 Z < of SECs vepens
3 Along the S.
Tram line
upto Kurla. Very few bushes
.. Near Kurla St.| 2 2 a ‘F | Ist Odt.
TABLE 6
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Sion-Dharavi-Agra Road
Date Place Plant Remarks
Dominance }
Sociability
21-11-38 |Mahim to Sion
Via Dharavi
Rd. Along the road throughout, on the drier soil patches of
Aeluropus repens (in fils); near Municipal drainage work
Avicennia albaand A. officinalis and a patch of Acanthus
tlictfolius near Sion, are found.
- Near Sion Stn.; 3) 3 | Acanthus ilictfolius | Ist Odt.
i on both sides; 3 2 A 3 Zins
| of the creek.| 1 1 | Avicennia alba Lee Os
sn Further to- 2 2 Ki he 3rd QOdt.
| wards Kurla. | 3 | 2 | Acanthus ilicifolius Son
Near Kurla on) 3 | 3 | Avicenniaalba 4th Qdt.
opp. bank of; 2 | 1 | Acanthus ilicifolins 09 BD
the creek.
648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 51
TABLE 6—(contd.)
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Sion-Dharavi-Agra Road
2 ||
g |=
Date Place 2 fa Plant Remarks
‘ 1S)
2}
Ala |
‘ }
18-5-39| Near Sion St. | 5 | 5 | Acanthus tlictfolius Ist Qdt. In fils. &
along AgraRd.| 2 | 4 | Avicennia alba | fts.
Se +s 4) 4 | Acanthus ilicifolius PexelOYets, ~~ 5,
4| 4 | Avicennia alba | Penta he rs
af an 3, 3 | Acanthus ilicifolius 3rd QOdt o
3.| 3 | Avicennia alba ip 59 5
y, a 3} 3 | Acanthus tlicifolius 4th Odt s
1 | 1 / Avicennia alba By 8H 5G
Teas On the opp. |
bank of the |
creek. 4) 3 | Acanthus ilicifolius lst Qdt. in fis. &
| | fts.
es of _ 3) 3 | Avicennia alba \ieesy cams ”
| + | 1 | Rhizophora mucronata » ”
95 i. 3) 3 | Acanthus ilicifolius 2nd Qdt _
| 3 3 | Avicennia alba Nonathtens ”
) %) | 3 | 3 | 9 ” 3rd Qadt ”
| 2)| 3 | Acanthus ilicifolius | Stee be G
” ” | 3 | 3 ? ? 4th ” +)
| 3) 2 | Avicennia alba | eee <
> 9) 3 | 3 »” ) oth ” ?
| 3 2 | Acanthus ilicifolius eras, re
3 | 2 | Aeluropus repens oie fe ”
: F 4 | 3 | Avicennia alba 6th), ae
| 2) 2 | Acanthus tlicifolius Pip 62 99 BA
2) 3 | Aeluropus repens roam ais RA
| 5 | 4 | Avicennia alba ithe @d ta
| 1) 2 | Acanthus ilicifolius a ars e
3 | 3 | Aeluropus repens Bs
”" » 4 4 | Avicennia alba ‘8th Qdt. Bs
| 1) 1 | Acanthus ilicifolius i
3 3 | Aeluropus repens »
of * 1) 1) Avicennia alba Oth OA,
2) 2) Acanthus ilicitolius E
TABLE 7
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Thana
a | & |
La bee |
Date Place | 5 | ey | Plant | Remarks
6 | © |
A |n
| | |
26-5-38) Thana, along} 4 5 | Avicennia alba | Ist Qdt.
| the Rly. line 3 | 2 | Acanthus ilicitolius ror ee
| near the creek | -+ 1 ‘Sporobolus glaucifolius | nL aa
| + 2 Aeluropus repens Ee
| 2 | 4 | 5S | Avicennia alba | 2nd Oat
| a 2 | deanthus ilicitolius | 1) OF
| : 2 | deluvopus repens | ”
Eee
ANALYTICAL ‘CHARACTERS OF MARSHY VEGETATION 649
TABLE 7— (contd.)
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of: Thana—(contd.)
On las
ae
Date Place a ee Plant © ‘Remarks
1)
A} a
26-5-38) Thana, along
the Rly. line
nearthecreek) 5 | 5 | deluropus repens 3rd Qdt.
C + | 1 | Avicennia alba » 9»
9p Near the creek} 2! 3 | Sesuvium. portulacastrum 4th QOdt,
shore + 2 | Salvadora persica PD
27-11-38) On sides of the | |
Vehicle & Rly. |
bridges 3.| 3 | Avicennia alba Ist Odt.
2 | 3 | Acanthus ilicitolius ED
” 3} 3 | Avicennia alba NI 2nd Qadt.
2 | 2 | Acanthus ilicifolius ” oo»
99) Between the ,
two Bridges | 4) 3 | Avicennia alba - Ist Qdt.
: | 3} 3 | Acanthus ilicifolius » 9
i South of the 31 4 ) Avicennia alba 2nd Qadt.
Rly. Bridge 1} 2 | Acanthus ilicifolius | El ns
| I ae | 1 | Aeluropus repens | DD bap
{ None ie |
TABLE 8
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Colaba.
g | B | |
| =e
Date. | Place < = | Plant | Remarks
5 | S | |
| Eagan |
| | 54 & ie 7 Pe
niles | |
18-1-89, Colaba Recla-| | |
. | mation area.) 4) 4 | Auvicennia alba i list Qat
9 9 | -- | 1 | Avicennia officinalis ae ;
| 4) 4 | Avicennia alba
? y | : ey |
; 19 | + | 1 | Avicennia officinalis \ ane Qdt.
2-3-39/Towards near | | |
| barracks. | 3) 3 | Auitenuia alba | 3rd Qdt.
ede
) i ) =
| Avicennia alba |4th Qdt.
| Indi ae ca
| nec |
|
|
|
}
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
TABLE 9
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Ghod Bundar.
Place
» |
27-—4-37 |
18-12-38)
|
}
“4
Mira Rd. Stn.
South-west.
Dinanath Khar
Farm Area.
South-east.
Ghod Bundar.
? >
Near the tem-
ple Tank.
Towards
Gaimukh
Bandar.
93
Near Gaimukh |
Bandar
Dominance
2
NO Or POO DO Pt OHH tO
ARS)
TMS ROD AN BD ON HR Os Oo
Sociabiliity
G2
HONMOMNNMWMN OOP WOOWPWU WOME RP WRW RON GOREN
Plant
Remarks
Avicennia alba
Avicennia alba
Acanthus ilicifolius
Ceriops candolleana
Lruguiera gymnorhiza
Salvadora persica
Rhizophora mucronata
Aeluropus vepens
Suaeda fruticosa
Clerodendrum iner me
Avicennia otfticinalis
Acnnthus tlicitolius
Avicennia alba
Acanthus tlicifolins
Sonneratia apetala
Aegiceras majus
Bruguiera gymnor hiza
Rhizophora mucronata
Ceriops candolleana
Avicennia alba
Acanthus ilicifolius
Avicennia alba
ap officinalis
Rhizophora mucronata
Ceriops candolleana
Bruguiera gymnor hiza
Avicennia alba
Aegiceras majus
Acanthus tlicitolius
Avicennia alba
. officinalts
Bruguiera gymnor hiza
Avicennia alba
oh officinalis
Acanthus ilicifolius
Ceriops candolleana
Kandelia rheedit
Ist Qat.
2nd Qadt.
”) + )
3rd Odt.
shee
Ist Qdt.
ond Odt.
3rd Qat.
” d”
4th Qadt.
? ”)
Sth Qat.
” ”
6th Qdt.
7th Odt.
Sth Qat
) ”)
” 9)
9th Odt.
10th Qdt.
” 3)
9 D9
ANALYTICAL CHARACTERS OF MARSHY VEGETATION 651
TABLE 10
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Elephanta Island
Date Place Plant Remarks
Dominance
Sociability
16-5-37 Elephanta |
East 4 4 | Sonneratia acida | Ist Qadt.
”? ” 3) 4 ” » 2nd ”
dy ” 3 5 de ”? | 3rd ”
? } 3? 4 n) ” ” | 4th ”?
16-5—37 Elephanta
Kast 4 | 3 | Avicennia alba In front of
Sonneratia.
” Ist dt
” ) 3 5 ” +) ” 2nd a
96 99 3 5 ” ” ry 3rd ”
- ‘ 3.| 4 | deluropus repens Ist Qadt.
” om) 2 4 ” ” 2nd )
‘5 9 1| 3 | Avicennia alba’ oh wee
i. Near Shet 3 | 4 | Sonneratia acida Ist Qadt.
59 Bandar 4 | 4 om) ” 2nd y
} 4 3 9 ” | 3rd ”
> > 2| 3 | Avicennia alba A ee
Sey) Mora, via 3.| 5 | Avicennia alba | Ist Qdt.
Uran 2| 4 | Sonneratia acida 9 2 ibn Hie,
an p 3| 4 | Avicennia alba 2nd Qdt.
1 | 3 | Sonneratia acida x es
" Panje,island | 3 | 4 | Avicennia officinalis 1st Qat.
3 4 | Aeluropus repens SC ie
a 2 | Sonneratia acida ae
rs Dongri, island] + 2 | Avicennia officinalis Ist Qat.
7 9) ” ar 1 9 ” 2nd ”»
TABLE 11
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Trombay Island
aes
Date Place 2 a Pigwae | Remarks
| 8 | 3
| Ala
Nl ) :
25-9-38 Kurla to | 2 3 | Avicennia alba Ist Odt.
Trombay, near
Chembur, 1 2 09 ” ” ”
along the Rly.
line ‘
99) Hast of the | 2 2, ” ” Ist Odt,
Irommnlsasy lati | Sh 2 9 ” 2nd ,,
near the shore | Dees Fp D9 Std,
652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
TABLE 12
Analytical characters of Marshy Vegetation of Madh Island
| ay | |
| Pepe
| @ | cS
Date | Place | a | S Plant . Remarks
| | 8 |
| le ke ;
| lve alu =I
27-14-37. Madh Island | ;
Eastern side | 3 | 3 | Avicennia alba ist Qdt trees
| | ees |
+B) ” | ”?
” | 2nd ,; ”
MORE NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI
- WATERSHED, NEPAL!
BY
DESIREE PROUD
This year we again had the chance of a short holiday on the ae
leading to the Gosainkund Lekh. We chose the first half of May
as the weather is usually settled in Nepal at that time of year, and we
hoped that the birds would be breeding in the higher hills. As far as
the birds were concerned the trip was very successful, but the
weather could hardly have been worse. There was a thunder-storm
every evening, and above 9,000 ft. a thick mist from about 9 a.m.
onwards. The early mornings were usually fine, and the views of
course all the more perfect after the rain. We made a small collec-
tion of birds and plants, and these have been identified in the Natural
History Museum in London. As I am no botanist I have put a
query after the names of plants identified only by me, and not in the
Museum.
May 5th: With what joy does one _ leave the valley for a fort-
night in the high hills. I know of no greater pleasure. Left
Sandarigal at 11 a.m. Hot, but a faint breeze blowing. Sympblocos
crataegoides in flower all along the path, small trees, very like the
English hawthorn and with the same strange perfume, the ‘deathly’
perfume of the poet—
‘The flowers of the field have a sweet smell,
Meadowsweet, tansy, thyme and faint-heart pimpernel,
But sweeter even than these
The silver of the May
Wreathed is with incense
For the Judgement day.’
The hum of bees surrounds every tree. Plumbeous Redstarts
were feeding young still in the nest. Two and a half hours to the
top of the ridge, 8,000 ft. No bird song in these sultry midday
hours, except from the Greyheaded I lycatcher-Warbler which is never
silent, and occasional sweet notes from the Whistling Thrushes near
the stream. On this ridge the hawthorn-like Symplocos does not
grow above 7,000 ft. (I have seen it much higher elsewhere) and its
place is taken by S. swmantia. This flowers in March, and nothing
now left but bunches of dried brown stamens. Quercus lamellosa (?)
that loveliest of the Himalayan oaks, now quite bare of leaves, but
the fat lilac-coloured buds lifted against the blue sky. It is only
bare of leaves for a very short time. Over the ridge we searched
for.a camp site in the lovely little valleys full of flowering berberis
(B. aristata ?) and viburnum (V. erubescens). The best sites had
_
' For the first article ‘Some Birds seen on the Gandak-Kosi Watershed in March,
1951” see J.B.N.H.S., 50 (2): 355-866 (December, 1951).
654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
no water, and when water was found the land was steep and exposed
to the wind. There is much to be said in these steep hills for small
bivouac tents and no camp beds. A larger tent could not have been
pitched here, but two small shelves were soon found into which
bedding rolls fitted very comfortably. |A roaring wind was blowing
from the west. All the storms seem to come from there. I suppose
they start in the hot Trisuli Valley. By 6.30 we had finished supper
and all the kit safely stowed under-tarpaulins. Soon fell asleep, but
awoke boiling hot at 10.30 the wind having dropped. Hastily unlaced
the tent and looked out into a magical world flooded with moonlight.
Utter peace and stillness, broken only by Richard snoring happily
from the other tent.
May 6th: Woke at 5 a.m. to a grey wet dawn. The little owl
(Otus) calling phew phew, a cuckoo cuckooing. A wild call rather
reminiscent of a wader, may perhaps have been the Hill Partridge,
but I never found out for certain. Scimitar Babblers and Stripe-
throated Yuhinas calling softly in the berberis bushes. A pair of
stonechats had a nest near by. Breakfast finished, gear packed and
away by 8. Walked down the hill in a cold wind and light drizzle,
very unusual for the time of year. The grass covered with blue
gentians and yellow dandelions. We reached Pati Bhanjyang at
9.30, and sat outside the village while the coolies bargained for food;
we were not going to repeat the mistake of last year when we had
gone on without them, only to wait for hours on the hills beyond.
Nepal Martins were hawking back and forth across the ridge in
company with Redrumped Swallows. The latter had nests within
the little houses, but I have never discovered where the martins
breed; they are great wanderers and are seldom seen in these hills.
A cuckoo perched on a bare tree above our heads was uttering the
most extraordinary grunting noises. I thought it was perhaps the
‘curse’ of the Eastern Cuckoo, but it presently began the familiar
ek hud hud hud of the Himalayan Cuckoo. The first note can only
be heard at very close quarters. The call repeated about 27 times
a minute. Do most cuckoos perhaps utter a ‘curse’ occasionally as
well as their more usual notes? Drongo Cuckoos were also calling,
and the zee zaw of the hill warbler heard everywhere. Gaultheria
in flower, and a bush with very beautiful blue flowers and white buds
was coming into bloom (Hamiltonia suaveolens). Pieris ovalifolia had
everywhere finished flowering and was covered with young leaves
very fresh and green; it is a beautiful tree at all seasons. A kite
flew overhead, the only one seen. The climb from Pati Bhanjyang
is the most unpleasant in the whole trip, and though we were lucky
in having it comparatively cool, it was with relief that, sweating and
dusty, we finally reached the village and its terraced fields. The
village as dirty as ever, the last of the oaks destroyed, but the little
fields very neat, full of maize and potatoes. Tragic though it is
to see the forest destroyed, one can not help admiring the loving
care and endless labour which these people give to their land. At
7,500 ft. the forest starts again, a sadly thinned forest, but swarming
with birds. Here we heard again the hawk-cuckoo, maddening bird,
always keeping just out of sight, his identity still a mystery to us.
We camped as usual on the flat top of a hill on the Mamche Danda.
BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED © §d5
Hardly into our beds when a terrific storm burst upon us; drenching
rain and a roaring wind. I was afraid the tents would blow away
and hung on to the tent pole which showed an unpleasant inclination
to jump off the ground. After an hour it died away and I fell asleep
to a mere gentle pattering on the canvas.
May 7th: Woke to a glorious day. Every high hill shining with
fresh snow. The hawk-cuckoo was the first to call followed by the
Indian, Eastern, and Himalayan Cuckoos in that order. The
Himalayan is always a very late riser and never calls at night as
many of the others do. Greywinged Blackbirds and Verditer Fly-
catchers singing, and the lovely whistle of the Wedgetailed Green
Pigeon rippled up from the hillside below where 5 or 6 of them were
perched in the tops of the lopped and tortured oaks. A Himalayan
Nuthatch was carrying food into a nest hole about 4o ft. from the
ground. The Orangebarred Willow-Warblers, so common here in
March, had all moved on. Himalayan Swiftlets were hawking above
the camp. Pieris formosa had finished flowering but was covered
with young red leaves forming patches of vivid colour round the
camp. We did not hurry away but let our tents dry. in the brilliant
sunshine, having decided to do only a very short march to-day. It
is a pleasant walk down to Gol Bhanjyang. Upland Pipits calling
and a pair of Serpent Eagles soaring overhead. A_ shrub (a
Symplocos 1 think, but not sumantia or crataegoides) was everywhere
in bud. We never found any opened flowers and did not succeed in
identifying it. As we climbed the steep hill above the saddle I heard for
the first time the sweet high-pitched song of the Bluechat. Dr. Dillon
Ripley has found this bird in breeding condition in the Nepal valley.
I donot think any of them actually remain to breed in the valley,
except perhaps I or 2 pairs on top of Sheopuri or Phulchok. We
always hear it on passage for a short time in March and early April,
but it soon passes on and after that I have only found it on these
inner hills and above 8,ooo ft. At the top of the hill we entered
our rhododendron forest—alas, a sadly changed place from the
enchanted world of March last year. The flowers were all over and
the forest dark, damp and uninviting. However, as the storm clouds
were already hanging over the hills ahead we decided to camp, and
'pitched the tents in a little green valley. Quercus semecarpifolia,
Rhododendron arboreum and Pieris ovalifolia the chief trees, Berberis
and Viburnum bothxin flower formed the undergrowth and the ground
was carpeted with yellow oxalis and strawberries both in flower and
fruit. This ridge is a very interesting one, as it forms a bridge
between the lower and higher hills. Although the same elevation
(8,000) as the Mamche Danda and Sheopuri, and though the bird
and plant life is on the whole the same as found on these two ridges,
there are quite a number of species found here which are never seen
on the other two (except of course during winter in the case of the
birds). These include the Orangebarred Wiaullow-Warbler, the
| GCrangebreasted Flycatcher, the Redflanked Bush-Robin, Vuhinia
_occipitalis, Darkgrey Bushchat, Blackbrowed Flycatcher-Warbler
| and Bluechat, plants from the higher hills seen here for the first time
were Prunus cornuta, Anemone obtusiloba (?), and a little trailing
| white raspberry (Rubus calycinus). There were a few yew trees,
O56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
but these. are also found on Sheopuri though nowhere else round the
valley. This is also the last ridge where many of the common birds
of the lower hills are found, such as Greenbacked and Redheaded
Tits, Longtailed Minivets, Verditer and Greyheaded Flycatchers,
and Rufouscollared Yuhinas. Whitethroated Laughing-thrushes and
Barwings are also very common here, and so is the quaint little tit,
Syluiparus modesius. The yellow eyebrow of this last is quite im-
possible to see in the field. We had an early supper and were in
bed by 7 p.m. expecting the usual storm but not much worried by
it, aS we were sheltered from the wind, and though I was not quite
happy about the site of my tent in a little valley, there was a path
running beside it which we thought would be sufficient to carry off
any rain water. By 7.30 the rain started, this soon changed to hail
which pelted down on the tent with a roar which quite drowned the
occasional boom of thunder. Last night I had feared the tent might
be blown away, tonight I felt it must surely be torn to ribbons.
lashing on my torch I saw a little flood about 2 inches deep flowing
gently in through the top end of the tent. Pulling up the ground
sheet round my bedding to make a sort of island I wondered for a
brief moment if camping really was such a good idea. Luckily the
storm died down for a few minutes and I shouted to poor Richard
for help. He rushed out minus all clothing and dug trenches
furiously. Slowly the water subsided and Richard regained his
tent, only just in time for the hail came roaring down again with
redoubled violence. By 10 p.m. it had ceased, and peeping out I
saw a white world, the hail stones gathered into drifts inches deep
and shining like snow in the faint moonlight. Fell asleep only to
be woken in the small hours by a peculiar noise just outside the tent.
Again I flashed my torch. A large vague shape blundered noisily
away. Only a chumry I realised with relief, but though gentle
creatures, they are rather large, and the tent very small. I would
just as soon they did not walk on us.
May 8th: Woke at 5 to hear the skinner blowing away at the
fire and the cuckoo calling. Richard said he had heard the Indian
Cuckoo as early as 2 a.m. Blackbirds singing gloriously, and the
thin zee see of the Yellowbrowed Tit, and the whirring song of the
Orangebarred Willow-Warbler ringing through the wet woods. The
morning was clear but we were in shadow from a small hill and every-
thing was soaking wet. We packed as quickly as possible. Two
Sherpa boys watching a herd of chumries came and squatted at the
side of the camp. They were soon joined by a girl who had come to
fetch water. This she carried in a hollowed-out tree branch sus- ©
pended by a strap across her forehead. She was very talkative and.
gay with the natural friendliness of all Sherpas in these hills. She
was very interested in our bedding and felt the blankets critically, but
they were good ones she said. Our coolies had spent the night in
her family hut, one of them, rather a good looking youth was far too
busy flirting with her to pay any attention to his share of the packing.
However, she administered a resounding slap on the side of his face,
to the delight of the others, and looking rather foolish he returned
to his work. We were away by 8.30, very pleasant walking up the
ridge on the springy green grass. Last year it had all been dusty
BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED Gd7
and dried up, now after the rain it was all fresh and green, the narrow
ridge often widening out into enchanting alps. At 9,000 ft. we
entered the dark oak forest. Here we heard for the first time the
thin trill of the Nepal Tree-creeper, and came upon a pair of the
adorable little Yellowbellied Flycatchers, bobbing and pirouetting like
the larger fantail flycatchers of the lower hills. From here the
Orangebreasted Flycatcher was one of the commonest birds, every
little valley or alp holding its pair. They guard their territory
jealously. On emerging from the oaks we found the belt of grass,
which leads up the hill between the thick rhododendron forest,
thickly starred with anemones (obtusiloba?) blue and white, also
gentians and dandelions and a little white crucifer (Draba?). One
little dell was absolutely blue with anemones and I was enchanted
until I found that it was also swarming with leeches. My enthusiasm
greatly damped as I hastened away to drier ground. We had not
expected to find them so early in the year and at this height. The
unusually heavy rains, I suppose. The rhododendrons, mostly R.
falconer1, were covered with faded flowers. We were too late for
them as we had been too early last year. Up and up the path climbs
then winds round the ridge and up a narrow gravel-filled nullah
between two hills. This is a good landmark from the south and
can be seen from the hills round Kathmandu. It looks very steep
but is not so really. Thick mist covered all the higher hills and a
cold cold wind blew from the north west, straight from the snows.
From the top of the nullah all the ridge to the immediate north is
covered with R. campanulatum, now in full flower. Nothing this
year compares with the beauty of flowering Ik. arborewm last March
but campanulatum is attractive in flower. The stems grey, varying
from silver to almost pink often outlined with black lichen, the leaves
rounded at the tip, dark glossy green above, rusty or cream beneath.
The flowers mauve, deep purple in bud fading with age. A hillside
covered with them has a curiously silver shimmering appearance,
perhaps partly from light reflected from the glossy leaves, always
now wet from the latest shower. R. barbatum was also still in
flower and must have a long season as it was in bloom last year in
March, when there was no sign of any flowers on other high level
rhododendrons. The leguminous shrub Piptanihes nepalensis which
flowers profusely on Sheopuri in March was a blaze of yellow here
now. We decided to camp on our favourite marg with the 4 huts. One
of these was soon made comfortable with a thick juniper carpet and
the tents tied over the many gaps in roof and walls. Although
sheltered from the rain it was now bitterly cold. We put on all our
thickest clothes. From midday it rained continuously. In the even-
ing this cleared and a golden sunshine without warmth flooded the
world for a few minutes before the sun set. The Gosainkund Lekh
as beautiful as ever. After a hot supper we were glad of thick sleep-
ing bags.
May goth: Woke to a divine morning, but so cold that it was an
effort to leave our beds. No cuckoos calling for the first time. The
wild song of the Whitecollared Blackbird throbbing in short bursts
across the marg. It consists of a. few notes or a short phrase re-
peated usually 4 times then a pause then a fresh phrase again repeated
658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
4 times. This will go on for hours in spite of rain or storms. The
song has a magical quality, wild and sweet. It reminds me of the
English song thrush in rough spring weather. The graywinged
blackbird has a mellow gentle song more like that of the English
blackbird. I prefer the thrush, though most English listeners dis-
agree with me, some in fact becoming positively indignant over the
matter! The blackbird’s song is languid and_ graceful, the
polished product of a court poet, but to me it lacks the magic of the
less perfect song, and here particularly the wild notes seem to
catch the spirit of the mountains. We stayed 5 nights on this marg.
The early hours were always perfect but each day by 10 a.m. the
mist had descended and the afternoons were given to rain and storms
more or less severe. We were up with the first hght and away from
camp by 6 a.m. each day. There is so much to explore that a month
could profitably be spent here. The bird life very different from
that in March last year. The winter migrants have mostly left,
though flocks of pipits (both hodgsoni and roseatus) are common on
the marg, and are still on migration I think, presumably for the
very high hills, as pairs of both are already established here and
breeding. Summer migrants have arrived and are taking up their
territories. Rosefinches are abundant, at least 4 species; they are
still in flocks, their sweet notes echoing through the forest as they feed
in the rhododendrons. ‘Tits are breeding. The Himalayan Cole Tit
has a nest in the stone wall of a Sherpa hut. The male (?) sits in
a fir tree just above the hut and sings all day endlessly dir-tee dir-tee
dir-tee his throat and breast puffed out with the effort. The female
creeps in and out of the nest hole, quietly and not often. She appears
to carry nothing so is apparently incubating. I had intended to
collect these tits, but cannot bring myself to shoot them when nest-
ing, a very unscientific attitude I fear!
From this marg a little path leads round the south side of the hills
above the Tadi Khola. It has evidently been made by the Sherpas to
keep in touch with their various little summer camps. It runs at
about 10,400 ft. and does not vary in height more than 100 ft. even
When crossing the little valleys. On each ridge is a small camp,
usually 2 huts, sometimes 3 or 1 only. At present the walls only,
built of stones, for the Sherpas bring the roofs of woven matting with
them and use them again and again for each camp. The forest im-
mediately round the camps is usually burnt to give better grazing
tor the chumries. The Sherpas have not arrived up here yet, though
everywhere they are moving up. From the path one looks straight
down into the valley of the Tadi Khola and the numerous little tributary
valleys. ‘Tiny villages nestle on the flat shelves of land above the
river. Cultivation spreads up the sides of the hills above the valleys,
sometimes I should think as much as a couple of thousand feet. The
valley houses are permanent dwellings with flat wooden roofs of
planks kept in place by large stones. One can tell at a glance the
difference between Sherpa and Gurkha houses, the latter having the
steeply pitched roofs and turned up corners which we see round
Kathmandu. Here they are all Sherpas. Above the cultivation comes
the zone of lopped Quercus semecarpifolia as we have seen it on the
way up here, and above this the fir and rhododendron forest. Above
BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED | 659:
each village at a height of about 9,000 ft. is another little settlement,
presumably the half way house for spring and autumn. These also
have only temporary roofs and are now mostly in occupation. I
imagine that each settlement belongs to one family and that they
come up year after year, following the tiny precipitous path which
leads down each ridge, although they look almost too steep for
humries. I should like to come up later in the year when they are
in residence and learn more of the details of their lives. The only
people we meet now are woodcutters and these are always Gurkhas
{Tamangs) and they do not live up here but come up for a day or
two, collect wood and carry it back to Kathmandu. Their methods of
wood cutting are wasteful to a degree. Instead of cutting the tree
near the root they cut away at anything up to 12 ft. above the
ground, the huge stumps being left to rot. They have very inadequ-
ate little axes and will chip away at a tree trunk for hours to get
one door or plank and then abandon the rest. The hillsides are
strewn with wasted wood, a very sad sight. The people themselves
are delightful, sometimes we meet whole villages of them who have
come up to get shingles (shaklas) for their roofs. They make a
Picnic of it, and come down singing and laughing, their hair crowned
with rhododendrons, women and children as well as men, looking so
healthy and happy in spite of their loads of shaklas.
Warm mists rise from the Tadi Khola and we found plants very
much more advanced on this path than on the main ridge. Here
the lovely yellow rose (R. serica) was already in bloom, the long
graceful sprays trailing over the hillsides in loops and_ arches.
Anemones blue and white covered the ground as thick as daisies on
2a May lawn at home. Pieris formosa, a common bush up to 10,500
fr. all in vivid young red leaf. In one enchanting gully, overhung
by a huge rock, from which water dripped continuously, was a grove
of the most beautiful bird cherry trees (P. cornuta) all in young leaf,
the flowers not yet open. Under these grew a tiny pale primula
(Androsace geraniifolia), a tiny deep pink primula (P. listeri) and
several small crucifers (Sisymbrium sp ?). Also thickets of a ber-
Deris, not very tall with whorls of prickly holly-like leaves and yellow
flowers just opening. Gooral kept springing away from us in small
groups and I got a beautiful view of one rushing straight down the
ridge over the most uncomfortable ground. We also found a small
viburnum with white flowers and deeply-veined leaves, very like the
English wayfaring tree ({V. cordifolium). Here the deciduous
thododendron R. lepidotum was just opening tiny green leaves, they
are still bare on the main ridge. Many banks covered with Gaultheria
nummuleroides in flower now, the tiny pink and white waxy bells
very attractive when examined closely. Chestnutbellied Rock Thrushes
Were common, each little valley producing its pair. Willow-
warblers everywhere. P. pulcher abundant and breeding, P. pro-
vegulus in pairs and keeping to a fixed territory, either a single silver
fir or a small group of firs. The other willow-warbler was P. trochi-
loides trochiloides, which was very common from about 10,000 ft:
up to 12,000 ft. They were mostly solitary, but 2 specimens obtained
‘were in breeding condition. 4s |
9
669 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
May 13th: Even the usual 3 hours of sunshine did not materialise
this morning and we set out in a fine rain. Time is running short
but the weather not encouraging for the higher hills. Only a short
march to Thare Pate but steep in places and I felt sorry for the laden
coolies. Above 11,000 ft. Primula petiolaris is everywhere in bloom.
It has finished flowering in the lower hills, 8,o00-9,000 ft. in February,
9g,000-10,000 ft. in March and April, The flowers here are rather
battered by the storms. Round the Sherpa huts where goats have
been tethered grew docks and a purple flower (Lamium amplexicaule),
A few Primula denticulata. ‘Tracks of a panther very clear in the
soft path along the ridge at 12,000 ft. Thare Pate looks bleak in
the rain and mist, the huts are tumbledown and wet and there is no
water near. However we can drink melted snow. ‘There are large
rather dirty snow beds on the north slopes, and we set to work with
tarpaulins to cover leaks and to spread the juniper over the floor.
Incidently no vi-spring mattress can equal the comfort of a deep bed
of juniper, and the perfume from the crushed leaves is the best sleep-
ing draught I know. Most of the huts are on the west of the ridge,
we chose one just over on the east side as most of the storms and
mist comes from the west. We are soon comfortable, but the coolies
are very distressed. They have a long hut with no windows and
have lighted an enormous fire so that the heat, smoke and fug inside
is all that they can desire, but the water is the trouble. They say
it does not matter, but they will not eat tonight as too much trouble
to melt snow for cooking rice. We tell them to go back to the last
camp and to return in 2 days. They depart to discuss this at length.
The rain pours down in torrents. However we sit in our hut with
a nice scented juniper fire and watch birds. Rosefinches, golden
bush robins, redstarts, orangeheaded bulfinches pipits, all within a
few feet of the hut. Exquisite firetailed sunbirds flash in and out
of the soaking bushes and a female monal walks into the hut and
departs noisily on finding it occupied. Monal swarm here and are
very noisy and indignant when disturbed. Presently a cooly arrives
to say they have found water, and very good water, but a long way
down. They bring it back in tins slung between 2 men. They are
delighted. At 5 o’clock the rain suddenly clears, clouds lift, golden
sunshine floods everything. Jagged rocks and snow peaks appear
unexpectedly all round us. Deep valleys on each side of the ridge full
of purple shadow, with shreds and tatters of shining mist scattered
across them, little bright islands on a dark dark sea. What thrilling
country, but bitterly cold. We go early to bed. Shortage of water
makes ever a pretence of washing mercifully impossible.
May 14th: Up at 5 a.m. Primrose sky and wonderful view.
The great peaks of the Jugal Himal brood over us, further to the
east 1s Gauri Shankar. To the west the purple chasm of the Tadi
Khola with the jagged Lekh beyond, black against the sky. As the
sun rises it catches each ridge in turn and outlines it in gold against
the darkness beyond. I now regret time spent on our gentle marg.
This is much more thrilling country. Breakfast over, we start off
down the pilgrim trail, which is composed mostly of boulders, and
winds down a wild weird country. Nullahs full of boulders, covered
with lichen; no water, but I suppose that in the monsoon it rushes
BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED 66k
down the hollow under the rocks. Wrens everywhere; also accentors,
Firetailed Sunbirds and Nepal Treecreepers. Numbers of the little
warbler Phylloscopus t. trochiloides; they sing siper siper siper.
We leave the bare hill-side and go down a narrow gully into forest of
silver fir, birch, juniper, rhododendron, the last a new one with
brilliant pink flowers. Brilliant grosbeaks in bare birch. Nut-
crackers scream and scold. Suddenly something green and crimson
ahead of us. Blood pheasants, the first I have ever seen, what won-
derful creatures! At the lowest point of the path, 11,300 feet we
cross a little bubbling stream the first water we have seen since our
far away marg. ‘the path winds round the hill-side through bamboo.
Suddenly a large flock of tiny birds creeping through this; they look
like bearded tits—Fulvousfronted Suthoras. Dick shoots 3. They
have curious little monkey-like faces. Now the path climbs again,
sometimes through thick forest, sometimes over bare hill-side. Here
the forest is quite unspoilt, no burning, cutting or lopping. A leaf-
less viburnum with pale pink scented flowers grew along the path
(V. nervosum). Alas all too soon the mist comes down again, and
the blotting rain. We pass a large cave and a swift darts out like an
arrow. We reach a little group of pilgrim huts, the view must be
wonderful from here, but we can see nothing. Useless to go on.
We return regretfully. Rain, hail and tearing wind for the rest of
the day, and this time no break at sunset.
May 16th: A wonderful morning. Dick says that he will have
a shot at getting to the top of the pass and starts off at dawn. Il
know that I can’t make the pass and get back in one day, but it is
with bitter regret that I look across that great valley to the path curl-
ing over the hills so deceptively near in this clear light. Richard
started at 6.20 and had finished the traverse and started the real
climb by 9.30. He got up to 14,300, when he felt exhausted and
sick and so had to return much disappointed. He did not get back
till dark. JI have never seen him so tired, and very depressed over
his failure. It is hard to realise that one is not young any more!
He could have done it so easily 6 years ago. However, from the
naturalist’s point it has been a thrilling day.
A flock of Grandalas at 13,800 ft. about 45 birds, flying very like
Starlings he said. Then a single pair by themselves. Thrushes
large and powerful, size of a mistle thrush, strong flight, dark olive
brown, no ‘spots on the back. <A _ willow-warbler at 13,100, very
dark green, no wing bar or eyebrow; choughs also about 13,800 ft.
Bush warblers up to 13,500, white-capped redstarts to 14,000.
Tits (rubidiventris) to 13,000. Pipits higher still, paired and sing-
ing, but he could not say of what species. He brought down a tin
full of flowers. A lovely deep pink primula on a very short stem
growing from 13,000 to 14,000 ft. This was Primula deuteronana,
peculiar to Nepal, Mr. Ludlow tells me. Then there was a yellow
primula like a cowslip with an orange eye, Primula strumosa, at
13,000 ft. growing on very steep ground where the snow had just
melted. A tiny potentilla, P. monanthes, 1 in. high nestling in damp
moss above 13,000 ft.; very few of these. Potentilla peduncularis
from 11,000 to 13,000 ft., Primula petiolaris very nearly to 13,000 ft.
Juniper scrub up to 13,100 ft. and above this only leafless berberis
662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
and the 2 dwarf rhododendrons. <A tiny extraordinary saxifrage-
like flower was unfortunately too dried up to be preserved. But most
exciting of all was a most beautiful large yellow primrose with fring-
ed petals, an orange eye, and lovely silvery leaves. This was growing
at 11,300 ft. under a boulder, so close to a stream that when it was
dug up the hole left behind immediately filled with water. This
was the most beautiful flower that we found on the whole trip and
we took it back to Kathmandu where it survived for a week in
damp moss. We did not know that it was a rare plant until I had
taken a small piece home for identification. It proved to be Primula
aureata, and Dr. Fletcher of the Royal Horticultural Gardens at
Wisley writes of it as follows, ‘This is the first time it has been
found in the wild condition. It has been in cultivation for some
years but never has it been found in the wild before. We grew it
in Edinburgh among a batch of seeds of Swertia purpurea. There
was one seedling different from the others and the seedling turned
out to be not a Swertia but this primula. It has never been seen
in any herbarium, and no collector, in particular the collectors
of the Lloyd Botanic Garden, Darjeeling, from which the seed came,
had ever seen the plant.’ My day was spent on the Thare Pate ridge.
I followed it up to 13,000 ft. It was a divine day, the only wholly
fine day of the whole trip. Wonderful to sit in this golden world,
basking in the rare sunshine. Large Whiterumped Swifts with
forked tails hawked back and forth. Himalayan Swiftlet with them,
and once an Alpine Swift cut across with the sound of a whip lash-
In the golden air swarms of tiny midge-like creatures hovered. [|
could see dozens of these swarms like little puffs of smoke. Some-
times one of these swarms would surround me, but though they got
into my eyes and landed all over my face and hair they did not
appear to bite. ‘A small eagle (hawk eagle ?) soared above, it had
a light band in its tail and was barred on the breast. A_ black
drongo unexpectedly flew across the ridge. In this sunshine one
could almost see the leaves and flower-buds opening. Rhododendron
lepidotum, bare till a few days ago, is now a mist of tiny green
leaves, and R. anthopogon is covered with yellow flowers. The
leaves of both of these smell deliciously when crushed, so that one
walks through waves of aromatic fragrance, and shoes and _ skirt
smell delightfully for hours afterwards. They cover the hillsides
from 13,000 ft. where the juniper ceases. A yellow potentilla with
pinnate leaves, P. peduncularis, is abundant. The leaves are just
opening and give the appearance of fluted velvet from the long silvery
hairs which cover them. They are soft to the touch as a _horse’s.
chin or the skin of a peach. A little blue gentian, a tiny bunch
enclosed in square bracts is Gentiana capitata. This was also com-
mon on our marge.
Even the berberis is beginning to show a glint of green and
roses are appearing everywhere in most unexpected places. Cassiope
fastigiata 1s Common, sometimes making a thick carpet, but only
one or two flowers appearing. Grosbeaks are found up to the limit
of the juniper; tiny little bushes are enough for- them. Rosefinches
also, but not quite so high. Even this one fine day was not allowed
BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED 66
io last and by 3 p.m. the mists were down blotting out the mountains
and spreading a clammy dampness over everything.
May 16th: We have only 3 days left and had meant to march
back to-day to our rhododendron hill, but could not tear ourselves
away. Spent the morning trying to identify the thrush which sings.
each morning on the ridge behind our camp, but without success.
Again and again we stalked him from below (it was always impossible
te get above him) but always he flew away while well out of range. It
may be an Oreocincla but certainly not dauma which can be recognised
instantly by his peculiar shape. It might be molissima or perhaps.
dixon which I do not know. Molissima is common in the Nepal
valley in winter, as is dauma. A pair of firetailed sunbirds joyously
searching for a nesting site; the female carried bits of nesting
material but not the male. No last sunset, but a hailstorm rather
fiercer than usual.
May 17th: A divine morning after a hard frost. All the wood
of the hut rimmed with white. Impossible alas to stretch our time
into another day. We leave early. How the summer has advanced
since we came up here. Roses everywhere, berberis in young leaf,
bird cherries in full bloom, Rhododendron campanulatum past its best,
and anemones everywhere, thicker than ever before, more of the
vellow variety amongst the blue and white. ‘A few white orchids
(Pleione) coming out. A few weeks later they were abundant and in full
bloom we heard from friends. At 9,000 ft. we met parties of Sherpas
coming up with their chumries. They told us that they got these
chumries from Kuti in Tibet. This is up the Sun Kosi valley and
seems a very long way for them to travel. Yaks of course could not
live here on the south side of the high hills. They had a number of
young calves with them, so I presume that unlike mules chumries
can breed. The Sherpas said they did so. I have heard since that
only the cow chumries are fertile and that they breed these again with
the hill cattle. I should like to know more of the lives of these
Sherpas. What a very delightful life they lead. They all look very
healthy but seem to suffer from perpetual coughs.
For once there was no storm. In many ways the weather has
been kind, and we have never got soaked while moving camp. This
is a long day, the last climb from Gol Bhanjyang to Mamche Danda
seems very long. The coolies are tired but cheerful and delighted
to be on the way home. Camp in our usual spot, a lovely mellow
evening. Birds nesting everywhere, sivas, yuhinas, scimitar bab-
blers, etc. j
_ May 17th: Back to Kathmandu. A very hot walk down to
Pate Bhangyang and hotter climb up to Sheopuri. Here a violent
storm hits us, floods of rain, hail, thunder. I have foolishly worn
my light boots with rubber soles. Impossible to stand up in them
on these slippery paths. Am obliged to wait for the coolies and my
nailed shoes. I take refuge in a hut. It is dark, full of blinding
smoke. Every one as usual very cheerful and they make room for
me by the fire. I can only see the ring ‘of faces lit by the fire.
Soon I am so badly bitten that I am obliged to go out. Everyone
astonished that I should leave before the storm is over. I stand on
the verandah and scratch. The rain stops, the sun shines out catch-
O64. JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL (HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 51
ing a million sparkles of light from the drenched forest. Birds sing.
My late companions emerge one by one from the dark hut. I had
thought the hut might hold 12 people, 28 come out!
The coolies and my shoes arrive. Nothing more now but to climb
down the steep path, past Sandarigal the stream now flooded with
dark boiling water from the storm. How sad and how sad! But
what a pertect fortnight it has been!
BIRDS SEEN ON GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED DURING FIRST HALF OF
May
Nucifraga caryocatactes: Himalayan Nutcracker.
These birds were always in family parties so must breed very
early.
Lophophanes rubidiventris : Rufousbellied Crested Tit.
Very common 10,000-12,500 ft. Most were feeding young in the
NESE:
L, ater aemodius : Himalayan Cole Tit.
Very common from g,500-11,000 ft. Abundant round our camp
at 10,500 ft. Most had nests, but less advanced than last birds, and
many still building or incubating.
L. dichrous dichrous: Brown Crested Tit.
Also breeding between 11,000 and 11,500 ft.
Suthora fulvifrons: Fulvous-fronted Suthora.
A party of about 30 birds creeping about in bamboo scrub at 11,300
fr. on the pilgrim trail. They looked very like the English Bearded
Tit and kept up a continual thin squeaking. 3 shot had their bills
full of crushed bamboo.
lanthia ocellata: \VVhitespotted Laughing-thrush.
Common in small parties from 9,500-11,500 ft. It has a most
beautiful very human whistle, which might be syllabified Tu wee,
Tu wee, Tu witty O. I had not seen them last year in March, but
as they are very shy and skulk out of sight, they would probably
mever be noticed when not calling.
Trochalopterum affine: Blackfaced Laughing-thrush.
Common above 9,000 ft. 2 shot varied somewhat in colour, one
having more grey on the neck.
Leioptila capistrata: Plackheaded Sibia.
A few up to 11,800 ft. there had been none above 9,000 ft. in
March. |
Siva striguia : Stripethroated Siva.
Very common up to nearly 12,000 ft. We had not seen any
above 9,000 ft. in March. A great variety of notes not heard in
winter. Call a loud Chee-er Chee-er. Song rather a jumble, some
BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED 665
sweet notes mingled with harsh squeaks and churrs. They were in
large parties above 9,000 ft.; below this already paired and nest build-
ing. a :
Yuhina occipitalis ; Chestnutnaped Yuhina.
Very common above 9,000 ft. I found a nest at 10,500 ft. on the
roth of May. It was a cup of moss and. leaves, built into a large
lump of moss which formed a dome over the nest. It was in the
fork of a small tree about 3 ft. from the ground, and well concealed
as large lumps of moss are found on practically every bush and tree
in these damp hills. It was lined with fine roots and contained 2
young perhaps 3 days old, they were sparsely covered with long
black down. The parent was very tame and would sit brooding them
when we were only a few feet away. It would have been an ideal
subject for a bird photographer. The white ring round the bird’s
eye and dark moustache: stripe showed up very clearly.
Certhia discolor: Sikkim Tree-creeper.
Common up to 9,000 ft.
Certhia familiaris mandelii: Nepal Tree-creeper.
This bird takes the plaee of the last from 10,000 ft. up to 12,500
where it is very common particularly on birch. Sir Norman Kinnear
kindly identified it for me.
Troglodytes t. nipalensis : Nepal Wren.
Very common round about 12,o00 ft. and not seen below this.
In March they had been common at 10,000 ft. They were singing
with great vehemence.
Larvivora brunnea : Indian Bluechat.
Common above 8,ooo0 ft. The males were singing continuously
and always from the same place. I saw no females so perhaps they
were incubating. Frequently sang from some exposed position such
as the top branches of a silver fir. In Kashmir I have only heard
them sing from dense cover.
Heteroxenicus cruralis: Whitebrowed Shortwing.
A pair frequented the top of a small hill near our camp at 10,500 ft.
Both sexes sang, a gentle but merry little warble which might be
‘syllabified Hey did-dle did-dle the cat an. This was a sight record
-only.
Grandala coelicolor : Hodgson’s Grandala.
My husband saw a flock of about 45 birds at 13,800 ft. on the
pilgrim trail. At first he mistook them for starlings. He also saw
one solitary pair.
Tarsiger chrysaeus: Golden Bush-robin.
Very common at 12,000 ft. In pairs and several females appeared
very anxious as if they. had nests. I’ found a nest on my last day at
‘Thare Pati. It was not quite commelleted| built of moss into the roots
666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST; SOCIETY, Vol. 61
of a juniper on a small bank. Only the female was working on it.
I had not time to watch for long. They had harsh churring notes.
I never heard a song.
Turdus albocinctus: Whitecollared Blackbird.
Common on all the ridges above 8,ooo ft. and up to 12,000 ft.
and the limit of the trees. The wild sweet song was a characteristic
sound through the rain and mist.
Oreocincla ?
A thrush was common at Thare Pati. It had quite a fine song
and sang every morning from the top of a small juniper bush or
from a rock on the steep bank behind our camp. Through glasses
I could just see that it was a dull white below heavily spotted with
dark brown, but as it always kept above us against the skyline the
colours could never be made out distinctly. It had not the peculiar
shape of dawma, so was probably O. mollissima. Both these birds
are common in the Nepal valley in winter, the latter very shy and
skulking.
Siphia strophiata: Orangegorgeted Flycatcher.
Almost the commonest bird above 9,000 ft. They were just
arriving in March last year, when we saw only one; now every little
valley had its pair.
Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum: Yellowbellied Flycatcher.
Common from 9,000-11,000 ft. Paired. Last year in March
they had not arrived. I was surprised to find no Sooty or White-
browed Blue Flycatchers. Fair numbers pass through the Nepal
Valley in ‘April on passage and I had expected to find them breeding
here, but did not see one.
Phylloscopus pulcher: Orangebarred Willow-Warbler.
Common from Rhododendron Hill at 8,400 up to 12,000 ft.
Abundant at 10,000 where it was breeding. None left on the Mamche
Danda where they had been so common in March.
Phylloscopus proregulus chloronotus ;
Fairly common at about 10,500 ft.. Paired and singing and
frequenting silver firs. I did not find a nest.
P. trochiloides trochiloides :
Very common from 10,500 ft. up to the limit of the trees about
12,000 ft. Two shot were in breeding condition. They were singing
but not yet. paired.
Seicercus burkii : Blackbrowed Flycatcher-warbler.
Extremely common from 10,000-12,000 ft. None had been seen
in March. They were all in pairs. and the males (?) kept to the upper
canopy of the trees and sang loudly. This was answered by other
males from other groups of trees. The females {?) crept about in
BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED
roy)
(=>)
-J
the undergrowth and answered their mates with the single chip note
which both sexes use in their winter quarters. The song has a slight
resemblance to that of the greyheaded flycatcher-warbler but is quite
distinct to any one who knows the latter.
Horeites brunnifrons : Rufouscapped Bush-warbler.
One of the commonest birds from 10,000 ft. up to 13,000 and even
higher. It is found in bushes round the open margs, and in the
sparse juniper scrub on stony hillsides where no other birds are to
be seen except Anthus roseatus. It has a loud little song sip ti ti sip
uttered continuously. This is often followed by extraordinary sound
rather like that produced by somebody blowing through a comb.
Though it skulks in bushes it is not at all shy and will perch on the
top of a bush or rock to utter its song within a few feet of the watcher.
{ think that nesting had not actually commenced. I found an old
nest in a rose bush which probably belonged to this bird, a little
domed structure, thickly lined with feathers, still warm and cosy after
a winter’s rains and snows.
Perissospiza icteroides : Black-and-Yellow Grosbeak.
Rather scarce but small parties seen from 10,500 to 1,200 ft.
P. carneipes : Whitewinged Grosbeak.
Very common from 10,000-12,000 ft. always in flocks. I did not
find that this bird replaced the Black-and-Yellow Grosbeak- in the
bigher hills as stated in the Fauna. On the contrary they occupied
the same habitat, and the present bird was found at lower elevations
than the last.
Mycerobas melanoxanthus ; Spottedwing Grosbeak.
My husband thinks he saw this bird at 10,500 ft. A small flock
were seen this winter (’52-’53) in Kathmandu and one was shot by
Dr. R. L. Fleming, so they probably do breed in these hills.
Carpodacus rhodochrous : Pinkbrowed Rosefinch.
Common from 10,000-12,000 ft. They have a sweet little lilting
song very characteristic. This finch is easily confused with C.
pulcherrimus which may have been present also, but 2 birds shot were
identified in the Natural History Museum as of this species.
C. rhodopeplus : Spottedwing Rosefinch.
Very common 10,000-11,000 ft. They feed a great deal on the
ground when the female at a distance might be mistaken for a.bunt-
ing. They have a sweet far-carrying canary-like chirp.
Procarduelis nipalensis : Nepal Dark Rosefinch.
_ The commonest finch, abundant at 10,500 ft. in large flocks of
both sexes, often with mixed parties of tits, etc. Feeding largely in
the rhododendrons; the birds often had so much pollen on their heads
as to appear as if they had light caps. The call is a rather wailing
plaintive double whistle, very characteristic; I heard no song.
668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
At least 2 other species of rosefinches were seen indistinctly, and
not identified for certain. No buntings were seen though they
lad been so common in March.
Delichon nipalensis : Nepal Martin.
Flocks seen at 6,000 ft. No swallows or martins seen above
75 OOOM tte
Anthus hodgsoni: Indian Tree-pipit.
Breeding birds were seen in pairs singing and soaring on the
inner hills from 9g,500-10,500 ft. They seem to occupy a definite
zone between the lower hills (8,000-9,c0o ft.) where the Upland Pipit
is common, and the higher hills above 1o,500 ft. where all the birds
found by us were A. roseatus. Non-breeding birds were common
u flocks at 10,500 ft. and I wondered if these were passage migrants
for the mountains of Tibet, etc.
A. roseatus : Hodgson’s Pipit.
This pipit was the common one from 10,500-13,000 ft. All the
little bare rounded hills about 12,000 ft. were occupied by a pair of
these birds. My husband saw pipits at 14,000 ft. but could not
identify them. I hope to collect some and study all the pipits more
attentively another year.
Aethopyga ignicauda: | iretailed Sunbird.
Very common from 11,500-12,500 ft., never seen below this.
They were feeding on Rhododendron campanulatum. females very
much in the minority, and one female often had 3 or more males
vying for her favours. Some already paired were apparently search-
ing for nesting sites, and this was often in juniper bushes. I saw
several females collecting cobwebs, but they would carry these from
place to place and then abandon them as if the nesting site had not
vet been decided, or perhaps this was a sort of courtship display.
The male would accompany the female singing joyfully, but I never
saw him carry anything. These birds are very local in their distri-
bution. In winter January-February I have seen them only on the
Chandragiri Range at a height of 7,000 ft. The males are then in
eclipse plumage and are found feeding on a small jungle tree.
Leucosceptrum canum {?), Dr. Ripley also mentions finding them on.
this ridge in winter. On March 22nd this vear we climbed to the
top of Sheopuri, at 8,ooo ft. north of the Nepal Valley, and we found
the place literally swarming with these birds feeding on Rhododendron
arboreum. There were often 3 or 4 birds to one tree. The curious
thing is that they were confined to a narrow triangle perhaps } mile.
on each side. Although the rhododendron was in flower all over the
hills at this time, I never saw these birds anywhere else. The males
were now in breeding plumage, the central tail feathers not very
iong. Two birds were shot and these long feathers were 25 and
32 mm. beyond the rest of the tail. The Nepal Sunbird, very com-
mon all over the hills, was never seen in the area occupied by this
species, but was found immediately outside this bird’s territory. On
April 13th we again climbed up Sheopuri to the same place and
BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED 569
these birds had all gone, we did not see one, although the rhododen-
drons were still in flower, and the Nepal Sunbird had moved in to
replace it. Now we met them again at 12,000 ft. and the central tail
feathers were very long, (89 mm. beyond the rest of the tail in one
we shot) and fluttered behind the bird like the plumes of a miniature
paradise flycatcher. I wonder how long they remain at this height.
Mr. B. E. Smythies did not mention them when here in September,
and they are not birds one could overlook, so presumably they had
migrated elsewhere. Where I wonder? I have never seen them in
the hills round the valley before January. They are surely the most
exquisite birds in the world.
Picus squamatus: Green Woodpecker.
Fairly common about 10,500 ft.
Dryobates darjellensis: Pied Woodpecker.
8,000-10,500 ft., rather scarce.
/
Cuculus canorus: The Cuckoo.
Ikxtremely common 8,000-13,000 ft. Above 10,000 ft. was not
heard till quite late in the day, 11 a.m. onwards. As they usually call
with the first light I imagine they roost at lower elevations and range
over the high hills during the day. Usually in pairs and they ‘cursed’
as often as they ‘cuckooed’.
C. optatus Himalayan Cuckoo.
Very common from 6,000-8,o00 ft.; not much above this.
C. micropterus: Indian Cuckoo.
Very common up to 10,000 ft., and at 12,000 we could sometimes
hear its call drifting up from the valleys below. It is the earliest
bird to call in the morning, and also sometimes at night.
Hierococcyx sp?
One of the Hawk Cuckoos is extremely common in these hills
between 7,000-10,000 ft. I have spent hours stalking it but have
failed to get a proper view or a specimen. On the wing it appears
very dark. Calls endlessly from just before dawn till late in the
evening, occasionally at night.
Surniculus lugubris : Drongo Cuckoo. 3
Not very common, and not heard above 7,000 ft. There are so
many cuckoos in the lower hills 6,000-9,o00 ft. that one wonders that »
there are sufficient fosterers for them.
Micropus pacificus: Whiterumped Swift.
Common on the ridge above Thare Pate 12,000 ft.
Falco tinnunculus: Kestrel.
Seen up to. 12,000 ft.
670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Ictinaetus malayensis; Black Eagle.
To 9,000 ft.
Spilornis cheela: Serpent Eagle.
To 10,000 ft.; rather higher than I had expected.
Sphenocercus sphenurus: Wedgetailed Green Pigeon.
Common up to 8,000 ft.; not seen higher.
Ithaginis cruentus : Blood Pheasant.
Fairly common on the pilgrim trail beyond Thare Pate between
I¥,000-12,000 ft. In small parties which seemed to consist of more
cocks than hens, unlike the commoner Monal, whose cocks always
had a large harem to themselves. They were very tame and would
utter a soft kik kik as they worked through the bamboo and fir”
forest. I never saw them in the open where the monal spent most
of their time.
Scolopax rusticola : The Woodcock.
At our camp at 10,500 ft., a Woodcock used to appear each
evening just before dusk and fly round and round the marg, a circle
of about + mile, uttering a deep croak and sometimes a shrill squeak-
ing. Once I saw 2 of them together for a short time. The evenings
were usually fine, and it was pleasant to watch them against the
sunset sky and magnificent panorama of mountains.
OCCURRENCE OF PARAGREWIA GAGNEP.
IN INDIA AND BURMA?
BY
R. SESHAGIRI RAO
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta
(With a plate)
While studying the Indo-Burmese species of Grewia, I came across
a few specimens kept under ‘dubia’ of the Calcutta and Madras
Herbaria. These turned out to be very interesting specimens of a
totally new species of the mono-specific genus called Paragrewia.
They were collected from Burma and Tinnevelly (South India). They
resemble Grewia in the general form which led the earlier workers to
suspect them as a species of Grewia. But they are strikingly different
in their floral structure. |
Gagnepain in 1945 published this monotypic genus Paragrewia with,
description and diagrams in ‘Supplementa la Flore Generale de L’
Indochine I’. He named it as P. poilanei Gagnep. after Poilane, who
collected it from Quang-nom, Annam. Paragrewia, though it resembles
Grewia in habit, general form of leaf and Structure of ovary, however
differs from it (1) by the absence of the androgynophore and (2) also
of glandular depression at the inner base of the petals and by (3) the
presence of limited number of stamens, not exceeding 15. The type
sheet could not be secured for comparative study from the Paris Her-
barium-where it is supposed to have been deposited. But the exact
matching of these specimens with the published diagrams and the
complete agreement of description with that of Gagnepain leave no
doubt about their correct relationship with Paragrewia poilanei Gagnep.
A Latin diagnosis for this new genus is also added here as it was
not given by Gagnepain.’
Grewia similis est Paragrewia habitu, generali forma folii atque
Ovaril structura, sed ab ea differt in eo quod deest androgynophorum
nec interior petalorum basis glandulis depressa est et quod adsunt
pauca tantum stamina, i.e. 15 numero.
A detailed description of the species in English is given below
{Plate 1):—
Description:—Shrub; Branches: slender, glabrous, 2-3 mm.
in diameter. Leaf: alternate, stipulate, (stipules deciduous), petiolate,
petiole glabrascent, 6-10 mm. long, lamina 11-17 cm. long, 2.5-4 cm.
broad, leaf base nearly obtuse or slightly pointed, oblanceolate or nearly
* Read at the Thirty-sixth Session of the Indian Science Congress, Allahabad,
but much enlarged.
* My thanks are due to Rev. H. Schefers, s.j., the Prefect, St. Xavier’s Ccllege,
Calcutta, for supplying me the Latin translation.
672 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIBDYS Volk 51
elliptic, entire, acuminate, membranous, glabrous on both sides, 3-
nerved at base, 5-8 pairs of secondary nerves, p:nnately reticulate.
Inflorescence: axillary, cymose, few-flowered. Flower: short-pedicelled,
bracteate, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous. Sepals: 5, 6-8
mm. long, free, valvate, finely pubescent on upper surface. Petals :
5, minute, free 1-1.5 mm. long, imbricate hairy all over, marginal
hairs prominent, glandular depression at the inner base absent.
Stamens: 10-15 united at the base around the ovary, a few reduced
to small conical staminodes with a few hairs at the tip (a, fig. 6,
Plate I), filaments slender, slightly hairy, anthers dithecus, oblong,
introrse, basifixed, dehisce by longitudinal slits. Gynoecium: on
glandular thalamus, androgynophore absent, style as long as stamens,
partly hairy, stigma pointed, 3-4 branched, ovary pilose, 3-4 celled,
ovules numerous on axile placentae. Fruit: not available.
Specimens examined :
Burma: Salween. (‘Grewia laevigata Vahl’, Meebold, 16898, Jan.
1912, Calcutta Herb. No. 614096).
India: Tinneyelly. (‘Grewia viminea’, Major R. H. Beddome,
collected in 1807, Madras Herb. No. 6383). Kannikatty: 3,000 ft.
Tinnevelly Dt. (‘Grewia’, K, C. Jacob, 20-9-1921, Madras Herb. No.
85714. 2 Sheets.)
* Distribution:—Gagnepain stated that the genus with its
single species was confined to South de la Province de Quangnom (16°
lat., 108° long.) of Annam. In the light of new records above stated,
it is clear that the Annam species occurs also in Salween (18° lat.,
97 -98 long.), Lower Burma and in Kannikatty and Tinnevelly district
(8°-9° lat., 77°-78° long.) of South India. Strangely enough, the
species is not so far recorded anywhere between Annam and Lower
Burma and between Lower Burma and the southern most part of
Peninsular India. Such a discontinuous distribution is not uncommon
among different species. Our recent collections from the Rampa and
the Gudem Agency tracts of the Andhra region reveal the occurrence
of a few Himalayan, Burmese and Andaman plants in such far distant
hills of the Eastern Ghats. The peculiar distribution of Paragrewia
may be well explained by-the collection of a few more species of this
genus by a detailed exploration of the intervening regions between
India and Burma and Burma and Annam.
SUMMARY
The occurrence of an Annam species, Paragrewia poilanei Gagnep.
in Salween (Burma) and in Tinnevelly (South India) has been reported
with a detailed description.
£ <x) DGEMEN
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writer wishes to express his sincere thanks to Dr. K. Biswas,
Superintendent, Indian Botanic Garden, and Sri V. Narayanaswami,
retired Systematic Assistant, Calcutta. Herbarium, for their helpful
suggestions and encouragement,
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe.
PARAGREWIA POILANEL Gagnepain.
Fig. 1. Shoot with flowers. x4
Flower bud. x3
An open flower showing sepals and stamens, x4
Sepal. x6
Petal. x10
Stamens and staminodes (a). x8
Gynoecium with glands on the thalamus below the ovary.
T.S. of ovary. x10
L.S. of ovary. ‘x10
° e e . . .
CONT OD Ch ® Co bo
=
x6
PARAGREWIA GAGNEP. IN INDIA AND BURMA 673
[In 1945, according to the author of this paper, Gagnepain published
the new genus Puragrewia but without giving a Latin description of
the genus; this procedure makes Gagnepain’s publication invalid in the
sense of the Code of Botanical Nomenclature, art. 44. This article
enjoins that ‘on and from 1 Jan. 1935, names of new taxa of recent
plants, the bacteria excepted, are considered as validly published only
when they are accompanied by a Latin diagnosis’. In consequence,
the generic name Paragrewia cannot be attributed to Gagnepain, but
must be attributed either to ‘Seshagiri Rao’ or to ‘Gagnepain ex Sesha-
giri Rao’ and the date of valid publication is only that in which the Latin
diagnosis was supplied, that is to say, the date of publication of Seshagiri
Rao’s paper in the Journal. And if the genus is not validly published
the same may be said about the species of Paragrewia poilanei, which
therefore should be credited to the same author or authors who validated
the publication of the genus, that is to say Seshagiri Rao or Gagnepain
ex Seshagiri Rao.—EDs. | !
A CONTRIBUTION “LO” THE BIOLOGY. > OH VEE see wals
SWIMMING CRAB, NEPTUNUS PHLAGICUS (LINNAEUS);
WITH A NOTE ON THE ZOBKA OF THALAMITA CRENATA
LATREILLE*
BY
R. RAGHU PRASAD AND P. R. S. TAmpt,
(Central Marine Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam Camp.)
(With a plate and fifty-eight figures)
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION ; wae 3th ee aa S00 Lty7/ 4)
MATERIAL AND Mutions oe se sae es 559 (BD
HaBITSs AND HABITAT ... te. ao aoe it See OMD
BREEDING HABITS AND SEASON Biss a Sb Aas sn OMG
SizE AT MATURITY AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM ... rn aa Len Una
Sex Ratio Se aH see ee a ... OFY
PARASITIZATION 5 se a Sie ae ... O79
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND LarRvaL HIsToRY 500 Bic ... 679
Eggs 500 ass 506 500 ae ... 679
Pre-zoea ae ane on oe abe 500 (ell
First zoea a a *, oe SA 1 Ook
Second zoea Are Loe a “a Ga ... 682
Third zoea ap A nee an na ... 653
Megalopa aoe 0c Shc soe: ate .. OS+
First post-larval instar O00 560 500 sie ... 686
Second post-laryval instar... 565 500 Oc ... 686
GENERAL JEMARKS : a act ae: OO
NOTE ON THE ZOEA OF Thalamite erate Ae ws fe Soo (atshd
Pre-zoea aC 500 000 eee aes ... 688
First zoea oe foe wae sae res ... 688
SUMMARY A eA os 5 pee 500 ... 683
IREFERENCES és bee sae ats ae soo (Hels)
INTRODUCTION
Considerable work has been done on the biology and fisheries of
crabs especially the eae crab of the Pacific coast of North America,
Cancer magister.2 Hay (1905), Churchill (1918, 1941 and. 1942),
Hopkins (1943 and 1944) and Sandoz and Hopkins (1944) have
contributed to the life history of the Portunid crab, Callinectes sapidus.
Lebour (1928) has given a detailed account of the larvae of Portunids
of the Plymouth area.
The authors have, in a previous report (1951), made reference to
the fishery and fishing methods for Neptunus pelagicus the most
om —-—
* Published with the permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central Marine
Visheries Research Station, Mandapam Camp, South India.
* For a list of references on Cancer magister refer Clever (1949).
ourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Piate E
‘Photo 5
Photo 1.
carapace).
Photo 2. A female of the same species.
Photo 3. A female N. pelagicus.
Photos 4
Photo 6,
A female Neptunus pelagicus showing the ‘berry’ (130 mm. width of
150 mm. width of carapace.
Width of carapace, 140 mm.
and 5. Female crabs during the process of shedding the eggs.
A juvenile 8.5 mm, during the process of moulting.
BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING CRAB 875
common Portunid crab occurring near Mandapam. Little is known
about the biology of this species and except for brief reports by Stead
(1898) on the genus Neptunus and Delsman and De Man (1925) on
the ‘Radjungans’ of the Bay of Batavia there is no detailed account
on its development, growth and breeding. The latter have described
three stages of zoeae and the megalopa. Their assumption that the
various zoeae and the megalopa they ~were describing, belong to
N. pelagicus was based only on circumstantial evidence because no
other species of crab occurred in large numbers in the area of study.
All the larvae, except the ones they dissected cut from the eggs,
were obtained from plankton. Thomson (1951) has dealt with the
catch composition of N. pelagicus in the Moreton Bay, Australia.
Although crab fishery is not a major industry in India, it is a
source of income to many fishermen of this area particularly during
the off-season. At the present rate of exploitation the possibility
of depleting the stock may not happen in the immediate future. But
in course of time the crab fishery, like any other fishery of our
country, has possibilities of expansion. When such expansion takes
place, regulatory measures will have to be enforced to safeguard the
fishery as is done in other countries where crab industry has assumed
a major importance. The existing knowledge of the life history of
N. pelagicus is fragmentary and not entirely reliable. Detailed
investigations were therefore undertaken on this species with a view
to collecting as much data as possible to complete a fairly satisfactory
picture of its life history.
The authors wish to record here their appreciation of the excellent
co-operation they received from the fishermen and the crab vendors,
without whose help it would not have been possible to complete this
piece of work.
| MATERIAL AND Mpruops
The habits of the crabs are difficult of direct observation as they
are found in fairly deep waters, and as such most of the details,
recorded here were observed under aquarium conditions.
Berried crabs were collected from the commercial catches as soon
as the nets were hauled out of the water. They were brought to the
laboratory in earthenware containers with sea water and released
in large glass aquaria with about three inches of sand at the bottom
and nearly six inches of water. The crabs seldom survived for more
than three or four days in tanks without sand or sufficient water
to cover them completely. The berried crabs were never found to
feed in the aquaria although plenty of food in the form of pieces
of fish, prawns ete., was provided. Jor most of the time they remained
fully buried in the sand with their eyes and antennae alone projecting.
Zoea larvae and megalopae obtained from plankton were kept in
small bowls. Because of the cannibalistic tendencies of the megalopae
it was found necessary to keep only one in a bowl at a time. Although
several efforts were made to rear the zoeae through the different
stages, only two attempts proved successful. The zoeae were fed
with various planktonic larvae and the megalopae with small ries of
muscles of prawns, fish and molluscs.
10
676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL PIEIST? SOCIETY, “Vol. 51
Habits AND HAprtat
_ Neptunus pelagicus occur in large numbers near Mandapaim at
depths up to about three fathoms and prefer a sandy or sand and
mud bottom. ‘They are active and swim sideways with the aid of
the last pai of flattened swimming legs as MacGinitie (1949) has
described in the case of Portunus xantusi: “As they swim sideways
they streamline themselves by sticking one “‘elbow’’ of the lavge claw
ahead and leaving the legs of the opposite side straight out from the
body.” After leaving the planktonic life the post-larval crabs settle
down at the bottom. Just like many other species of crabs these
also ave scavengers and cannibals. In the aquarium these crabs have
been observed to be feeding voraciously on pieces of clam meat, dead
prawns and small fish. ‘
There are evidences to show that individuals tend to segregate
according to size and sex. ‘he larger ones are generally found in
deeper water, whereas the smaller ones inhabit shallower areas.
This segregation according to size is clearly seen from the landings
of two types of nets operated at different depths. The size frequency:
distribution of crabs caught by the ‘nandu valai’! is given in Figure 1
which shows that the majority of crabs landed are above 90 mm.
and those below 80 mim. have not been caught. This net is usually
laid at depths varying from one to one and a half fathoms, whereas
the ‘konda valai’? which is generally operated from a depth of about
three feet catches crabs which invariably neyer exceed 80 mm. in
carapace width, The size frequencies of crabs caught by the ‘konda
valai’ are shown in Figure 2. Segregation according to sex is observed
only among the larger individuals. — -
The crabs are able to withstand considerable variations in tempera-
ture and salinity. This is seen from the fact that they are found in
fair numbers in the shallow lagoons near the Palk Bay during February
when the temperature in the lagoon may go up as far as 85°C and the
salinity as high as 483 °/,, . Howev el, duri ing March a marked decline
in their numbers was observed in brs same area and several dead
ones were also noticed, perhaps, due to the very high temperature
(40°C) and salinity (67.86°/,.). Similarly they are also found in large
numbers in localities where the salinity is very low. Kemp (i915)
has observed that N. pelagicus: ‘ . . iS common in the Chilka Lake,
both in the outer channel and in the main area; .... It is, apparent-
ly, unaffected by alterations in salinity and is equally abundant at.
all seasons of the year.
BREEDING HApits aND SEASON
Stead (1898) has remarked that the spawning season of Neptunus
in Australian waters is about August to November, whereas accord-
ing to Thomson (1951) the egg bearing season is rom September to
April. Delsman and De Man (1925). have not observed any such
For details regarding ‘nandu valai’ refer Prasad and Tampi (1951).
A small drag net which is used in shallow waters to catch prawns and small fish.
For details refer ‘Pr eliminary en to Indian fish, fisheries, methods of fishing and
curing’. Government of India, Agricultural Marketing Series No. 24, 1941.
i
2
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
20
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/ 87 97 Ue 10% 127 137 147 UOT 167 177
CARAPACE WIDTH, mn.
Neptunus pelagicus
Fig. 1, Size frequencies of male and female crabs landed at Vedalai.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe.
FREQUENCY
CARAPACE WIDTH, mm.
Neptunus pelagicus
Fig. 2. Size frequency distribution of crabs caught in the ‘konda valai’.
Sexes combined.
BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING CRAB 677
detinite breeding period for N. pelagicus in Batavia and remark that
berried crabs occur throughout the year. Although berried individuals
ave found throughout the year, observations made locally on the
commercial! landings as well as occurrence of larval forms in the
plankton tend to poimt to the fact that the maximum breeding
activity is during September to March.
’ Juveniles ranging from 15 to 85 mm. in carapace width were
common during November to December and those from 35 to 60 mm.
were obtained during February from the Palk Bay lagoons. Results
of rearing experiments conducted in the laboratory showed that it
took approximately one month for a megalopa to reach 8.5 mm. in
carapace width after four successive moults and under the same condi-
tions a juvenile 15 mm. attained a size of 23 mm., after two moults,
during the course of three weeks: From these it may be safe to assume
that the juveniles obtained from the lagoons during November-
December and February belong to the first year class which perhaps
were spawned during September-October. :
Delsman and De Man (1925) have given an account of the copula-
tion in this species... The eggs are attached to the long endopoditic
setae of the abdominal appendages of the female. The mode of
attachment of the eggs is not clearly understood although it was
believed by the earlier workers that a sticky substance is secreted
around the eggs as they are shed. Another theory has been the one
put forward by Williamson (as given by Pearson, 1908) who suggested
that the endopoditic seta penetrates the chorion of the eggs in two
places and thus the egg becomes skewered on the seta. The
piercing of the chorion liberates an adhesive perivitelline fluid, which
is believed to assist in making the attachment more permanent. The
chorion eventually becomes drawn out at the point of attachment
as a result of which the egg appears to be attached to the seta by a
stalk. But in the opinion of the present authors the mode of sttach-
iment of the eggs in N. pelagicus seems to be similar to the one
described by Yonge (1937) in the lobster, Homarus vulgaris. He
states: ‘The eggs are fastened to the nonplumose setae, either directly
or by way of other eggs so attached, in all cases by means of twisted
strands of a transparent cement .. .. which constitute the ““funiculus”
of many authors. This substance also extends around each egg,
forming the outer membrane which adheres closely to the surface
of the egg... .’ The outer membrane is, according to him, cuticular
in nature, whereas the inner one is chitinous. He observed similar
membranes in the eggs of Cancer pagurus and Carcinus maenas. The
eges of the species under discussion also show the two membranes,
the inner and the outer corresponding to the two membranes described
by Yonge.
The female crab carries the eggs (Photo 1) until they complete
their development and the larvae hatch. Crabs in “berry” often re-
main buried in the sand and come out only occasionally perhaps for
the aeration of the eggs.
Size av Maturity AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
The smallest crab, So far observed, bearing eggs was 106 mm.
and the largest 163 mm. in carapace width. According to Thomson
678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
(1951) the smallest crab bearing eggs was 4.2 inches and the largest
7.1 inches. There is very good agreement in size between the smallest
berried crab recorded by Thomson in Australian waters and that
recorded by the authors although the largest observed by him is
much bigger than the one recorded locally. Figure 3 shows the
percentage of ovigerous crabs at different size groups caught at Vedalai.
The maximum number was seen in the size range between 125 and
140 mm. in carapace width.
25
by
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102. 112 122.132 142 #2152 «162 +~«172
CARAPACE WIDIH, mm.
Neptunus pelagicus
Fig. 3. Percentage of berried crabs in the different size groups.
In addition to the direct observations made on the commercial
catches, evidences leading to the conclusion that females attain
maturity at a carapace width of approximately 108 mm. are forth-
coming from studies made on the relative growth!. The width of
* Full details of the study on the relative growth of parts in Neptunus pelagicus
will be published in course of time.
BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING CRAB 679
the sixth abdominal segment and the relative growth of the first
walking leg in females show abrupt changes at a carapace width of
about 108 mm. which may be attributed to the onset of maturity.
In the case of males no attempts were made to determine the size
at maturity based on the examination of the testes but evidences
obtained from the study of relative growth suggest that they attain
maturity at a slightly earlier stage. Changes in the relative growth
of the first walking leg and the chela were observed in the males at
a width of about 102 mm. It is possible that these changes are
indicative of the attainment of sexual maturity.
Males and females exhibit distinct sexual dimorphism. The
males are brilliantly coloured with the walking and swimming legs
having bright blue colour (hence the popular name ‘Blue crab’) while
the females are dull and as Delsman and De Man (1925) have remarked
the females do not deserve the name ‘Blue crab’. There are no
marked differences in the general shape of the carapace between the
males and fernales but the males have relatively longer chelipeds and
first walking legs (Photos 2 and 3). The males grow to a bigger
size than the females and the largest male recorded in this area is 178
mm. whereas the maximum size of females recorded for this area
is only 163 mm. .
SEx Ratio
There has always been a preponderance of males over females
and the average ratio is 2.4 males to each female. Thomson (1951)
has observed that in the Cleveland area the proportion of rales
to females may be as high as 4.3:1. The greater preponderance of
male crabs he attributes to swarming or schooling according to sex.
Amongst the juveniles (size ranging from 85 to 80 mm.) there is
apparently no marked difference in the sex ratio. From the few
samples of juveniles examined it may be said that the ratio of males
to females is 1.07:1. This may be due to the fact that there is no
segregation by sex within this group.
PARASITIZATION
The data collected from landings near Mandapam show that the
incidence of parasitization by the rhizocephalan parasite is low. A
little over 2 per cent of the crabs was seen infected but this percentage
includes only those crabs in which the parasite was visible externally.
George (1948) has remarked that out of the 519 specimens of Neptunus
pelagicus collected by him at Madras nearly 20 per cent were found
to be infected.
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND LARVAL History
Kegs. The freshly spawned eggs are bright yellow in colour.
The number of eggs in a ‘berry’ is found to vary considerably. A
female 157 mm. across the carapace was found to have approximately
191,500 eggs while another one 122 mm. in carapace width carried
ca. 455,000 eggs. There does not seem to be any definite number
680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
of eggs attached to each seta of the pleopod. Fieure 4 shows a few
eges attached to the seta. ‘The eges are spherical with a diameter
of 360 to 3875 micra, and are surrounded by two membranes, an
inner and an outer membrane. Both these membranes are trans-
parent and the yolk is visible as yellow granules with the surface
divided into large polygonal areas. No attempts were made at a
detailed study of the early embryonal development.
Externally certain changes in the eggs are visible as develop-
ment progresses. First the animal pole becomes transparent, then
the eye spots begin to appear as brownish patches. Gradually the
rudiments of the abdomen and cephalic and thoracic appendages are
formed (Figs. 5, 6 and 7). Along with these changes the eggs
eradually change their colour. From bright yellow they beconie light
brown and then greenish black in the advanced stages. As the embryo
srows xanthophores appear on either side of the cephalothorax and
abdomen. Just before the larvae are to be liberated the developing
zoea can be seen through the transparent egg membrane. At this
stage the eyes are black ‘and well dev eloped. The abdomen is curved
inwards in such a way that the telson covers the rostral end of the
head. It takes about ten days for this development to be completed.
All the berried crabs kept in the aquarium liberated the eggs in seven
or eight days.
When the embryonic development is complete and just when the
larvae are about to hatch the eggs are liberated from the pleopods
by a conscious effort on the part ‘of the female crab which carries the
eges. The crab, which mostly remains buried in the sand, comes
out and raises its whole body on all the walking legs (Photo 4). The
abdomen is fully stretched and the pleopods bearing the eggs are
vigorously jerked. As a result of this the groups of eggs round each
seta get themselves loosened from the bunch and thereby the
compactness of the ‘berry’ is lost. A few of the eggs are shed during
this process but most of them are combed out from the endopoditic
setae usually with the help of the stiff hairs along the margin of the
terminal segment of the second and third pairs of walking legs (Photo
5). In Cancer pagurus Pearson (1908) has observed that the last
walking legs are used for the purpose of detaching the larvae from
the pleopods. All the eggs are shed in about two hours’ time as was
observed in a specimen kept in the aquarium. It is a common belief
among the local fishermen that the females spawn only once in thew
life-time and after liberating the eggs they do not live long. The
specimens on which the above observations were made died soon
after liberating the eggs on the eighth or ninth day of their capture.
Some of the eges hatch while they are being detached from the
endopodites of the abdomen but the majority of them sink to the
bottom where the egg membranes burst and the larvae emerge. It _
has been observed in all cases that the egg-capsules break mto two
equal halves along a plane perpendicular to the plane of attachment.
In the following pages an attempt is made to give an accurate
and detailed description of all features which may be of importance
in separating the larvae from those of the different species of Portunids
occurring in this area.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
17
Neptunus pelagicus
Fig. 4. A group of eggs attached to the seta of the pleopod.
» 90, 6 and 7. Three stages in the development of the egg.
», 8. Pre-zoea.
,, 9. A spine showing the telescopic nature.
», 10. First zoea.
,, 11. First antenna
», 42. Second antenna
,, 18. Mandible .
OO, aE ECA \ Rhee, stands for figures
», 15. Second maxilla | ‘
5, 16. First maxilliped |
», 17. Second mazilliped /
», 18. Telson
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
(nus Sr'0
———
—_- =
———_
Neptunus pelagicus
. Second zoea Fig. 2&. Thoracic appendages
. First antenna ,, 26. Abdomen Fig. 31. Mandible
. Second antenna »5 2¢. Lelson ,, o2. First maxilla
. Mandible ,, 28. Third zoea ,, 33. Second maxilla
. First maxilla ,, 29. First antenna », o4. Thoracic
. Second maxilla 5, 30. Second antenna appendages
», 30. Megalopa
. Sternal plate of the last thoracic segment showing the spine
. First antenna ,, 41. Second maxilla ,5 45. Abdomen
. Second antenna ,, 42. First maxilliped 5, 46. A single pleopod
. Mandible 5, 43. Second maxilliped
First maxilla 5, 44. Third maxilliped
Scale line B is for figures 20 to 25
Scale line C stands for figures 29 to 33.
Scale line D stands for figures 37 to 44.
BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING CRAB 681
Prezoea (Hig. 8). The newly hatched larva. may be
distinguished as the pre-zoea. It is enclosed in an extremely thin
embryonic cuticle and has a soft body. This larva remains for some-
time at the bottom without much active movement except for
occasional jerks presumably to cast off the embryonic cuticle. At
this stage the front spine of the carapace is bent inwards and almost
hidden between the pair of large eyes while the posterior spine remains
flexed forwards over the carapace. Both these spines as well as the
two forks of the telson have a telescopic construction (Fig. 9). The
appendages, although they are free from the body still remain enclosed
in sheaths with the terminal setae retracted. The spiniform process
of the antenna is short. After the embryonic cuticle is shed the
spines of the carapace and the telson get themselves extended
presumably due to pressure exerted by the larva and they attain their
full length. The larva assumes all the characters of the first free
swimming zoea in the course of about two hows. Then the larva
moves about actively at the surface. This stage is referred to as the
first ZOCK. |
WRe gh Oo a (ine 10). The larvae hatched in the laboratory
did not survive for more than twenty hours. Corresponding stages
were observed in the plankton taken within one and a half miles
from the shore of the Gulf of Manaar and the Palk Bay during
September to March. In general appearance this zoea resembles
that of many of the Portunids and measures about 1.3 mm. between
the tips of the two spines and including the telson the larva is 1.25 mm.
in length. The posterior spine of the carapace varies slightly in
length Jand is about 0.5 mm. long terminating in a curved tip while
the rostral spine is 0.8 mm. in length and is almost straight and
pointed. There is one pair of short lateral ee on the carapace.
First antenna (Fig. 11). It is short and bears three aesthetes at
its tip.
~ Second antenna (Big. 12) consists of a well developed spinitorm
process which is nearly as long as the rostral spine and a small
exopodite bearing pi short setae.
Mandible (Fie. 1 3) is a single hard chitinous piece with four or
five blunt teeth at its cutting edge.
First maxilla (Fig> 14). There is no epipodital hair. The proto-
podite has two lobes, the proximal! or coxopodite bears four setae and
the basipodite has five setose spines. The endopodite is two seg-
mented and there are five setae on the terminal segment which is
longer than the proximal joint.
Second mazxilla (Fig. 15) has six setae on the coxopodite arranged
in three and three, eight on the basipodite and six on the endopodite.
The scaphognathite is flat and narrow with five plumose setae on
its margin.
First manxilliped (Fig. 16). The basipodite bears five setae. There
are four long terminal setae or “swimming hairs’ on the exopodite.
The endopodite is five jointed and the segments are of unequal length.
Two setae are present on the proximal segment as well as the second
segment which is the longest. The third segment has no seta while
“the fourth bears two setae and of the five on the last segment three
are Jong and terminal.
682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL” HIST SOCIEL Y,” Vol. vl
Second mazxilliped (Fig. 17) has two setae on the basipodite. ‘The
exopodite bears four long ‘swimming hairs’. The endopodite which
is short and two jointed bears four terminal setae on the basal
segment.
Third mazxilliped is not formed.
Abdomen shows only five segments, the last one being fused with
the telson. All the abdominal segments have a pair of small hairs
on the dorsal side. There is a pair of short lateral spines or hooks
on the second and third segments. The third, fourth and fifth seg-
ments possess a pair of long and downwardly pointed spines from
the postero-lateral border. Chromatophores are present on the third
to fifth abdominal segments. The pleopods have not been developed
yet.
| Telson (Hig. 18) is deeply forked with three pairs of setose spines.
between the forks and two pairs of short spines on the dorsal see
of each of the fork as shown in the figure.
Second zoea (Fig. 19). Striking differences from the pre-
vious stage are the increase in the size of the larva and the appearance
of the rudiments of the thoracic and abdominal appendages. The
zoea measures about 8 mm. from spine to spine and is 8.25 mm.
in length. The rostral spine is nearly 1 mm. and the posterior one
is longer (1.2 mm.) with a downwardly curved tip.
First antenna (Fig. 20) has six aesthetes.
Second antenna (Fig. 21). The spiniform process is much shorter
than the rostral spine. The flagellum or the endopodite has made
its appearance and is unjointed.
Mandible (Fig. 22). The cutting edge shows a number of irregular
teeth and the mandible is provided with well developed muscular
tendons attached to its base.
First maxilla (Fig. 23) has two epipodital hairs of which one is
plumose. ‘The coxopodite bears eight or nine setae and the basipodite
has eight setae. The endopodite is two jointed lke that of the previous
stage and has six terminal setae.
Second maxilla (Fig. 24) resembles in general shape that of the
first zoea with two groups of three setae each on the coxopodite,
two groups of five and six setae on the basipodite and six on the
endopodite. ‘The scaphognathite is broader with seventeen plumose
setae on its margin.
First and second maxillipeds retain their shape and swimming
function.
Third maaxilliped also has appeared as a rudiment with two lobes
(Fig. 25: 387m).
Thoracic appendages. Judiments of these show the large cheliped
and the four walking legs (Fig. 25). However, the segmentation of
these appendages is not very clear.
Abdomen. All the six abdominal segments are distinct. The
first segment has three dorsal hairs and does not show the pleopods.
Segments two to five possess a pair of prominent protuberances on
the ventral side which are the rudiments of the pleopods. The sixth
segment also shows the developing pleopods but they are much
smaller than the rest. Short lateral spines are present on the second
BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING CRAB | 683°
and third segments and the spines on the postero-lateral border of
segments three, four and five have become longer (ig. 26).
Telson has the same shape as that of the first zoea but it shows
an additional pair of small spines in the middle of the fork (Fig. 27).
The transition from the first to the second zoea has not been
observed in the laboratory. But from a series of collections and
comparison with the stages described by Delsman and De Man (1925)
it may safely be assumed that there is no intermediate stage between
the first zoea described above and the second zoea here described.
It has been possible to get the second zoea metamorphosed in
the laboratory into the third zoea stage. A single zoea of the second
stage obtained from plankton on January 16, 1952 moulted into the
next stage on January 18.
Third zoea (Fig. 28). It measures 5 mm. from end to end of
the spines and is 4 mm. in length and is thus much longer than the
previous stage. The rostral spine is 1.5 mm. and the posterior spine
is 2 mm. long. There are a few very small spines at the postero-
lateral margin of the carapace. ‘The thoracic and abdominal appen-
dages are better developed. Only slight changes are observed in
the cephalic appendages. |
First antenna (Fig. 29) is two jointed. The terminal segment has
three groups of long aesthetes. The basal segment is enlarged and
has a short flagellum.
Second antenna (Fig. 30) retains the long spiniform process which
is only half as long as the rostral spine. The flagellum or the
endopodite shows two indistinct segments while the exopodite is short
and unsegmented with two terminal setae.
Mandible (Fig. 31) has grown stouter and has irregular teeth.
First mazxilla (Fig. 82) has only one plumose seta on the epipodite.
The coxopodite is smaller than the basipodite, the former with eight
setae and the latter has twelve setae of which only six are spinous.
On the small basal segment of the two jointed endopodite there is a
single seta and the terminal segment carries five long setae.
Second maxilla (Fig. 33) has seven setae on the coxopodite, tem
on the basipodite and six on the endopodite. The scaphognathite
is broad and carries twenty-eight plumose setae.
First and second maaillipeds are the same as in the previous stage.
Third mazilliped. Just in front of the cheliped the third maxilliped
can be seen still remaining as a rudiment (Fig. 34: 3m).
Thoracic appendages are distinctly segmented (Fig. 34).
Abdomen. The lateral spines on the second and third abdominal
segments and also the long postero-lateral spines on segments three
to five are present. On the dorsal side of the first segment there
are three hairs and the other segments have a pair of short dorsal
hairs. The pleopods, although rudimentary, show the two jointed
nature with a short basal segment and a longer distal one. They
are present in segments two to six, the last one being smaller than
the others.
The third zoea directly metamorphosed into the megalopa. A
zoea obtained on January 11, 1952 metamorphosed in the laboratory
into a megalopa on the next day.
‘O84. JOURNAL VBOMBAY AN A TuOR GATE SIS leans ©}GILD TEN eam colt
Megalopa (Fig. 35) retains the rostral spine. The size of the
megalopa may vary and from the tip of the spine to the posterior
border of the carapace it measures usually 2 mm. in length and 1 mm.
ie width across vee broadest part. Megalopae ranging in size from
1.9x0.9 mm, to 2.25x1.25 mm. have been collected from plankton.
It often swims about near the surface with the aid of the setose
pleopods. The chelipeds and the pereiopods are also fully formed
and the latter are used for walking when the megalopa sinks io the
bottom. :
The carapace has one or sometimes two large median chromato-
phores, one branching chromatophore on each optic peduncle and
a pair of smaller ones on the dorsal side of the first abdomimal
segment. The third and fifth segments of the pereiopods also have
small chromatophores. Like many of the Portunid megalopae this
too has two long backwardly pointed spines from the sternal plate
of the last thoracic segment (Fig. 36). Delsman and De Man (1925)
have said that the spines originate from the basal joint of the last
pair of pereiopods. Looking at these spines from the dorsal side
one may get the impression that these originate from the last seginent
of the walking legs but an examination from the ventral side reveals
clearly that these are only prolongations of the sternal plate of the
last thoracic segment.
First antenna (Fig. 37) has eight seéments on the main branch of
which the basal one is the largest. The last four segments are
relatively smaller and they bear bunches of aesthetes. There is a
short flagellum with two terminal aesthetes on the fourth segment.
Second antenna (Fig. 38) consists of a broad basal segment and a
long eleven jointed endopodite. The spiniform process of the
sxopodite of the zoea has completely disappeared.
Mandible (Fig. 39) has a short three jointed palp Watsla its terminal
segment bordered by hairy setae.
First maxilla (Fig. 40) is a small piece with three andy
Second maailla (Fig. 41) has the scaphognathite broadened consi-
derably than that of the zoea. Its marginal plumose setae have
been replaced by numerous short hairs. T The coxo- and basi- podites
have been reduced in size with a few terminal setae. The endopodite
is narrow and devoid of any setae.
First mazilliped (Fig. 42). The protopodite is produced inwards
into a bilobed masticatory process armed with stiff setae. The
endopodite is a single flat piece with four marginal setae near the
tip. ‘The exopodite is two jointed, the proximal one is long and
has three setae while the distal segment is bent at right angles to the
first segment and bears three long terminal setae. A lone epipedite
bearing a few thread-like setae arises irom the coxopodite.
Second maxiliped (Fig. 45). Protopoditic segments are smiail.
The coxopodite bears a short eoivedite with a single seta, and a
gill is also present. Endopodite has five segments the distal three _
of which are short and bent at right angles to the first two segments.
All of them bear a number of setae. The exopodite is two jointed
as that of the first manilliped with four terminal setae on the distal
‘segment.
Third mazxilliped (Fig. 44). Protopoditic segments are reduced
-as in the second maxilliped. The endopodite is five jointed, the first
BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING CRAB 685
and second segments are flattened and bear a number of setae along
the inner margin. The last three segments are bent like the
corresponding segments of the second maxilliped and have many setae.
Exopodite is two jointed, the second with a few terminal setae. An
epipodite and a gill are also present.
Cheliped. In general structure it resembles that of the adult
except that the segment next to the chela (carpopodite) has a small
recurved spine at its innner border.
Pereiopods. The terminal segments of the last pair of legs are
slightly flattened and have a number of long hairs. The other
pereiopods almost resemble those of the crab.
Abdomen (Fig. 45).. There are six segments and the telson. The
first segment is relatively shorter than the rest and has no pleopods.
The postero-lateral spines on the pleon-segments three and four have
disappeared while those on the fifth segment persist. Seements two
to six bear a pai of pleopods. Each pleopod (Fig.—46) consists of a
protopodite, a flat exopoditic segment fringed with usually twenty
long plumose setae and a short endopodite.
Telson is almost semicircular and entire without spines or setae.
The megalopa moults directly into the first post-larval instar
with a flexed abdomen and a broad carapace with two lateral spines.
TABLE I
Details of megalopae reared in the laboratory
i
Date of | Date of moult and size (mm.)
capture and |
size of mega-
lopa (mm.) | I instar
s [ |
I instar | Ill instar IV instar | V instar
|
- ~ - —_— | ~ —
| : :
28-6-1951 | 29-6-1951 | §-7-1951 12-7-1951 | 19-7-1951 | 28-7-1951
1510 x 2:00 | 2°50 x 2:25 | 4:75 x 3:25 6:00 x 4:50 | 7-00 x 5-00 | 8°50 x 6:00
| |
ees
18-7-1951 | 19-7-1951 | 29-7-1951 |
115 x 200 3:00 x 2-25 500 x 3:50
EEE
|e ee ee OO ©? oO
iPS | TOISCEe | Oates |
|
1:10 x 2:00 | 2:50 210 360x250) ~— |
18-1-1952 19=1-1952 | 25-1-1952 2
1:10 x 2:00 | 2:75 x 2°10 | 4:00 x 2°75
a ee ee —
_—_—— OO e. rs re | ee ee ee
a
— — —
| |
13=1=1952)- || 20=121952) |) 27=1-1952 ||
Note.—Of the measurements given, the first one refers to the width of carapace
and the second the length inclusive of the rostral spine.
Several megalopae were obtained from plankton collections both from
the Gulf of Manaar and the Palk Bay. Some of them moulted during
the course of a few hours while most of them took about twenty-four
hours to metamorphose. A few remained as megalopae for three
days before metamorphosing into the first post-larval instar. A
megalopa which was reared from a zoea obtained on January 11, 1952,
686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
metamorphosed in the laboratory on the sixth day after becoming the
megalopa. ‘The moulting is a quick process and is usually completed
in about fifteen minutes as observed in the laboratory. The splitting
occurs along the posterior border of the carapace and the entire body
is withdrawn from the shell which is cast off and the post-larval
instar moves away from it.
Although several attempts were made in rearing these in the
laboratory only a few were successful. Table 1 shows the details of
megalopae which were successfully reared in the laboratory at least
through two successive moults.
First PostlarvalInstar (Fig. 47). The surface of the
carapace is covered with pigment spots so as to give a dull grey colour
which often matches well with the colour of the substratum and
_ perhaps protects the young crab from its enemies. ‘The rostral spine
of the megalopa disappears during this metamorphosis. The carapace
becomes wider and develops the marginal spines. ‘Those reared in
the laboratory measured 2.5 to 3.0 mm. in width and 2.1 to 2.25 mm. in
length. It will be seen from the figure that the shape of the carapace
at this stage is very much different from the fully grown crab. The
proportion of length/width is approximately 1.11 in the first instar.
The margin of the carapace between the eyes is nearly entire without
teeth. The eyes are now lodged within shallow sockets. The large
branching chromatophore on the eye-stalk still persists.
The appendages resemble very much those of the adult. The
segments of the first antenna have become shorter, the flagellum of
the fourth joint is reduced retaining the bunches of terminal aesthetes.
The chela shows slight longitudinal ridges and a few hairs on it.
Hairs have also developed particularly on_the penultimate and last
segment. The last pair of legs have become the swimming legs with
flat paddle-like terminal segments as in the adult. ‘The two back-
wardly directed spines of the last pair of sternal plates have dis-
appeared completely. The abdomen is short with seven segments
and fully flexed under the cephalothorax. The first and last segments
do not possess any appendages. The flat pleopods of the megalopa
which were used for swimming are replaced by slender appendages.
The young crab remains at the bottom and seldom comes up to the
surface.
Second Post-larvalInstar (Fig. 48). Under laboratory
conditions it has been observed that the time taken for the first instar
to moult into the second instar may vary from six to ten days. Con-
siderable variation in the size at this stage has been observed in those
reared in the laboratory (Table 1). The length/width proportion
ranges from 0.65 to 0.70 and this proportion approximates more that
of the adult than the first instar. The teeth on the anterior margin
of the carapace between the eyes present in the adult are indicated
by blunt projections. The large chromatophores on the eye stalk has
broken up into small stellate ones. Small pigment spots are present
uniformly all over the carapace and chelipeds. The young ones have
now practically assumed most of the characters of the adult except
for the colour and the shape of the carapace which they attain only
after a series of successive moults. Photo 6 shows a juvenile 8.5 mm.
in carapace width during the process of moulting.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. oe eS
Neptunus pelagicus
Fig. 47. First post-larval instar
Neptunus pelagicus
Fig. 48. Second post-larval instar
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
———
025mm
0.Jmm
nt
0.125 mim
Thalamita crenata
. Pre-zoea
. First zoea
. First antenna
. Second antenna
> RUSHES Scale line E is for figures
. First maxilla )
; ( 53 to 56.
. Second maxilla
. First maxilliped
. Second maxilliped
. Telson
BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING CRAB 687
GENERAL REMARKS
Along with the study of the biology of N. pelagicus the authors
maintained records of the size frequency of crabs landed at Vedalai
for 1950 and 1952 in order to ascertain the relative proportion of
different sizes caught. During 1950 the majority of the males landed
varied from 120 to 148 mm., whereas in 1952 the males landed were
slightly larger, 125 to 149 mm. As for the females in 1950 as well
as 1952 the landings included apparently two age groups. In both the
years the modes fall at almost the same size groups (Hig. 1). Studies
on the biology have indicated that the males attain maturity when
they are about 102 mm. and the females 106 to 108 mm. Although
the females mature at 106-108 mm. majority of the ovigerous famales
caught are between 115 to 159 mm. (Fig. 3). This may mean that
many of the females marketed now (Fig. 1) would not have bad a
chance to mate before they are captured. ‘The position regarding the
males is different. Majority of the males now landed are sufficiently
erown up to be marketed.
It may be pointed out that if the industry expands the first step
towards legislation will have to be the protection of berried crabs
and then extend that to all females. Subsequently other legislative
measures such as size limit on males and closed season et cetera may
be enforced if found necessary. In this connection it may be men-
tioned that a certain amount of damage to the juveniles is caused by
the use of “konda valai’. As already mentioned elsewhere in this
report very small crabs, sometimes in large numbers, are caught in
the ‘konda valai’. ‘They are too small to be used for food and so the
fishermen leave them on the beach where they die. This is a practice
which should be discouraged. It is also necessary to take. into
consideration the use of bottom nets such as ‘nandu valai’. This
method, though efficient in catching crabs does not seem to be good
_ because of the excessive handling of the crabs and consequent injury
to those small ones and the females which are to be put back into
the sea. Further detailed investigations on the population strength,
intensity of fishing, rate of growth, rate of recruitment and other
allied problems will have to be carried out at different centres before
finally framing legislative measures.
Note on THE ZoKA or Thalamita crenata
While examining the plankton for the zoea of N. pelagicus, the
authors encountered several zoeae closely resembling those of
N. pelagicus. Attempts were made to ascertain the identity of these
zoeae. On January 18, 1952 a specimen of Thalamita crenata with
yellowish brown eggs was obtained. It was kept in the aquarium and
the eges hatched on the 24th. These zoeae turned out to be the
ones referred to above. As these are very much like the zoeae ot
N. pelagicus it was deemed necessary to add a brief note pointing out
the salient features.
The freshly spawned eggs are yellowish brown in colour and
measure on an average 320 micra in diameter. As development
progresses the ‘berry’ changes its colour from yellowish brown to
brownish black.
‘
G88 JOURNALS BOMBAY NATO TAI EIS 5 SO) Cie ie ao eam
Pre-zoea (Fig. 49). The eggs hatch out as the pre-zoeae. All
the spines are telescopic but are shorter than those of the corresponding
stage of N. pelagicus. The thoracic appendages have their setae ve-
ivacted and the forks of the telson are not fully extended. The
embryonic cuticle is cast off by the pre-zoea in a short time and it
develops gradually the characters of the fully developed first zoea.
First zoea (Fig. 50). The rostral spine is 0.283 mm. and the
posterior spine, which has a curved tip, is 0.275 mm. in length.
First antenna (Fig. 51) is single joimted and bears three terminal
aesthetes. é
Second antenna (Hig. 52). The spiniform process which is about
the length of the rostral spine has fewer spines than in the correspond-
ing zoea stage of N. pelagicus. ‘The flagellum is absent at this stage.
Mandible (Hig. 53) is a short piece with irregular teeth.
First maxilla (Fig. 54). No epipedital hair. The coxopodite
bears six setose spines, whereas the basipodite has five of which one
is a simple spine. The endopodite is two jointed and the distal seg-
ment has six setae.
Second mawilla (ig. 55) has five and eight spinous setae on the |
coxopodite and basipodite respectively while the endopodite bears only
four setae. The scaphognathite has five plumose setae along its
margin.
First and second maaillipeds (Figs. 56 and 57) have the same
structure as those of the first zoea of N. pelagicus,
Abdomen has five segments and the telson. A pair of short dorsal
hairs are present on all the segments. Segments two and three have
a pair of short lateral spines. Postero-lateral spines are present on
segments three to five. .
Telson (Fig. 58) is deeply forked. In size and general shape it
is different from that of the zeea of N. pelagicus. As can be seen
from the Figures 18 and 58 the position of the lateral and dorsal spines
on the forks of the telson is different in the two species. The spines
between the forks are more ov less similar in both.
The zoea of Thalamita crenata thus shows striking similarities but
can be distinguished from that of N. pelagicus by the differences
mentioned above.
SUMMARY
1. The habits and habitat of N. pelagicus have been briefly
described. Segregation according to size has been noticed. There is
« greater proportion of males in the catches which may indicate
schooling according to sex. There is apparently no such segregation
by sex among the smaller ones.
2. Observations made suggest that the breeding season in the
species is protracted but the maximum breeding takes place during
September to March.
83. ‘The species exhibits marked sexual dimorphism. The females
attain maturity when they are 106 to 108 mm. across the carapace.
The males seem to mature at a smaller size.
)
BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE SWIMMING CRAB 689
4. The eges and the various developmental stages up to the second
post-larval instar have been described from larvae reared in the
laboratory as well as from those obtained in the plankton.
5. The larvae hatch as the pre-zoea and pass through three zoeal
stages before becoming the megalepa. The megalopa moults directly
into the first post-larval instar. At this stage they take to a bottom
lite. |
6. A brief description of the zoea of Thalamita crenata, another
common Portunid occurring in this area, has been given.
REFERENCES
_ Churchill, E. P, (1918): Life history of the blue crab. Bull. U.S. Bureau of
Fisheries 36: 95-128.
— — — (1941): The zoeal stages of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus. Anat.
Rec., 81 (Suppl.) : 37-38.
— — — (1942): The zoeal stages of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun~
Publ. No. 49, Chesapeake Biol. Lab.
Clever, F. C. (1949): Preliminary results of the coastal crab (Cancer magister)
investigations. Dept. of Fisheries, State of Washington, Biol. Rept. No. 49A:
47-82.
Delsman, H. C., & J. C. De Man, (1925): On the ‘Radjungans’ of the Bay
of Batavia. Jveubia, 6: 308-323.
George, A. I. (1943): Preliminary observations on the occurrence of a new
species of Rhizocephalan on Neptunus pelagicus from Madras coast. Proc. 380tly
Indian Sci. Congress, Pt. 3: 58.
Hay, W. P. (1905): The life history of the blue crab. Rept. U.S. Bur. Fish.
1904: 397-413.
Hopkins, S. H. (1943): The external morphology of the first and second zoeal.
stages of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Trais. Amer. Micros. Soc.,
62: 85-90.
— — — (1944): The external morphology of the third and fourth zoeal stages.
of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Biol. Bulh., 817: 145-152.
Kemp, S. (1915): Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Crustacea, Decapoda. Mem. Indian
Mus., 5: 199-325.
Lebour, M. V. (1928): The larval stages of the Plymouth Brachyura. Proc. Zool.
Soc., London, 2: 473-560.
MacGinitie, G. E., & Nettie MacGinitie, (1949): Natural history of marine
animals. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Pearson, J. (1908): Cancer. Liverpool Mar. Biol. Comm. Mem., 16: 1-217.
Prasad, R. R., & P. R. Sadasivan Tampi, (1951): An account of the fishery and
fishing methods for Neptunus pelagicus (Linn.) near Mandapam. jf Zool. Soc.,
India, 3: 335-339.
Sandoz, M., & S. H. Hopkins, (1944): Zoeal larvae of the blue crab, Callinectes.
sapidus Rathbun. Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 84: 132-133.
Stead, D. G. (1898): Contributions to knowledge of the Australian crustacean:
fauna. I. _ Observations on the genus Neptunus. Proc. Linn. Soc., New South Wales,
23: 746-758.
Thomson, J. M. (1951): Catch composition of the Sand crab, fishery in Moreton:
Bay. Australian Jour. Mar. and Freshwater Res., 2: 237-244.
Yonge, C. M. (1937): The nature and significance of the membranes surrounding:
the developing eggs of Homarus vulgaris and other Decapoda. Proc. Zool. Soe.,
London, 107, Ser. A: 499-517.
POPULATIONS OF MRS. GOULD’S SUNBIRD,
WITH COMMENTS ON
RANGES AND VARIATION AMONG RELATED SPECIES OF SUNBIRDS
BY
S. DILLON RIPLEY
Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird, Aethopyga gouldiae, is one of the most
beautiful of that brilliant tribe. The typical gouldiae of the Himalayas
has a metallic purplish-iridescent crown reaching back to the nape,
metallic patches on the posterior ear coverts, throat, and a patch high
up on the side of the jugulum. The back and wing coverts are rich
red, the rump yellow, while the upper tail coverts and the two central
tail feathers for more than half their length are a metallic bluish
color.
Below, typical gouldiae has a metallic iridescent throat and a
bright lemon-yellow breast which shades to dull olive-yellow on the
lower abdomen and under tail coverts. The sides of the breast are
flecked with occasional red feathers, while the center of the breast
may or may not, varying in different individuals, have a few flame-
red edgings to the yellow feathers.
Dabry’s Sunbird, Aethopyga gouldiae dabryi, described from
Tatsienlu in western Szechuan, was for long thought a separate species.
In coloration, however, the sole difference between dabryii and gouldiae
is in the underparts. The tendency to flame-red edgings on the breast
feathers seen in gouldiae has been intensified so that the whole breast
is flame-red with the feathers fading from flame-red to yellow half-
way toward the base, but individual feathers may be edged with
yellow. Yellow is more extensive in this form also, extending
throughout the lower surface, replacing the olive-yellow of the vent and
under tail coverts of goldiae.
A third color variant is the subspecies annamensis of southern Laos
and Annam in Indo-China. In this form the underparts are entirely
yellow, and the rump is yellowish-olive instead of yellow. These
seem, lacking any recognizable size variations, to be the only differences
and form an interesting example of strictly discontinuous variation of
alternative characters. These characters might be expressed as
follows :—
Y = yellow breast U = olive under tail coverts R = yellow rump
y = red breast u = yellow under tail coverts r = olive rump
Using a combination of these characters as symbols, the subspecies
can be listed as follows :—
Aethopyga gouldiae gouldiae = YUR
39 Ps dabrytt = ADU
3 * annaneensts = Yur
Thus two characters vary independently in each of these three
populations.
THE SOUTHERN ASSAM POPULATION
In a paper on the birds collected by my wife and myself in the
Naga Hills (1952), I discussed these little sunbirds in the eastern
POPULATIONS OF MRS. GOULD’S SUNBIRD 691
Naga Hills near the Burma border, and came to the conclusion that
one of the immature males we collected was a hybrid between gouldiae
and dabryit. I resurrected the name isolata Baker for what seemed
to be a hybrid population based on this specimen and on Stuart Baker’s
reference to red-chested birds seen in North Cachar (1926). In order
to re-examine this situation I have borrowed a total of 81 male specimens
of this species in addition to material in the Peabody Museum. 1
am most grateful to the authorities of the British Museum, the Harvard
Museum of Comparative Zoology, the American Museum of Natural
History and the U.S. National Museum for the loan of these specimens.
Besides my immature bird from the eastern Naga Hills, there are
two puzzling references in the literature to the distribution of the
species in southern Assam. One is Hume’s account in the Birds of
Manipur (1888). The author reports a sight record of the flame-red
breasted dabryu at the top of Hendang Peak in the eastern hills
near the Burma border. The description is accurate and detailed, and
I am inclined to credit it, although it is only a sight record. Nearby
at Aimole and Machi, Hume collected typical gouldiae. Unfortunately
he does not record the time of year.
The second reference is in Baker (op. cit.). In this he states that
he collected females of dabryi in north Cachar on the nest. Males
were seen but not collected which, vide Baker, had ‘far deeper flame-
red breasts than the ordinary g. gouldiae.’ Unfortunately the females
are in the Museum at Sophia and I have not examined them. How-
ever, on reconsideration of this statement of Baker’s (which inclined
me previously to believe that the dabryw phenotype might thus be
cropping up occasionally in this area), I am inclined to doubt his
record. Baker described isolata (1925), the population from southern
Assam south of the Brahmaputra River, as having a pure yellow
breast without the occasional red edgings found in typical gouldiae.
He relates that on Mount Victoria, the yellow-breasted isolate occurs
at 5,000 ft., while at 6,o00 ft. all the birds were ‘red-breasted’. As
Stresemann (1940) has shown, nothing but gouldiae-type birds occur
on Mount Victoria, and I believe that Smythies’s (1940) listing of
dabryui from Mount Victoria is simply a direct quotation from Baker
(op. cit.). The presence or absence of red edgings to the breast
feathers is individual and not a racial character. JI have examined
heavily red-edged birds from south of the Brahmaputra, and certainly
on the basis of this supposed character, isolata could never stand.
Furthermore, Hume (op. cit.) notes that dabryti has a yellow abdomen
below the red breast and presumably this includes his sight record.
As this added difference in the two forms seems to have escaped Baker
entirely (op. cit.), I am inclined to accept Hume’s sight record, and
to reject Baker’s. The females are unlikely to prove to be diagnostic
as there is considerable variation in the whiteness of the tips of the
tail feathers among the various populations.
Among our series from the eastern Naga Hills was one subadult
male which had a patch of red feathers growing in on the breast in
an asymmetrical manner. This specimen was taken along the trail
which runs east from Kohima towards the Chindwin and Burma. The
spot was 75 miles east by the trail, while 2 miles short, near the 73-
mile mark we had collected adults of typical gouldiae. It did not
seem at the time that we could actually have come to the borderline
11
692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
between two subspecies. No geographical or ecological barrier exists
at this point in these uniformly tumbled, scrub-covered hills. However,
subsequent study has convinced me that these specimens do mark two
distinct subspecies and that this is their boundary zone, unless the
dabryii record is simply a winter visitor.
IMMATURE PLUMAGES
Some description of the immature, male plumages examined may be
of interest here. I agree with Deignan (1945) that there is no indi-
cation of an eclipse plumage in this species. This point is worth
noting as the suggestion had been made by Delacour and Greenway
(1940) that perhaps the species gouldiae has an eclipse plumage as
has ignicauda.
(rt) The earliest taken subadult male I have examined is a male of
typical gouldiae collected in October at Mussoorie, U.P. This bird
has one all-red feather on the upper right side of the mantle, one or
two on the sides of the breast and suffusion of rich orange-yellow
coming in on the sides of the rump and belly. One of the central tail
feathers has a metallic iridescent edging as have several of the upper
tail coverts.
(2) Another subadult of December 2, from the Naga Hills, has two
metallic feathers on the crown and several on the throat, with numerous
red feathers on the mantle and upper wing coverts. The tail and
upper tail coverts seem to be complete as in the adult. The breast
is pure yellow.
(3) The immature previously referred to from 75 miles east of
Kohima collected December 3, 1952, which I now believe to represent
the first collected record of dabryii from Assam, has one metallic
feather on the crown and numerous red feathers on the sides of the
mantle and on the greater and lesser wing coverts. The rump is
rich yellow. The metallic upper tail coverts are present, but the
tail is still dull colored and white tipped as in the female plumage.
The breast and abdomen are yellow with irregular splashes of red.
The lower abdomen and under tail coverts are yellowish-olive as in
the female.
(4) A January subadult of dabryu from Mount Muleyit in Tenasserim
has the crown still gray but edged with metallic feathers, the mantle
red except the nape. The tail feathers are short. The throat is
gray with a median metallic streak and patches on the sides. The
ear coverts are black. The breast is already completely red.
(5) A young male dabryii from Thailand taken in March has a _
gray crown and nape. The median streak of metallic feathers on
the throat is broad and heavy. The breast is red. The posterior
ear coverts are commencing to have metallic feathers.
(6) A bird from Mount Angka in Thailand which has been sexed
as a ‘QP?’ taken in March, has a sprinkling of red edgings to the
feathers of rich olive colored crown. There are similarly red-edged
feathers on the mantle and one or two on the throat. There are no
traces of metallic feathers. It seems entirely possible that this specimen
(M.C.Z., No. 197013) is in fact an old female which is assuming
partial male plumage.
POPULATIONS OF MRS. GOULD’S SUNBIRD 693
From the above evidence it would appear that young males of
the year in this species assume nuptial plumage gradually and somewhat
irregularly over a period of at least seven and possibly ten months.
Tue NAME OF THE SOUTHERN ASSAM POPULATION
I have compared 16 adult males of gouldiae from south of the
Brahmaputra River with 17 adult males from the Himalayas, and
am convinced that Baker’s name, isolata, must be upheld. This
population does not differ from nominate gouldiae in color as Stresemann
(op. cit.) has already noted. In general it may be said that there is
a tendency to a purer lemon yellow coloring on the breast, less often
flecked with red edgings, but individuals may be heavily flecked.
However, in size, this population is definitely smaller, as follows :—
Wing range
; Mean y
in mm. c
g. gouldiae 16 d\o' 535-58 56:06 aie ests}
g. tsolata V7 vot 50-5 6°5 53°43 —+— 1:88
When tested by the formula of ¢ for smal] samples, it is found
that the difference between the means is significant (P >.oo1).
Therefore, I believe that the name, isolata, should stand for this
population, and that I was mistaken in ascribing this name to a
hybrid complex. However, in its range, this form apparently comes
into direct contact with dabryii in the eastern Naga Hills, and pos-
sibly in eastern Manipur.
RANGE OF THE SPECIES
I would accordingly list the following forms of Aethopyga gouldiae:
(2) gouldiae. Range: India in the western Himalayas (Sutlej
Valley, vide Baker) up to 12,000 ft. in the deciduous and coniferous
zone and to the hills north of the Brahmaputra River. Forested areas
of south-east Tibet, apparently migrating south in the depths of
winter. :
(b) tsolata. Range: Assam south of the Brahmaputra in north
Cachar, the Naga Hills at least as far east as Meluri, 73 miles east
of Kohima (by trail), Manipur in the hills as far east as Aimole and
Machi, south through the Lushai Hills and Tripura to East Pakistan in
the Tipperah and Chittagong Hills. Burma in the Chin Hills (Mount
Victoria) and south to the Arakan Yomas. An inhabitant of scrub
and deciduous forest up to about 7,500 ft.
_ (c) dabryit. Range: Assam in extreme eastern Naga Hills (specimen
taken 75 miles east of Kohima by trail), and eastern Manipur (sight
record?). Both of these records may, of course, be winter visitors.
Burma (except in the Chin Hills and Arakan Yomas), from the Chindwin
and north Burma south through the Shan States to Tenasserim,
Thailand, northern Indo-China in Laos and Tonkin, and China in
Yunnan, Szechuan and western Hupeh. Deignan (op. cit.) maintains
that all Thailand records are for wintering birds taken between Novem-
ber 4th and March 18th and further asserts (1944) that records for
Indo-China presumably refer to winter visitors. The species is not
known to breed in Burma, but has been taken as late as April in
694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the north-west. It is found in deciduous and coniferous forest up
to at least 11,000 ft. I agree with Deignan that bangisi and harrietae
are synonyms.
(d) annamensis. Range: southern Laos and Annam in the Langbian
and Bolovens areas in southern Indo-China.
SEASONAL WANDERING
During November-December in the Naga Hills at 4,000-5,000 ft.,
we found four species of Aethopyga in the same flowering trees in
open scrub. These were saturata, siparaja, nipalensis, and gouldiae.
A fifth species, ignicauda, was taken at this altitude and near by,
but only in open pasture land. There is a considerable amount of
indicated overlap between these species and the problem of potential
competition between them still needs to be worked out. A _ partial
indication of their ranges may be given as follows :—
WINTER
open scrub and pasture land ————-—»> evergreen forest
1-3 3-4 4-4°5 455-5 5-8 8+
nipalensis ... sas Xx x x
saturata ae Pe D4 x x
stpavaja =o: COO ye. x x Ko
Zgnicauda ... ay, x Xx Xx
gouldiae sie Bt x x ?
SUMMER
Scrub jungle ———>evergreen —————-> deciduous and coniferous
forest
13 3-45 45-5 5-75 7:5-8 8+ 10+
nipalensts .., Xx Xx Xx
(Assam)
saturvatia ioe x x Xx
S2PAVAT Lace ats x Xx X
(Yunnan)
ztgnicauda ... x x x x
gouldiae “i x x x
GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION AMONG SUNBIRD SPECIES
It is perhaps worth pointing out that some of these species of
sunbirds seem to vary in a parallel way, breaking up into subspecies
from west to east through a common geographical range. Ticehurst
(1938) has noted the remarkable similarity of variation in two virtually
similar species of Laughing-thrush in this same general area. In these
sunbirds, the species are in no sense sibling species, although they are
obviously all related fairly closely to each other. Nor are the divisions
into geographical races in any sense exact. However, there is an
interesting parallelism in the pigment change among them as follows :—
* (thousands of feet altitude.)
695
POPULATIONS OF MRS. GOULD’S SUNBIRD
1
1o01zI—19 U0] ~~
SISUIUIADY <— | <— — SISUIUDY. GUD <— | <————
Jaylep
Jo ‘aAl[O 10 MOT9A
040]0St <——_——_—___——_ | <—-— vlpjno3 ‘TY
20AAQup <— | ---—-—_———
0129990]. <—_—————_——__—— ee —
vlvsévgis °
2suyol <— | <— VAYIOM——1S AJ IJS—SNJIIGLUIN.G UVSK—SISUIMLDSSD | <—-—= DIVDANJVS °F
—,
ie
IDLL0JIUZ <— 1219049 <————_——_—— | S__ Sisuajogiu ‘py
|
MOTIOA
<— |——— _ pay <——— | ——_——__ al Jo ~MojjaA paseaiouy <—-———_
IO 9ATIO
Jsva 0} JseM SUOISOIGNS oSOUTYOOPU] YsnosIYy}] wiessy ‘UOlsaIqnsg Uvipuy
696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 61
SUMMARY
Aethopyga gouldiae has four recognizable subspecies distributed
from the Himalayas through the Indochinese Subregion. One sub-
species, 7zSolata, is recognizable on size measurements. Another,
dabryii, must now be included within the fauna of the Indian Union.
Some comments on ranges and color variations among gouldiae and
related species are also included.
PAL TeEVRVACTAUSREE EC HILIBERD
Baker, E. C. Stuart, (1925): Bulletin British Ornithologists’ Club, 46: 13.
— — — (1926): Fauna of British India, Birds (2nd ed.), III: 385-388.
Deignan, H. G. (1944): The type locality of Nectarinia dabryii Verreausx. Auk.,
61: 133-135.
— — — (1945): The birds of northern Thailand. U.S, Nat. Mus., Bull.
186, pp. 536-537.
Delacour, J. et Greenway, J. (1940): Notes critiques sur certains Oiseaux
Indochinois. Jl’Oiseau, 10: 68.
Hume, A. O. (1888): The birds of Manipur, Assam, Sylhet, and Cachar. Stray/
Feathers, 44: 81.
Ripley, S. Dillon (1952): A collection of birds from the Naga Hills. J.B.N.H.S.,
50: 510-511.
Smythies, B. E. (1940): Birds of Burma. Rangoon. p. 224.
Stresemann, E. (1940): Die Vogel des Mount Victoria. Mitt. Zool. Mus., Berlin.
24: 174.
Ticehurst, C. B. (in Stanford, J. K. and Ticehurst, C. B.) (1938): On the Birds
of Northern Burma. Ibis, 93-94.
A NEW SPECIES OF SESAMUM
BY
B. APPALA NAIDU, M.A., M.SC., F.B.S.
Botany Section, Agricultural College, Bapatla
(With two plates)
-In India the family Pedaliaceae consists of two genera Pedalium
and Sesamum. The genus Sesamum has three species. (1) S.
indicum Linn., (2) S. laciniaium Klein, (3) S. prostratum Retz.
The author in his collection tour came across plants resembling the
cultivated gingely plant near Stuartpuram, a village near Bapatla.
The plant differs from the other three species in the nature of its
seeds, capsule and leaves. It has been created into a new species
and named after the late Dr. T. Ekambaram, Professor of Botany,
Presidency College, Madras. : |
Sesamum ekambaramii Naidu, species nov.
The main distinguishing characters of this species are winged
seeds, palmately compound leaves and long beaked capsule which is
broader at the top and narrowed towards the base. Whereas the
capsule in S. indicum is of same width throughout and the capsules
in the remaining two species are ovoid and compressed, the seeds
being wingless in all the three species. Stem erect, simple or
branched, angular with worty protuberances, height varies from 1 to
6 feet. Leaves palmately compound. The upper ones are simple.
Phyllotaxy: opposite at the base and sub-opposite towards the top.
The leaflets are linear-lanceolate, entire. Young leaflets mealy
glandular below and glaucous above. Flowers solitary, axillary,
pedicels short, each with two cup-shaped glands on either side. The
bigger gland bears a small gland by its side. Glands sessile. Calyx
5, free, lanceolate, pubescent sepals. Corolla purple coloured, 5 lobed,
obliquely campanulate, pubescent, lobes acute, imbricate, base narrow,
bears hairs at the narrowed portion of the corolla where the filaments
are attached. Stamens 4, didynamous, filaments hairy with glandular
tips. Introrse, no staminode. Anthers sagittate dorsifixed, connec-
tive elongated into a pointed structure. Dehiscence by longitudinal
slits. Pollen grains round with thickened bands of 7 to 8 in number.
Ovary two celled but divided into four cells by a false septum.
Ovules many, one seriate in each cell. Style filiform, stigma two
lobed. Fruit capsule more than 1 in. long, beaked, broader at the
top, narrowed towards the base, tetragonous. Dehisces on both
sides along the septa up to + in. and further dehiscence continues
on one side only. Seeds numerous, black, winged. The wings
arranged on two sides. Testa muriculate and foveolate. Seeds
yield oil on pressing.
698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. $1
Sesamum ekambaramii Naidu, spec. nov.
Characteres distinctivi huius specie1 sunt semina alata, folia
palmate composita, capsula longe rostrata; capsula vero latior est
in apice et angustata ad basim. Sesami indici vero capsula est
uniformiter lata, capsula in caeteris speciebus est ovoidea atque
compressa, semina vero haud alata in his tribus speciebus.
Caulis erectus, simplex vel ramosus, angularis, verrucosus, semel
ad sixies pedalis. folia palmate composita; superiora quidem
simplicia; omnia opposita ad basim, sub-opposita supra ad apicem.
Foliola lineari-lanceolata, integra. Noviuscula foliola farinaceo-
glandularia infra, glauca supra. Flores solitarii, axillares, pediculis
brevibus atque insignitis duplici cyathiformi glandula in utroque
latere; glandula maior ornata est glandula minore ad_latus.
Glandulae sessiles. Calycis sepala 5, libera, lanceolata, pubescentia.
Corolla purpurea, 5-lobata, oblique campanulata, pubescens, lobis
acutis, imbricatis, basi angusta, corolla pilosa ad partem angustam
ubi filamenta infiguntur. Stamina 4, didynama; filamenta pilosa
apicibus glanduliferis; antherae introrsae; staminodia nulla. Antherae
sagittatae, dorsifixae, connectivo elongato in structuram acutam.
Antherae dehiscent per scissuras longitudinales. Pollinis grana
rotunda, ornata 7-8 crassis vittis. Ovarium 2-cellulatum, sed divisum
in 4 cellulas per septum falsum; ovula plurima, semel seriata in
singulis cellulis; stylus filiformis, stigma bilobatum. [Fructus cap-
sularis, longius uno pollice, rostratus, latior in apice, angustus ad
basim, tetragonus, dehiscens in utroque latere ad septa usque ad
quartam pollicis partem, dehiscentia continuata in uno latere tantum.
Semina plurima, nigra, alata; alae in utroque latere seminum; testa
muriculata atque foveolata. Expressa semina oleum cedunt.
Late RAD UeRI Ey GlOINSS UPR ESD
. The Flora of British India. By Sir J. D. Hooker.
. Flora of the Presidency of Madras. By J. S. Gamble.
. The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. By H. H. Haines.
Flora Capensis. By Sir William T. Thiselton-Dyer.
. Flora of Assam, By U. N. Kanjilal.
OTR whe
EXPLANATION OF PLaTE II
. 1. Complete plant—diagrammatic representation.
1. (a) Flower.
2. Front view of the flower.
3. L.S.: of | flower.
», 4. Calyx.
5. Anthers.
6. Pollen grain.
7. Corolla cut open.
SiS snoheOvarys
pr oon bastil:
»», LO. ‘Stigma.
ye bortiit.
», 12. Seed with wings.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I
Fig. 1. Sesamum ekambaramu Naidu, spec. nov.
Top portion of shoot with flowers and fruit.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pvate}
Sesamum ekambaramu Naidu, spec. nov.
Figs. 1-12: Explanation at end of article
SECONDARY SONG OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS
BY
M. D. LISTER
(NPR © Dw CG Dil© w
It seems to be generally agreed among ornithologists that the
repeated loud song of birds, which is such a distinctive characteristic
of the arrival of spring in temperate regions, is connected with and
forms a definite part of the birds’ annual breeding cycle. Eliot
Howard (1920) suggested, when advancing his well-known ‘territory
theory’ that this loud, persistent song was part of the regular procedure
for acquiring and maintaining a ‘territory’ in which to breed and
from which to obtain food for the sustenance of the family. While
this idea is probably basically sound, various later writers [e.g.,
Nicholson (1927), Selous (1933)| have suggested modifications of the
territory theory as a whole, and the matter cannot yet be regarded
as settled. eat
It has long been recognised that apart from the loud ‘territorial’
song, many birds have other songs (as distinct from call notes), which
from the quality of the song itself, its infrequency, or the circumstances
in which it is given may be regarded as of a secondary nature and of
less importance than the territorial or primary song. Surprisingly few
writers have referred to this secondary song in its various forms, and
as yet the subject has not received the close study it deserves.
Secondary song appears to fall naturally into the following main
types, though it may well be that further research will show that
modification of this analysis is necessary.
fo AWEUMn AMG WiIMtTer SOmes Il some Goes A
recrudescence of song is noticeable after the breeding season is over
and the youngsters are fledged. This is probably distinguishable from
the primary territorial song in its purpose, which is not yet fully
understood, in its loudness and in its persistency, apart from its quality.
Lack (1943) when writing on Robins (Erithacus rubecula) suggests
that the autumn song probably has survival value in teaching the young
cocks the specific song.
2, Female song: In the majority of species, so far as is
at present known, the hen bird has no song comparable with the primary
song of the cock. I do not know whether female song has been noticed
in any Indian birds, but it has been observed in a few European and
American species.
% MRemearsed Some OF WOtMme IWicdse A veo
deal has been written about the means by which young birds are able
on or before reaching maturity to reproduce the typical primary song
of the species. Explanations put forward at one time or another vary
from pure ‘instinct’, to environment and example, and to plain trial
700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
and error. Whatever be the truth of the matter—and it may well
contain more than one of these ingredients—young birds may often
be heard giving a form of song which differs very considerably from
the typical loud specific song. In England, to give only two examples,
I have on several occasions heard young Blackbirds (Turdus merula)
and Chatfinches (fringilla coelebs) give songs of this type. [Lister
(1940) ].
4. Ultraquiet Song: I believe that Nicholson (1927) was
the first ornithologist to recognise what he termed ‘Subsong’ and
described as being ‘low and inward, often becoming so faint as to
be inaudible at a few yards’ range’. The very quietness of this type
of song must cause it to be often overlooked, and it is undoubtedly
given very much more often than is generally recognised.
There has hitherto been a certain amount of confusion in the
terminology applied to this ultra-quiet song and I have recently (1953)
put forward a plea for the use of a uniform terminology to assist
in further research in this difficult and fascinating subject. There
appear to be two general types of ultra-quiet song aon which I have
suggested the following terms: (a) Whispering Song: which is merely
a miniature edition of the normal loud territorial or primary song;
and (b) Subsong: which differs intrinsically from the normal loud
territorial song in being very much more of a free, random, sotto
voce warbling in which other recognised notes are sometimes
interspersed.
The functional interpretation. of these very quiet songs remains
to be worked out. Special songs (e.g., threat, display or courtship
songs, etc.) may perhaps fall within the category of Whispering Song
or Subsong in different species; until we know more about them we
cannot lay down any rules. Apart from such special songs there
appears to be a sort of residuum of ultra-quiet song, often given when
the singer is alone, and much more evidence is needed before the
function of even this can be interpreted with certainty. JI have heard
both Whispering Song and Subsong in most months of the year,
especially among some of the Turdidae, and I suspect that most true
song-birds indulge in one or both at one time or another.
The following records of secondary song were obtained by me
during the war in 1942-45, hence their fragmentary nature.
Chloropsis (? Chloropsis hardwickit)
21 October, 1944. Darjeeling. A chloropsis which I] believe was
of this species was in some light tree jungle with low undergrowth at
about 4,500’. After spending some minutes preening itself, it began
to forage and at the same time to give a very varied succession of
notes, starting with a low warbling song. I was unable to attempt
any phonetic record.
? Whitebrowed Shortwing (Heteroxenicus cruralis)
25 April, 1945. Darjeeling. I never identified these birds with
absolute certainty and I therefore give a short description below in
case a more experienced observer can recognise them. They had a
rather thin, very high-pitched ‘song’ of two notes, the second being
SECONDARY SONG OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS 701
pitched about a quarter tone lower than the first, which had consider-
able carrying power and was given again and again. In addition, the
male frequently gave a broken succession of very soft, very high-
pitched notes in no recognisable pattern—just a broken, inconsequential
rambling seez ... sree... svee-ee, each note usually rising. This
seemed to me to have much more the character of a song than of call
notes. :
The male was entirely deep indigo blue, though I believe more blue-
grey on the underparts, and in some lights the blue of the fore-crown
looked lighter and brighter. A suspicion of a black mark near the
eye. I could never decide whether or not there was a faint white
eye-stripe. The general colour of the female was tawny olive-brown,
rather greyer on the head. Most of my views were from above,
among fairly dense bushes where the light was poor. These birds
were quite plentiful on the tea garden where this observation was
made.
Pied Bushchat (Saxicola caprata)
22 December, 1942. New Delhi. One was singing at intervals
from a thin thorn bush. It was tame and allowed me to stand only
4-5 yds. away. The song was given softly, audible clearly 4-5 yds.
away, but I doubt whether it could have been heard in detail more
than 10-12 yds. away. The bird would sing for perhaps a minute,
then remain silent on its perch for 2-3 minutes, then give
another bout of song, and so on. The song was not unlike that of
a Black Redstart (Phoenicurus ochrurus), interspersed with various
myna-like grating notes, the basis being a p’teraretyuawet . . . trri-
tyr.
Brown Rock Chat (Cercomela fusca)
16 October, 1942. New Delhi. One came to a large alcove terrace
in the Secretariat building and perched, singing quietly, on the balu-
strade for some minutes, wagging its tail up and down and occasionally
bending its legs and giving a little bob with its whole body. The
song was very quiet, probably audible not more than 15 yds. away,
and was very like the subsong of the English Robin (Erithacus
vubecula). The general effect was a lazy, careless, carefree warbling,
well leavened with sweet notes. The result was pleasing and the
bird seemed to enjoy it too. The throat frequently swelled during the
song.
Bluefronted Redstart (Phoenicurus frontalis) .
25 February, 1943. Darjeeling. One bird I was watching gave
a low, warbling song, much less wheezy than the usual song of a
Black Redstart (Phoenicurus ochrurus), and quiet—almost inaudible
Io yds. away.
Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis)
25 July, 1943. Jessore, Bengal. One sang very softly for 2-3
minutes almost without a pause from an inner branch of a tree.
This song was a good deal more rambling than the normal loud
song of this species, and it reminded me strongly of the subsong of
702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
an English Robin (Frithacus rubecula), though it was not nearly so
quiet as some subsongs I have heard. This song was audible clearly
ro ft. away, though it would have been difficult to distinguish 20
ft. away. The bird moved very little during the performance.
14 December, 1943. Jessore. On two or three occasions during
the preceding few days I heard Magpie Robins giving a low, sweet
subsong, which seemed to me rather more varied than the usual
primary song and again reminded me of the subsong of the English
Robin.
12 August, 1944. Jessore. One was singing quietly from a bushy
tree. The song went rambling quietly on for minutes on end with
hardly a break. A few mornings before there had been gentle rain
for several hours, and the same bird then sang continuously and softly
for quite a long period. The song was very quiet and did not obtrude
itself on one’s attention like the louder territorial song of the species,
and it went rambling on and on. The whole performance was very
similar indeed to the behaviour of an English Robin under similar
conditions. This song was, I think, not quite soft enough to be
called a true subsong, if loudness or quietness are the only criterion;
it was audible quite easily 20 yds. away, but it was much more fluid,
less definitely phrased than the normal loud song, in fact the
phraseology, timbre, and everything about it might have belonged
to an English bird.
30 August, 1944. Jessore. At 07.00 hours it was drizzling and
a Magpie Robin was singing very quietly in the lower branches of
a tree, and opposite, on the other side of the road, another Robin
was singing just as softly. They must have been able to hear each
other’s song without difficulty, but there seemed to be no question
of singing against one another as there is with the loud territorial
song. The songs of these two birds was again very similar to the
subdued subsong of the English Robin in quality, timbre and loudness.
On another morning a few days earlier there was a continuous
drizzle and one of the birds that was usually to be seen near my
bungalow was singing very quietly for some considerable time.
Greywinged Blackbird (Zurdus boulboul)
24 February, 1943. Darjeeling. One sang softly for a few minutes
in the morning and the song was very similar to that of the English
Blackbird (Turdus merula).
20 May, 1943. Darjeeling. Immediately after giving the usual
loud song of four clear notes in descending scale, a bird gave a low
warbling subsong, lasting only a few seconds with a slight pause
in the middle. Again it was not unlike the subsong of an English
Blackbird, but less rounded and ‘finished’, and rather flatter and more
insipid.
Blueheaded Rock Thrush (Monticola cinclorhyncha)
29 May, 1945. Darjeeling. One was singing from the branch
of a Siris tree. Between bursts of the normal loud song the bird
also gave several other much softer notes, audible where I was
standing some 50 yds. away and too ft. above. As far as I could
tell, these notes were exactly similar to the ordinary loud notes,
SECONDARY SONG OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS 703
but they were much softer and were not flung out with such abandon
for all the world to hear. At the same time, while clearly differing
from the loud primary song, these notes were not soft enough to be
classed as subsong, though they certainly seemed to be of a secondary
nature.
Himalayan Whistling Thrush (Myiophoneus coeruleus)
21 October, 1944. Darjeeling. One gave a long, low, rambling
subsong from near the top of a large Cryptomeria tree, for at least
10-15 minutes. This song was very quiet, though distinctly audible
15 yds. away, and consisted of a rambling series of whistling notes,
like a quiet but much more varied edition of the ordinary song, some-
times given as independent individual notes, sometimes as phrases.
Every so often this subsong was punctuated by a most extraordinary
series of spluttering noises, something like the sound produced by
pressing one’s lips to the back of one’s hand and blowing hard—what
is known to schoolboys as a ‘raspberry’, in fact, but much more sus-
tained and long drawn out.
24 October, 1944. Darjeeling. The usual bird was singing from
near the top of the same Cryptomeria tree. This time the subsong,
which alone was given, seemed more unlike the true song than before
and much more like the rambling, warbling subsong of an English Robin
(Erithacus rubecula). Just now and again soft whistling phrases
of the usual loud song were given, but these were infrequent. The
low spluttering notes were also given occasionally, but this time they
Were not so much in evidence.
Earlier the same afternoon I had heard another bird singing among
some bamboos in a small ravine. This song was soft, though louder
than the song mentioned above, and consisted of a quiet edition of
the usual whistling song, interspersed now and then with the low
guttural spluttering notes. Occasionally the whistling would tail off
into a kind of shapeless warbling.
[?] Little Pied Flycatcher (Muscicapula melanoleuca)
26 October, 1944. Darjeeling. A ‘family’ of 8-10 was among a
very large mixed hunting party of small birds foraging in a few
trees and dense bushes in a large ravine at about 4,500 ft. I watched
one of these birds at close quarters. It made only few sorties outside
the canopy of the tree and seemed to get most of its food in fluttering
flights from one branch to another. Now and again it gave some
very soft, rather warbling notes, interspersed fairly frequently with
equally quiet grating notes. This ‘song’ was given so quietly that
I could only just hear it 10 yds. away, without being able to distinguish
its exact pattern and phraseology.
Blyth’s Reed-Warbler (Acrocephalus dumetorum)
29 September, 1942. New Delhi. One gave at intervals a low-
pitched, but loud tchuk . . . tchuk from the middle of some thick
bushes. Later it gave a subdued warbling song, very like the subsong
of an English Robin (Erithacus rubecula), with the addition of occa-
sional harsher notes. It was similar in all ways, the quality,
composition, timbre, and spacing, and in the delivery—a sort of musing
704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
soliloquy. This continued for several minutes until another bird gave
an alarm.
10 October, 1942. New Delhi. One sang for a considerable time
from an inside spray of a thick bush. While it was singing it
remained stationary, but later it ceased and moved about the bush
a little so that I had several good views; then it settled on another
perch and sang: continuously for a considerable time. The song varied
in loudness; for the most part it was fairly quiet, audible for probably
20 yds., but sometimes it swelled into a crescendo lasting some seconds,
which could no doubt have been heard at double that distance, and at |
other times it dwindled to the merest whisper, scarcely audible 3 yds.
away. The fact that there was no apparent division between these
degrees of loudness, and that the song swelled from a whisper to a
respectable volume without any appreciable pause or break, is some
evidence of the connection between the ordinary loud song (and through
that the primary or territorial song) and subsong. There were slight
pauses, of course, but I could not in any instance connect them with
the transition from soft to loud or vice versa.
The notes forming the song were extremely varied, sweet, pure
notes being included in about equal proportion with comparatively
discordant notes. Some of the phrases were warbled, but the majority
were given separately in a very similar way to the songs of Sedge-
Warblers (Acrocephalus schoenoboenus) and Reed-Warblers (A. scir-
paceus) in Europe. The phrases were strung together very rapidly
as a rule, so that the general effect was a warbling, and it was
impossible to make a fully accurate record of the notes given.
The following, compiled from notes I managed to make at intervals
during the performance, gives a fairly good idea of the general nature
of the song, but these notes do not represent any complete phrase
and were not all given consecutively.
Chupchup-t—-heee—heee—see—wk’wk—se-se-sa-seu— wk’ wk—
tsitsiweeea—tck-tckh—wripwrip—picpicpic—seeea—brk’ brk’ brk—secea.
Booted Warbler (Hippolais caligata)
20 October, 1942. New Delhi. One was singing in a babool
tree growing among thorn bushes. Almost all the time it was singing
it was moving about the tree hunting for food in a somewhat half-
hearted way, as though its song were its main interest and the food
only a secondary one. It moved by short hops, both forwards and
often sideways along the twigs, never more than a few inches at a
time, pausing now and then to devote itself to its singing for a few
seconds before moving on. Now and again it would pause for a
second or two in its song to stretch up to a leaf or crevice in the
bark, or to hang nearly head downwards.
fine song was a quiet, varied warbling, not particularly striking
in any way by reason of any special characteristic, but generally pleas-
ing to the ear, and it included only very few discordant notes. It
was inclined to be rather hurried—the sequence of notes was in any
case much too rapid for me to be able to make an exact record of
them. At times it rose into a fairly full, loud warbling, though even
at its loudest I doubt if it would have been audible more than about
30 yds. away. Usually it was much quieter and once it sank so low
SECONDARY SONG OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS 705
that I could only just hear it 4 yds. away. There was no real pause
or other line of demarcation between the loud and the quiet song, and
I could detect no difference in quality, timbre or character between
them. ‘Many of the notes used were short, almost staccato ones, but
they fitted into the song as a whole to produce a warbling result.
Once when I moved round the tree to get a better view of it, the
bird ceased singing and gave two different notes of protest. (a) tjé@
(German 4) repeated 8-9 times fairly rapidly; and (b) a very sparrow-
like chrrr. But it resumed its singing within about two minutes of
the interruption.
Maroon Oriole (Oriolus traillit)
24 May, 1943. Darjeeling. A pair was among Siris, etc., trees
growing among tea bushes on the hillside. On my arrival one bird
(presumably the male) was giving the usual pelulu calls with many
variations which I did not attempt to record. After a few minutes
of this, however, when I was standing only some 15 yds. away, this
bird suddenly broke out into a rambling warbling, quite different
and far more complicated and polished than the usual calls, but
often including these, sometimes in a slightly distorted form. Most
of this warbling was continuous with few pauses and was given a
good deal more quietly than the usual notes, but hardly quietly enough to
be classed as a real subsong. It varied a good deal in loudness, how-
ever, from a stage whisper audible perhaps 25 yds. away, to a fairly
loud song only slightly softer than the usual calls which have con-
siderable carrying power. It usually became louder as it led up to
one of the usual notes and softer again immediately afterwards.
While the bird was giving this song it hopped unconcernedly about
the tree, pausing now and again to reach up among the large seed
pods after food. The singing lasted for perhaps three minutes and
then the bird was driven out of the tree by an Ashy Swallow-Shrike
_ (Artamus fuscus); after that it was conspicuously silent, only occa-
sionally giving one of the usual loud calls.
Tree Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni)
27 March, 1945. Myitkyina, N. Burma. I had several excellent
views of birds which I think must have belonged to the Yunnan race
(Anthus h. yunnanensis), while they walked about on the ground within
a yard or two of where I was standing. I heard one bird giving a
very quiet song as it wandered about foraging. This song was a sort
of whispering soliloquy based on psiri, with divers variations and
modulations, and the result was quite pleasant. The colouring’ seemed
to me to be rather more intense than the birds I saw in Bengal, with
much less green and more brown above, rather more rufous and less
pale buff below, and the whitish eyestripe was very marked.
Note: In the above records I have used the words ‘quiet’, ‘soft’
and ‘low’ somewhat loosely as meaning the opposite to loud. Such
looseness of speech is obviously undesirable and might lead to confusion
in an extensive study of song, but I have not altered it in these
records as I wished to deviate as little as possible from the original
wording of my notes. )
706 JOURNAL BOMBAY NAD ORAS TM SiS \ OG Vemma} smal
SUMMARY
In addition to the loud, persistent, primary or territorial song,
many birds have songs of secondary importance. This may take the
form of autumn or winter song; song of hen birds; rehearsing song
of young birds; very quiet, inward whispering song similar to the
primary song, or subsong differing from the primary song; or rather
louder songs given only occasionally. Instances are given of secondary
songs of fourteen species of birds occurring in India and Burma. The
whole question of secondary song is one which merits much greater
attention than has hitherto been given to it and it is likely that a wide
study of it might disclose interesting evidence on other aspects of
bird life, particularly the evolution of species and sub-species and their
specific primary song's.
Bal Bub TO) G RVAUP) Hey.
Howard, H. Eliot, (1920): ‘Territory in Bird Life’. London.
Lack, D. (1943): ‘The Life of the Robin’, London.
Lister, M. D., (1940): ‘The Development of Song in Young Chaffinches’. Brit.
Birds, Xxxivy (7). .
— — — (1953): Secondary Song: A tentative Classification. British Birds, xlvi
(4) : 139-143.
Nicholson, E. M., (1927): ‘How Birds Live’. London.
Selous, E., (1933): ‘Evolution of Habit in Birds’. London.
A CorrEcTION: ‘Some Jungle Bird Associations’ [J.B.N.H.S., 50
(3)—April, 1952—p. 588] delete asterisk indicating occurrence against
Redwinged Bush Lark (Mirafra erythroptera) in column III (Dar-
jeeling).—M.D.L.
REVIEWS
1. INSECTS INDOMITABLE. By Evelyn Cheesman, ¥.R.E.S.
Pp. 205 (74”%x 5”). With 16 line illustrations by Arthur Smith.
London, 1952. (G. Bell & Sons Ltd.). Price 12s. 6d. net.
Evelyn Cheesman, in her capacity as the Curator of Insects in
the London Zoo, has had the opportunity of observing insect-life for
over a quarter of a century. During her studies she sees that insects
are able to thrive’ with ease even under the most exacting circum-
stances, and learns that the secret of their capacity to do so, lies in
their possessing an elastic body structure and a physical constitution
which readily respond to and adjust themselves with any environment.
Hence the title of the book ‘Insects Indomitable’, which she more
than justifies in the course of its pages.
The book is divided into eleven chapters, each with a title. In
these chapters the reader is introduced to those amazing ways of insect-
life which appear at once wise and skilful, although insects are devoid
of any powers of thinking. The first two chapters are devoted to
general structure and organization of a typical insect. The rest of
the chapters deal with such phenomena as dispersal and migration,
relationship with plants, etc. Speaking of protective devices,
Cheesman observes that the art of camouflage has reached its
perfection among insects. The chapter ‘Social Organization’ deals
with life in colonies like those of ants, bees and wasps, which according
to the authoress are the most highly evolved of insects. It is interest-
ing how, having made «4 stealthy ingress into a colony, the ‘cuckoo’
queen eludes capture and finally usurps the queenship by killing the
real queen.
The style is simple and elegant, and the print bold and the
get-up good. There are scarcely any technical terms in the text to
baffle the lay reader. The illustrations, although mere line-drawings,
are apt and well-chosen, and are neatly executed. The index at the
end is an added facility.
The book is delightful reading both to laymen and entomologists
and is a worthy addition to any library.
V.K.C.
2. WILD FLOWERS OF THE CEYLON HILLS. Some
Familiar Plants of the Up-country Districts. By Thomas E. T. Bond.
Illustrated by Jessie & Thomas Bond. Pp. xviii+240, 22x14 cm.,
col. front., and 120 line drawings. Oxford University Press, 1953.
Price Rs. 10.
‘This book has been written to attract the general reader for
whom no other book on Ceylon’s wild flowers exists... It describes
120 of the most common species to be found above the 38000-foot
contour-line. Thus the favourite wild flowers of Ceylon’s most popular
holiday resorts are described here.’ (From the publisher’s note on
the dust cover of the book).
After a short introduction setting forth the aims of the author and
giving useful references for the interested reader, the book opens with
the list of contents, where plants are catalogued by the scientific,
12
708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL VHIST- SOG TAY. sViolemoll
English and local names. or the amateur there is then a very simple
guide to the identification of the species; the guide is mainly built on
the colour of the flowers, other useful characters being the size of
the plant, the regular or irregular structure of the flower and the
number of its parts, characters all that can be understood by the lay
reader without much trouble. Both the guide to the identification
and the book itself may be termed ‘Botany without tears’.
‘The plants are listed by familes. or each of these there is a
short general introduction showing its distribution in the world, and
its occurrence either in the wild state or in cultivation in Ceylon.
Each species is given under its scientific and local names, with a short
note on the colour and size of the flowers. In the description of each
plant the author uses non-technical language, and pays attention
mainly to those points by which the plants may be easily identified.
One interesting point is that the scientific name of the plants are
explained, and this makes them less frightening than they usually
are. In every case the description is accompanied by a clear line
drawing of the plant; the drawing is always opposite the description,
and by this means the author will help many readers to keep their
tempers, not an easy matter when the re ader has to be constantly
turning the pages of the book to compare the description with the
picture. This is a very happy idea of the author.
Another feature of the book is that the complicated problem of
the scientific names is simplified to the utmost; in general the names
of Alston’s Supplement to Trimen’s Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon
are used; but to help the reader who may wish to consult Trimen’s
Handbook, the latter’s names are given in brackets when they differ
from those adopted in the book.
A few technical terms become essential, and these are fully
explained in the Glossary at the end of the book. The Index lists all
the plants by their scientific, English and local names.
On the negative side, there are but few remarks to make. Some
of the illustrations have been somewhat spoiled by the text of the
following page coming through. Another point is that the illustrations
do not show any scale to indicate the size of the plant; thus, e.g.
illustr. no. 84 is clearly larger than natural size, whilst no. 63 is cnly
1/10 or even less of natural size; in my opinion this omission of the
scale detracts a little of the value of the illustration, as the reader,
unless he or she be very careful, may be induced into error.
Both the aim and the presentation of the book deserve praise.
The text is neat, the figures simple but showing the main points
by which the plant may be identified. The cost of the book is moderate
for those who can afford a holiday in the hill resorts of Ceylon. We
wish the book every success.
ES AINA SUP Sear
3. BIRDS “OR CHYWON! 2 S By Wo WA] =Phillips) em irce
M.B.0.U., F.zZ.8. Pp. 49 (72” x 42”), 1 coloured map, 5 photographs by
author, 20 coloured plates by Cicely Lushington, Colombo, 1952.
The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd. Price Rs. 5.
This is No. 2 of the introductory booklets on Ceylon birds, the
first of which was reviewed on p. 554 oe Vol. 49 (8), 1950. It describes
REVIEWS 709
and illustrates 24 species selected as the most representative birds
to be met with about tanks and swamps. ‘The selection, as the author
admits, cannot have been easy considering the large variety of species
which affect such habitats, but it is on the whole well made and
includes most of the commoner birds usually met with on practically
every tank, large or small, in Ceylon as well as India. Ceylon has
the distinction of possessing some superb bird sanctuaries at and around
several of its tanks. ‘These mixed heronries present a remarkable
spectacle during the season when the birds are nesting, and are a source
of unfailing pleasure and inspiration to the bird watcher and photo-
grapher. This handy little volume with its terse descriptions and
commendable plates should be of very special usefulness to a visitor
to one of these show places, whether a beginner or a seasoned
ornithologist.
The intending bird photographer and the more advanced worker
alike will specially welcome the chapter on Bird Photography in Ceylon.
Mr. Phillips’s proficiency as a bird photographer is widely known
and justly recognised; and his suggestions for the building of various
types of hides, and bis views and experience on cameras and equip-
ment are illuminating.
Two more booklets are still to come to complete this admirable
series. All together, they will comprise a handy reference work and
a useiul contribution to the popular bird literature of Ceylon.
Sola
4. AFRICAN HANDBOOK OF BIRDS, Series One: Birds of
Hastern and Northeastern Africa, Vol. I. By C. W. Mackworth-Praed,
MisMon WoeSoy NLBOstls eral Opyows Coals ls Crean, iss, MipBOoiwe J20).
xxv+836 (84”x 53”). 58 coloured, and 6 plates from photographs;
marginal distribution maps and drawings. London, 1952. Longmans,
Green & Co. Ltd., Price 45s. net.
No one seriously interested in the study of Indian birds can afford
to follow a policy of isolationism. ‘To obtain his proper bearings he
must have at least a general ‘awareness’ of how the pattern of Indian
avifauna compares with that of neighbouring countries, and of its
strength or weakness in the various families and species. Nor is it
enough that he has a bare list of names for comparison. He must
have a workable picture of the biotopes and physiographical conditions.
under which birds live in neighbouring lands so as to be able to make
pertinent comparisons and reflect upon all divergencies in the habits
and behaviour of species common to the two countries, or closely
similar and obviously representing one another.
There is much in common between Africa and India both as regards
climate and physiography. Apart from the Palaearctic elements in
our avifauna common to both the continents either as residents or
migrants, there are certain sections of resident Indian birds which have
been clearly derived from Africa, and vice versa, at a period when
north Africa and western Asia were connected by a forest belt which
extended across north Arabia and Iran to northern India, a region
that is now arid semi-desert or even completely barren. Apart from
the presence or absence of various permanent elements, there is a
710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
certain amount of seasonal traffic either between India and Atrica
directly or emanating from the same ‘reservoir’, which makes at least
a nodding acquaintance with African ornithology essential for the
student of Indian birds. The book under review supplies this need
admirably. The present series deals with eastern and northeastern
Africa which comprises ‘the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Eritrea, Abyssinia,
the Somalilands, Socotra and Abd-el-Kuri Islands, Kenya Colony,
Uganda, Ruanda, Urundi, Tanganyika Territory, Pemba, Zanzibar and
Mafia Islands, that part of northern Portuguese East Africa east of
Lake Nyasa and north of the Zambesi River, and that part of Nyasaland
east of the Shire River.’ Vol. I contains all the non-passerine
families from Grebes to Swifts, plus the Broadbills and Pittas. Vol.
IT will complete the rest of the passerine families and conclude Series ©
One. We understand that Series Two dealing similarly with the birds
of southern and south-western Africa is in course of preparation by
the same authors.
In their preface the authors mention that the book is intended
mainly for use in the field, and all the features—one might say of
omission and commission—are pivoted on the effort towards this end.
‘Therefore, many of the apparent shortcomings spring from the
necessary compromises.
The volume covers 653 species, some 400 of which are illustrated
in colour on 53 plates mostly the work of Roland Green and the late
H. Gronvold. In spite of drastic compression—in some cases perhaps
a bit too drastic—it was inevitable that a tome of this compass should
be a bulky one. It is two inches thick and weighs over 8 lb! Keys are
given for families, which may comprise a variable number of genera.
The Ardeidae for example, contains 15 genera including herons, egrets
and bitterns. This arrangement simplifies reference for the amateur
who may recognise these birds as closely related but may not know
the separate genera into which they are split. The key to the Anatidae,
including both ducks and geese, is also convenient from this point of
view since it gives an overall picture of this group of obviously allied
birds and not of its various components cut off from one another.
But this system of keys is less convenient and fruitful to use in the
case of prolific families, e.g. the Birds of Prey, the three families
of which together (i.e. Aigypiidae, Faleconidae and Pandionidae) contain
no less than 88 species. Also one is sometimes apt to be left in the
air even after laboriously following the clues to the end. Jor instance
as between the Tawny Eagle and the Steppe Eagle (p. 122) the crucial
point of distinction one arrives at is that in general colour the former
is ‘tawny, brown or rufous brown’ while the Steppe is ‘dark brown’.
In many instances, of course, the difference in the browns is !argely
what one chooses to call it; neither do the illustrations of the two
species on Plate 11 help. The wing measurements partly overlap so
that in cases where this happens it is almost impossible to make up
one’s mind even with a specimen in the hand, leave alone one in the
air! However, apart from inescapable exceptions of this sort the keys
are on the whole workable though their efficacy in field identification,
and without a specimen in the hand, may in many cases be
questionable.
Of the Lesser Flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor) it is stated (p. 83)
“, . . breeds in the Persian Gulf, in India and sometimes in Ceylon’.
REVIEWS Fil
Long ago Hume and others recorded stray dropped eggs, allegedly of
this species, from the Sambhur Lake neighbourhood (Rajasthan), but
actual breeding is so far unconfirmed. In Ceylon, as far as I am
aware, all allegations of breeding have referred only to the larger
species (Phoenicopterus ruber) and these have never been substantiated.
That the small species may breed in the Little Rann of Kutch is
of course a probability, judging from the numbers of very young birds
in the brown plumage frequently seen there.
| On p. 506 Clamator jacobinus pica, our larger north Indian form
of the Pied Crested Cuckoo with white underparts, is treated as merely
a colour phase of C. j. serratus the African bird with black underparts.
Other authorities (e.g., Friedmann) consider them as different races.
Certain it is that the white breasted form (believed to be a rains
visitor from Africa) is the only one found in N. India and never serratus
with black underparts.
Among the major drawbacks, in the reviewer’s opinion, which may
partly be from the effort to compress, the following may be enumerated :
1. Absence of a good physical map of Africa, preferably coloured
and showing vegetational zones,
2. Absence of a list of plates at the beginning which now necessi-
tates referring to the text, or to the irregularly scattered plates, to
discover what species are illustrated and what not. This difficulty could
have been partly met by using in the index bold type for the species
illustrated in colour, and italics for those in the photographs.
Since the printing, the paper and the general get-up of the book
are so excellent, it seems deplorable indeed that the reproduction of
the coloured plates—so vital an aid to field identification—leaves so
much to be desired. It is understandable that size had to sacrificed
in order to include the maximum number of species, but in that case
it would have added enormously to clarity had the elaborate back-
grounds been left out altogether. It would thus have been possible
also.to illustrate a greater number of species on each plate while at
the same time permitting of larger portraits. In any case there
seems no excuse for the colour impressions in so many of the plates
to be out of register. Surely this could have been avoided by greater
care in printing.
. One more point which has curiously been overlooked is the indication
of a scale in inches or centimeters under each illustration. Without
it it is not easy for those unfamiliar with African birds to get a correct
idea of the size without some unnecessary research.
In spite of these minor blemishes this is undoubtedly a first class
contribution to ornithological literature, and the authors deserve to.
feel gratified and to be congratulated upon the culmination (in part)
of their prolonged and painstaking labours. Ornithologists in India
will welcome its appearance as warmly as those more directly concerned
with African ornithology.
S.A.
5. NESTBOXES. By Edwin Cohen and Bruce Campbell. Field
Guide No. 3, published by the British Trust for Ornithology, Oxford.
Pp. 82 (84” x 54”). 22 text figures, 1952. Price 2s. 6d.
One of the most fruitful ways of attracting birds to gardens and
vacant plots in urban areas, or to forest plantations, whether for
712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
aesthetic or economic purposes, is by the provision of food and suitable
nesting sites. In well wooded areas the former is usually plentiful
enough for insect-eating birds, but nesting sites are scarce due to
the artificial management of stands—the removal of decaying branches
and clearing away of overmature timber which normally cater for the
hole-nesting species.
Where a sufficiency of food is youchsated, it has been found
possible to induct a much larger number of birds per acre by the
provision of boxes and other nesting facilities than is the case under
natural conditions. On p. 891 of Vol. 35 of the Journal Mr. B. B.
Osmaston records that out of 12 nestboxes put up by him in one small
area of forest in the Andamans, no less than 9 were occupied by
Shamas (Kittacincla macroura).
This useful little pamphlet will be welcomed by all bird tovers.
It gives diagrams with exact measurements and instructions for making
several different types of boxes that have been tried with success on
various British birds. The second section deals with just those things
that a prospective ‘boxer’ wishes to know: Materials, Siting, Density,
Fixing, Inspecting boxes, Protection of entrance holes, Nest-material,
Keeping records, Artificial sites, Bibliography and Supply of nest
boxes. 7
There are great possibilities in India from this method of attracting
birds both as regards the enjovment to be obtained and the
opportunities it can provide for detailed scientific study of the life-
histories of numerous species, some of them perhaps amongst the
commonest, but about which our knowledge is nevertheless almost nil..
Copies of the pamphlet may be had from the Secretary, British
Trust for Ornithology, 2 King Edward Street, Oxford, on remittance
of the price plus 14d for postage. The two other equally useful Field
Guides previously published by the Trust are: No. 1. Trapping Methods
for Bird Ringers (reviewed in Vol. 49 (4) p. 773), and No. 2. How to
choose and use Field-glasses.
S.A.
6. MAN, MIND OR MATTER. By Charles Mayer. Translated
from the French and. with a preface by Harold A. Larrabee, pp. 167.
Boston, 1951 (The Beacon Press).
The author states in his preface ‘This book is an attempt to set
forth a renovated and rejuvenated philosophy of Rationalistice
Materialism’. Further down in the preface he indicates the plan
of the book: ‘The work is divided into three parts. The first deals
with our knowledge of the physical world, and the second more
‘specifically with the world of living things. In the third part, after
indicating what conclusions follow from a denial of the supernatural
and of any ultimate purpose in the world, we shall show that in place
of the traditional systems of morals, it is possible to substitute an
ethics derived from the idea of progress and capable of satisfying the
highest aspiration of man.’
From the foregoing the reader expects the small volume to be packed
with dispassionate systematic reasoning. The succeeding chapters,
19 in all with a conclusion and an appendix at the end, do not come
upto that expectation. The continuity of thought from chapter to
REVIEWS 713
chapter, and even within individual chapters is not always apparent.
Heavily controversial questions are introduced but not treated with
the attention, the thoroughness and the intellectual sincerity they
deserve. The conclusions, if any, arrived at are often arbitrary and
unsupported either by data or sound reasoning. For example the
question of “Free Will: Reality or Illusion’ is disposed off in a chapter
of just over two pages with the remarks that the problem ‘is after all
just a jeu d’ esprit’. .....an imaginary problem. It exists only in
our minds’.
At the outset the author formulates his position that matter
has existed from all eternity and contains within itself the seed
and principle of its own continuous evolution. All explanations that
are not founded on sense experience are to be rejected, therefore
there is neither justification, nor actually any necessity for postulating
a non-physical entity or an intelligent directing principle to explain
the nature of the Universe; and the development of simple physical
matter into living forms of a more and more complex structure which
have culminated in man and his mind. All is essentially matter and
no new outside principle is needed to explain the metamorphoses.
The author speculates that certain organic molecules must have
by chance so modified their structures as to develop the curious faculty
of ‘irritability’ or sensitivity and capacity to react to environment.
The author uses the term ‘irritability’ throughout the book to describe
the faculty.
This irritability though it is a characteristic of living matter is
- emphasised as being a phenomenon of the physical order, akin to
magnetism. It manifests itself more explicitly in all individual living
beings, from the simplest cell upwards, as a will to live, and as a
tendency to pursue the pleasurable and avoid the painful. This dual
principle working in the individual living creature is both the driving
force and the mechanism of biological evolution.
The author entertains some startling beliefs in support of his
theory. For instance that the development of nectaries in flowers is
due to the fact that the exudation of nectar “undoubtedly relieves it
(the plant) or even yields it a sexual satisfaction .... . Little by
little there has come about a specialisation of these exudations of
nectar. Why? Because in localizing itself the felt satisfaction in
doing so became more intense’ (p. 82). We are further taught about
the evolution of colour mimicry in animals, and about the reddish-
brown frog which adapts its colour to the conditions of light in which
it finds itself. The author believes that the frog has evolved the
characteristic by a long process of mechanical adaptation becoming
an acquired character under the determining action of the pleasure-pain
drive, because “the reddish brown frog seeks to achieve its maximum
well-being by adapting the colour of its skin to the sort of light it
encounters, and to that end in conditions of darkness gives its skin
a darkish colour in order to absorb a large part of the thermal rays,
or on the contrary, takes on a light colour in order to reflect the rays
which would otherwise bring it too much heat’ (p. 39). It seems
needless to extricate and comment on the errors and absurdities involved
in the foregoing quotations.
From Chapter X onwards the author explains his psychological
and ethical systems. During the exposition a number of topics are
714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
touched upon cursorily: Mind, Memory and Consciousness (Chapter x)
‘Oritique of the Ideal of Moral Obligation’ (Chapter xm1), ‘Ethical
Sanctions’ (Chapter xrv), ‘Right Laws and Justice’ (Chapter xv) and
many others appear in the later half of the book.
It is obvious that the author finds it difficult to build up a logically
palatable ethics upon a materialistic foundation, and the lack of
integration between his ethical and metaphysical opinions is painfully
evident.
This latter half of the work is not reviewed at length as the
subjects discussed do not appear to be of particular interest to readers
of a natural history journal.
ID ele!
7. DOWNS AND DUNES, their plant life and its environment.
By Sir Edward Salisbury. Pp. xii & 828; (25x16 cms.); illustrated
with 74 photographs, 93 line drawings and diagrams, together with 54
distribution maps. London, 1952. (G. Bell & Sons, Ltd.) Price 45s.
I have read many of the publications of Sir Edward Salisbury
with interest and pleasure; but the present volume seems to surpass
most of his previous books. ‘The preparation of the book has taken
Sir Hdward years of careful work in the field, and long patient hours
in the library; originally the work was presented in two courses of
lectures by Sir Edward as Fullerton Professor of the Royal Institution
of Great Britain. To say that the book is of great interest, particularly
for the student of plant ecology, may sound almost like a platitude;
t have gone through the book carefully and found it one of the most
interesting and attractive books on ecology that I have read for years.
To give the reader some idea of the book, I shall try and go through
some of the chapters in more than ordinary detail. |
The first 12 chapters deal with the downland flora, the rest up to
chapter 27 with the dune vegetation; the book is very naturally divided
into two parts, and the treatment is more or less similar for both parts.
The Vegetation of the Downs. The author discusses
first the geographical distribution of downs in Britain, the physical
and chemical characteristics of their soils and the effect of such soils
on root development. ‘There follows a bird’s-eye-view of the flora of
chalky downs; it is interesting to note that about 35% of the chalk
flora is made up of rosette plants, all rather similar in habit, but
belonging to many different families. In the same chapter the author
discusses with the aid of very clear maps the geographical elements
of the chalk flora; this chapter closes with a detailed discussion on
the root systems of chalk plants. Naturally animals form an important
part of the biotic element of the chalk; the notes here given sre not
intended to be accounts of animal life as such, but only to serve as an
indication of the specialised character of this aspect of the environment.
Chapter 4 gives a pattern for the study of chalk plants; over 60 plants
are studied in detail; English and scientific names, family name and
chromosome numbers are given for each plant; after a short deserip-
tion of the plant in question, the flowering times are noted, together
with the geographical origin and distribution of the same. ‘The latter _
data together with the chromosome numbers are interesting features
REVIEWS V1
and should be included in any of our. Indian floras, whenever possible.
The author then passes ta study beechwoods, the characteristic wood-
lands of chalky hills; often such woods.are almost completely devoid
of a shrub layer, and this ‘enhances the cathedral-like effect produced
by the aisles of the smooth columnar trunks’. ‘One of the outstanding
features of the structure of the seminatural beechwoods is the dis-
continuity in the ages of the trees and saplings. It is soon realised
that these comprise groups belonging to definite age classes, cften
separated by a period approximating to seven or fourteen years.’
In a further chapter Sir Edward studies colonisation and succession
of scrub and cornfield on the chalk, and gives short notes on the help
birds and other animals render in these processes; the weeds of the
chalk are also studied in detail. Chapter 10 is of particular interest
to gardeners, it deals with gardening on calcareous soils; due to the
specialised chemical and physical condition of chalky soil the number
of garden plants that can be cultivated with success upon it is rather
limited; the author mentions a number of trees and shrubs and garden
herbs that can be profitably cultivated on such soils.
The Vegetation of the Dunes. The second part
beginning with chapter 13 studies the flora of the dunes. ‘The soil
consists mainly of sand grains with a hmited admixture of organic
materials; among the latter shells of various molluses, etc. give the
soil of the dunes its calcium carbonate, dead bodies of both marine
and land animals yield a fair amount of nitrogenous material. One
of the most typical characteristics of the dunes is their mobility, a very
significant feature that considerably affects vegetation, particularly as
mobility is usually coupled with a very poor capacity for retaining
water. On account of these hard conditions ‘sand dunes are to be
regarded as temperate deserts the arid condition of which is conditioned
not by climatic circumstances as obtain in true deserts but by the lack
of capacity of the dune soil to retain water. The sand dune is therefore
what is technically known as an edaphic desert.’ (p. 165). As a
result of the low water content of dunes, plants growing there typically
develop long roots, by means of which they are able to reach the water
table down below. ‘During summer in sunny days, dunes can attain
a temperature of 60°C. or over, and this together with the poor water
content of the soil renders dunes very difficult for plant life. On
chapter 17 and following chapters the author studies the development
of the sand dune from birth to maturity and lists the various piants
that help in the process of dune building. Chapter 24 discusses a
number of plants that can be seen on dunes and which are normally
associated with chalky soils, and the list is rather striking; this chapter
explains the reason why the author has united Dunes and Downs in
his study. |
Chapter 25 deals with the flora of the dunes and its geographical
relatives, an interesting chapter illustrated with very clear maps show-
ing the origin and spread of the various geographical elements of the
dunes. Plants from the Mediterranean, the South Atlantic, from
continental Europe, etc. have come together with a number of native:
plants to form the typical flora of the dunes of Britain.
The book closes with a select bibliography for further reading on this.
interesting subject, and with a complete index.
716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL VAST SO CUELNE Viol. ipl
The printing is excellent, it is an honour to the printing trade of
Britain; as for the illustrations, photographs and line drawings, it is
enough to say that they are masterly and very well selected to illustrate
the various chapters of the book. In view of the presentation «f the
book and the many illustrations, the price of 45s. is far from excessive.
In spite of the specialised nature of the book, dealing as it does with a
restricted aspect of the vegetation of Britain, it is a volume that will
be read with profit by Indian students and research workers especially
those engaged in the study of plant ecology; the layman, too, will
find the book interesting.
St. XAVIER'S COLLEGE,
BomBAY, EE SANA EZ AGO Se Sie
July 1st, 1953. :
8. RECORDS OF PARROTS BRED IN CAPTIVITY. ~ By
Arthur A. Prestwich. Pp. 3876 (84”x 5%”). London (1950-1952):
Arthur A. Prestwich. Price 35s.
This is a useful compilation of records, extending over 30 years, of
parrots and parakeets from many countries that have bred in captivity,
and should be of particular interest to aviculturists and zoological
cardens. The index covers some 200 species and subspecies, of which
15 are from the Indian Region. A great many hybrids are recorded.
As a work of reference, the publication is to be welcomed.
S.A.
9. SEARCH FOR THE SPINY BABBLER Bird Hunting in
Nepal. By Dillon Ripley. Pp. 1-301 (73" x 5”). London, 1953 (Victor
Gollanez Ltd.). Price 14s. net.
The recent conquest of Everest through Nepal has re-aroused
interest in that relatively unknown land and all literature thereon is
sought with interest. What little knowledge we possess about its birds
and animals is due largely to Brian Hodgson, who represented the
Bast India Company at the court of the Maharaja about a hundred
years ago. As Hodgson’s personal activities were restricted to the
Kathmandu valley, the majority of his specimens were procured by
Nepalese collectors resulting in many of them being indifferently
preserved and prepared and often lacking data regarding locality,
altitude and other particulars necessary for scientific material.
Ornithological work in the Himalayas to the east and west of Nepal
focussed particular attention on this unknown area since in many
cases different races of birds were found on either side. It was
intriguing to guess what natural conditions prevailed in Nepal, and how
and where the dividing line between the two races existed.
‘Dillon Ripley, who has done a considerable amount of work on
eastern birds, was fortunate in being one of the first to be permitted
into ‘unknown’ Nepal. The collection of birds and mammals miade
by his expedition, sponsored jointly by the Yale University, the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and the National Geographic
Society of America, is of great interest.
REVIEWS 717
One of the primary objects of the expedition was to look tor the
Mountain Quail which was originally discovered around Mussoorie over
70 years ago and which has since completely vanished. The Sviny
Babbler which forms the title of the book was really a consolation
prize.
The book is a general account of the work and vicissitudes of the
expedition written in narrative form for the non-technical reader. It
furnishes a good picture of the general routine and pattern which, with
local variations, are common to all zoological field expeditions in
India, with their accompanying joys and sorrows—the delays, frustra-
tions, and disappointments and the sudden and often unexpected turns
of good fortune. Eimphasis is laid throughout on the disquieting
problem of nature conservation and deforestation. It seems that
among the intensely cultivated mountains of the Nepal hinterland the
destruction of forest is proceeding at an alarming tempo, the steepness
of the hillsides contributing to the speed of the natural denudation
caused by the heavy monsoon rains and swollen mountain torrents.
It is having disastrous results on the vegetation and aninal lite as
well. The problem of how to grow enough food for our ever-increasing
population without seriously impairing forest growth or our natural
resources is not peculiar to Nepal; and it is obviously one whose
tackling deserves the highest priority if Man is to survive.
Dr. Ripley writes interestingly and even amusingly, and often with
a keen insight of men and affairs.
Though the book contains several errors in the transcription of
popular and scientific names, all in all it is a readable record of a
valuable - scientific contribution in the making.
The reviewer cannot however help noticing the episode of the
shooting of two chital does as also of a small stag. We should have
thought that visitors to our country would respect the rules and usages
of such sport as is afforded to them.
The expedition carried special personnel and equipment for photo-
eraphy. It is therefore all the more regrettable that no pictures are
included in the book. Readers will agree that good photographs of
far away places, interesting peoples and customs are important factors
in the make-up of modern nature-cum-travel books.
H.A.
10. WILD ELEPHANT CHASE. By Heinrich Oberjohann.
(Dobson, 15s.)
A reviewer should have no feelings, only judgment, and his
judgment should recognise no values other than literary. Until a
machine is invented which can shoot out a criticism of a book, he
should try to be that machine. Sometimes, however, his feelings
intervene, and where no literary element is present to distract him
they may even boil over.
Herr Oberjohann is, or was, since no biographical details are
provided after 1938, a German explorer, intrepid, resourceful, who
because of his ‘passion for animals’, obtained employment with
various dealers, notably Hagenbeck, and went out to stock his zoos
and circuses. “Not content with capturing animals, Oberjohann was
718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
always intent on studying their behaviour and psychology, on under-
standing them and making himself understood by them.’ ‘Wild
Elephant Chase’ describes the cream of four years of hardship and
adventure in the Lake Chad region, where, he was told, the largest
elephants in Africa were to be found, tormented by insects but secure,
in their impregnable swamps, from man.
When Herr Oberjohann arrived, like Tribulat-Bonhomet the swan-
killer, in his home-made leather suit, with his guns and beaters and
whip and pipe, the herd numbered about two hundred. For the
next four years, the animals were to know no peace while Herr
Oberjohann dogged their footsteps, examined their droppings and
abducted nineteen small calves, all of whom died, their griefstricken
mothers going mad or being shot together with any adult animals
who allowed him to approach them. Jn addition he conducted some
experiments to prove that baby elephants who were impregnated with
his scent were trampled to death by their mothers. We can therefore
estimate that he reduced the herd by about fifty during the four years
in which he ‘understood’ them.
Occasionally he permits a crocodile tear to water his home-made
buckskin:
‘T looked over at the dying cow: she was bleeding profusely and
a big patch of the water in front of her was coloured a deep blood-
red . . . Now the sounds from the cow grew. She was talking in
her own tongue, the elephant language. I wished I could understand
what she was saying. It was an uncanny sound and it got under my
skin, for it was through my own brutality, my crime against nature,
that this elephant mother lay dying. I longed to escape. ‘I refused
to remain any longer as witness to this tragic scene. I wondered
whether the people back home, whether Carlo Hagenbeck himself,
had any idea of the unspeakable tragedy which is involved in robbing
a fellow creature of its freedom.’
In the next chapter he has quite recovered:
‘I fired: the leading elephant went down on his knees. One of
the cows, refusing to be frightened off by the death of her companion,
rushed wildly ahead.
I fired again. The cow collapsed. Now I turned my attention
to the baby elephants.’
Mindful of the casualties of Hiroshima, we proudly call this the
Atomic Age, but future historians may look back on this century as
the time when man finally exterminated everything larger than him-
self and ceased to be a trustee for the older forms of life on his planet:
Whales, basking-sharks, dugongs and manatees, sea-lions, sea-
leopards, and sea-elephants, walruses and polar-bears, giraffes—and
elephants. Capable of living to a hundred, of kissing, of combining
together, of thinking ahead, and endowed with extrasensory perception
or telepathy, their continued existence is clearly intolerable.
Perhaps the French authorities of the Chad region could take
them under their control, perhaps the four Powers who control tropical
Africa could pool the remaining herds in a safety zone, as in the
Belgian Congo. Meanwhile we can do little but hamper Herr
Oberjohann’s further exercises in ‘understanding’ by omitting to read
a book in which so much fascinating elephant lore is purchased at
REVIEWS 719
such fearful cost by a man who, knowing he is doing wrong, is yet
unwilling to stop.
CYRIL CONNOLLY
[This review is reprinted from the Sunday Times, London,
May 17, 1958, by kind permission of its editor. It is to be hoped
that Herr Hagenbeck on whose behalf all these brutalities were
ostensibly committed will be as nauseated by the unashamed
disclosures of his unspeaixable minion as every humane person and
wild life conservationist is bound to feel, and that he will take suitable
steps to end this disgusting business. It is also hoped that the book
will be an eyeopener to the governments in whose territories Mr.
Oberjohann and his tribe pursue their despicable trade, and will help
to set in motion the urgent and drastic measures called for.—Hds. |
The following books have been added to the Society’s library since
May 19538:—
1. THe PresERVATION oF WiLp Lire 1n Inpia.—A compilation
with a summarized index of contents. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton
(Bangalore Press, 1953). (A presentation copy).
2. Lire oF THE SHORE AND SHALLOW SEA. By Douglas P. Wilson
(Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1985). (A Review copy).
8. RecorDs oF Parrots BreD IN Captivity. By Arthur A.
Prestwich (Arthur A. Prestwich, 1950-1952). (A Review copy).
4. WiL~p FLOWERS OF THE CEYLON Hints. By Thomas HK. T. Lond
(Oxford University Press, 1953). (A Review copy).
5. Man: Minn or Matter. By Charles Mayer (Beacon Press,
1951). (A Review copy).
6. A Pocxkrr-Boox or LessER-KNown British Birps. By Wilfred
Willett and Charles A. Hall (Adam and Charles Black, 1952).
7. NeEstTBpoxEs. By Edwin Cohen and Bruce Campbell (British
Trust for Ornithology, 1952). (A Review copy).
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
t. Ai LOCAL VARIETY OF THE NIEGIRG LANGOOR
In June 1952, Mr. Angus F. Hutton sent us three skins of the
_Nilgiri Langoor (Kasi johnii), 2 adult and 1 juvenile, obtained at
Rousdon Mullai, south-west slope Nilgiri-Wynaad, and drew atten-
tion to the fact that they all had greyishwhite buttocks and thighs,
which he said gave them the appearance of ‘wearing white bathing
trunks’ in life.
The description in the Fauna of British India
p. 148 reads :—
Mammals (Pocock)
‘Frequently there is a conspicuous grizzled patch on the loins
whence it spreads on to the extreme root of the tail, and on the
upper part of the thighs; this patch varies greatly in distinctness,
and may be undetectable.’
Mr. Hutton, who appeared to be familiar with ordinary Nilgiri
Langoor, wrote that this variety was confined to an isolated valley of
the south-west Wynaad Plateau at an elevation of 1,500 ft. He
estimated their number at not less than 50.
As it was not possible to match these three skins in the Bombay
collection, they were sent to the British Museum. Mr. R. W. Hayman’s
report on them reads, in part :—
‘It would be interesting to ascertain if this variety is restricted
to one place, or if individuals turn up throughout a known range
of this species.
On comparison with our specimens, I find that although
Hutton’s two adults have a more clearly defined grey rump than
the majority of ours, it is not quite so obvious as in the photo-
graphs. And we have an adult skin, unfortunately with - no
locality, which is fully as grey on the rump as your skin.
Although it may be the case that in one particular area this
extra greyness is characteristic, such a character may well be
a ‘family’ feature. For instance, in one locality on the northern
slopes of Mt. Kenya the local black and white Colobus monkeys
have a strong tendency to albinism, and most of their normal black
pattern has disappeared. But it is not. considered necessary to
distinguish them by a scientific name, and I think the same would
apply to the skins under discussion, especially in view of the un-
known locality of a B. M. skin exactly like yours.’
114 APOLLO STREET,
3OMBAY-T, EDITORS
May 15, 1953.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 721
2. THE SOUTH INDIAN PANTHER—PANTHERA
PARDUS FUSCA
The Indian panther found on the Mysore plateau is a short haired
animal with a fulvous coat, white belly, and black rings in the form
of rosettes all over the body, and rings on the tail. There is con-
siderable variation in the colour, the animals found in the denser and
shadier forests of the Western Ghats having a richer colour than
those inhabiting the drier, open country. Biack panthers are not
uncommon, but they are relatively more abundant in the evergreen
or sub-evergreen forests of the Western Ghats than in more open
country. Strangely enough, the first panther I shot during my_pro-
fessional forest career (Christmas, 1928) turned out to be a black
panther, and this was in the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats
at a place called Agumbe in Mysore State. A black panther’s spots
are distinguishable only in bright light.
The panther is in habit very watchful and stealthy. It has a
great faculty for concealment, utilizes even the most meagre cover
for this purpose and often infests villages and solitary homesteads,
carrying off sheep, goats, poultry and dogs, the last being its.
favourite food near human habitations. In forest areas it sometimes
feeds on monkeys, and it is this habit which makes it an ardent
tree climber.
Though apparently similar in its ways to a tiger, the panther
has several distinctive characteristics. It is more ubiquitous than the
tiger and less affected by the advance of cultivation; but the most
striking difference between these two felines lies in the ease with
which the panther can climb trees. This advantage renders it far
more cunning and careful than its striped relative. The ‘kill’ of
the panther can be distinguished from that of a tiger by the fact that
the panther generally attacks first the shoulder muscles and the
chest, whereas the tiger starts tearing out the more massive muscles.
of the thigh in the region of the buttocks. A big panther may,
however, start its feed at the hind quarters much like a tiger.
The tiger likes water and spends the hot summer afternoons some-
times wallowing in it like a buffalo, although it always selects a
clear forest stream and does not take to muddy or stagnant pools.
The panther avoids water and does not readily swim, though when
compelled it can do so as well as the tiger. Being less fond of water
than the tiger, the panther is frequently found in very dry zones.
It is also more tolerant of the sun, and makes its abode on the
parched, treeless, rocky hills of the Deccan, where there is often
nothing better than low, thorny scrub. Here it lives amidst the
numerous rocky clefts and crevices.
The panther is also infinitely more audacious than a tiger and
regularly haunts the vicinity of villages where it sometimes becomes
a scourge to human life and property. Such panthers have been
“called ‘Village Panthers’ (J.B.N.H.S., 1933, p. 105), to distinguish
them from those which live in forests known as ‘Forest Panthers’.
Domesticated animals can be more easily taken by the panther than
wild ones, but in doing so it comes into conflict with man and
thus develops greater cunning, boldness and resource than the tiger.
422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Like the tiger, the panther sometimes takes to man-eating, and a
man-eating panther is even more to be dreaded than a tiger with
similar tastes, on account of its greater agility, and also its greater
stealthiness and silence. It can stalk and jump, and, as already
stated, can climb better than a tiger, and it can also conceal itself
in astonishingly meagre cover, often displaying uncanny intelligence
in this act. \A man-eating panther frequently breaks through the
frail walls of village huts and carries away children and even adults
as they lie asleep. The writer has come upon forest labour camps in
which young children sleeping between their parents, or babies
coddling in the arms of their mothers, have been seized at dead of
night, the brutes concerned having forced their entry into the human
tenements by breaking through their improvised doors. So stealthy
and cunning is a man-eater, and often so accomplished in its tree
climbing habit, that shikaris perched on machans on trees have been
carried off by the very animals for which they lay in wait (Lydekker
1924). :
On one occasion, in May 1936, I nearly lost my life while waiting
on a machan over a panther kill in Kukwada—Unbrani state forest
(Bhadravati division). A live bait had been tied up for a tiger which
was taken during the night, the hind-quarters having been attacked
by the feline. Assuming the killer to be a tiger, I sat up on a
machan in a large spreading banyan tree (Ficus bengalensis) about
120 yards from the kill. The animal did not come to the kill on
the first night. Between 12 midnight and 3 a.m. a long string of
bullock carts carrying timber passed that way and, as usual in tiger-
infested areas, the cartmen made a lot of noise, which appears to
have scared the animal away. This was ascertained next morning
by examining the pug marks of the animal which were visible up to
within a hundred yards of the kill, but had then gone back along
the same path. At the point from which the animal had retraced its
steps, it seems to have sat and watched for some time, and, also, it
had rolled about in the dry loose and cool dust, just as a tired horse
does, a habit which seems to be somewhat strange and uncommon
in the case of a feline. Why the animal did not come to the kill,
whether it suspected something wrong or whether it had been scared
away by the noise of the timber cartmen one cannot say.. The next
evening I again got on the machan with gathering dusk—about 7 p.m.,
prepared, as previously, to sit out the whole night. The animal came
to the kill within half an hour and started its meal in right earnest.
The torch was flashed in its direction, but the brute was not visible
because it was crouching low on the off-side of the kill where the
light cast a long shadow. Unmoved by the flood of light, however,
it continued its meal. So, raising my voice I repeated three times
‘la-la’ upon which the animal quickly withdrew into the bushes, but
it returned to the kill in a few minutes and resumed crunching the
bones. The torch was flashed on a second time, but only the hind
portion of the animal was visible the rest being effectively screened
by the kill; it was a panther. A carefuly placed 12-bore bullet in
the region of the lungs and with a terrific roar the brute disappeared,
but its panting growl continued to be audible from the bushes about
150 yards away on the right hand side of the kill. Obviously its
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 723
dungs had been punctured and. it was having difficulty in breathing.
There was no time for a second shot, nor was it advisable to flash
the torch again at the wounded animal. An hour and a half later,
at about 11 p.m. all noise from the animal had ceased. Dead silence
prevailed till about 2 a.m., when, suddenly I heard some scratching
noise on the bark of my tree. It was now pitch dark, the little
moonlight which had existed having gone. At first the noise was
mistaken for that of a field mouse scrambling up the bark but a
moment later, the branches of the tree shook as if rocked by a heavy
object. The torch was flashed in that direction and, to my surprise
and horror, I found the panther, eyeing me dangerously from a neigh-
bouring branch hardly 14 ft. away. Fortunately the 12-bore, loaded
with buck shot and bullet in its two barrels, lay ready to fire, and
both the barrels were emptied one after another into the animal.
‘The brute fell off the branch—dead—but it was not before daybreak
that I could leave the machan. Neither the animal’s approach to
the tree, nor its scrambling up could be heard beyond what has been
described above, and had I been dozing on the machan, as sometimes
happens during the early morning hours, this tale would perhaps
have remained untold.
Its almost absolutely noiseless approach, astounding capacity for
concealment and its lightning agility in attack make the panther one
of the most formidable animals to encounter. On another occasion
I lost one of my favourite dogs (Pfuffy) from underneath my writing
table even as I sat working on the verandah of the P.W.D. resthouse
at Kadur (Mysore State), a dry area in that part of the country. It
happened at the end of a hot afternoon in /April when the first pre-
monsoon showers had cooled the evening air. The dog was sitting
at my feet in the darkness of the shadow cast by the kerosene lamp
on the table. The panther was first noticed by me, as I sat absorbed
in my office files, only when it was in the act of leaping off the raised
verandah pavement with the dog in its mouth, and that too because
the dog sounded its first and last note of agony, before its voice was
finally stilled in death. There was no bush close-by in which the
brute could have been taking cover. An examination of its pug
‘marks left on the wet mud, showed that it had approached the edge
of the verandah under cover of darkness right across the open space
which separated the masonry pavement from the green beyond.
There it lay watching, flat on the earth, just beyond the edge of the
pavement, may be for the space of a few minutes. Then, perhaps
tired of the waiting, it grew bolder and making use of the long
‘shadow, cast by the kerosene lamp on the table, to cover its uncannily
silent approach, it rushed at the dog which lay dozing at my feet
‘oblivious of the lurking danger, seized it by the throat and made off,
all in an instant, towards the low scrubby forest growth at the edge
of the compound and disappeared for ever. A beat organised in the
nearby patch of scrub forest next morning proved unsuccessful.
Like the tiger, the ‘forest panther’ follows the beaten tracks of
animals or lies in hiding for its prey. It attacks its prey from the
ground, either seizing its neck from below and biting through the
trachea and the main arteries after wringing the neck, or springs
<lown upon it from an overhanging tree. A well grown panther may
13
724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
also spring upon the shoulders of the quarry from a side and bear
it down by its own weight, breaking the neck of its victim during
this onslaught. Though preying practically on the same kind of
animals as the tiger—the deer tribe and pig in forests, and cattle,
sheep and goats near human habitations—the panther, in keeping with
its smaller size, attacks animals of the smaller variety leaving the
full sized ones generally to the tiger. The panther also takes to
eating small animals like the porcupine, hares and even the smaller
rodents, and village panthers often lift poultry. A panther returning
to its kill is often extremely cautious, but in this respect the animal
which inhabits forest regions is different from the village panther,
which has come in contact with human beings. The former
approaches the kill boldly, and does so even after being once shot at,
provided, of course, that it is unhurt. So, too, does a forest tiger
inexperienced in the ways of man. A panther which dwells in the
vicinity of human habitations, on the other hand, is the ‘personifica-
tion of cautiousness’. He approaches the kill slowly and deliberately,
watching the surroundings of the kill every instant and frequently
surveying carefully the trees around it. Anything causing the least
suspicion will make it give off a ‘whoof’ of surprise and abandon
its meal rather than take the smallest risk.
A pack of wild dogs is more than a match for a solitary panther,
however powerful and experienced the animal may be, and I have
witnessed three or four instances in which a panther has been de-
prived of its legitimate prey and routed from its hard-earned kill or
even massacred by the combined onslaught of wild dogs,
Though not exhibiting the magnificent lines of a full grown tiger
«i panther has perfected its symmetry of form, grace and agility, and
it has been considered the ‘embodiment of the ideal of a beast of prey’.
The average size of a full grown male panther, in Mysore State,
is between 64 and 7 ft., a forest panther being generally better built
and larger in size than its village counterpart. Dunbar Brander
gives the average size of a forest panther as 7 ft. 5 in. Burke has
recorded a panther 8 ft. 54 in. in length stated to have been shot at
Bandipur in Mysore district by A. G. Arbuthnot, one of 7 ft. 10 in.
shot by R. R. Lewis at Bellary, and another of 7 ft. 3 in. shot by
H. Norman in the Nilgiris. But, to-day, a panther of about 6% ft.
in length may be considered a good average for Mysore State.
DeHRA Dun, U.P. K. KADAMBI, p.sce.
November, 1952. Mysore Forest Service
3. A CROSS BETWEEN THE DOMESTIC DOG (CANIS
FAMILIARIS) AND THE FOX (VULPES BENGALENSIS)
(With a photo)
Crosses between domestic or wild dogs and wolf or jackal, or fox,
are commonly reported, more frequently between jackals and dogs.
Hybrids between jackals and wild or domestic dogs are reported earlier
*
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
~I
bo
Or
in this Journal by Mr. C. H. Donald and Lt.-Col. Burton, etc.
Sportsmen have often noticed dog-like jackals, later identified to be
hybrid dog-jackals. Blanford once expressed the opinion that the
5-week-old dog-fox hybrids
common Indian pie-dog may be in part descended from wolf or more
likely from jackal, and the editors of this journal added that the
jackal-like appearance of many pariah dogs seemed to indicate that
cross breeding takes place between dogs and jackals.
The accompanying photo shows five-week old hybrid dog-foxes.
A vixen which has been kept as a pet from the size of a rat by Prof.
J. P. Joshua, was found to be friendly with his dog, whose mother
is a pedigree Alsatian and father a Bull-terrier, and he himself has
a Dalmatian fur. They were successfully mated and three young
ones were brought forth on the morning of the 14th of February, 1953.
Two of them are males and the other a female.
For all practical purposes they look like dogs, but they resemble
the mother vixen in two respects. Firstly, in preferring darkness
and avoiding bright light, and in being active at night, rather than
during the day, and secondly, in attempting to howl occasionally
when they are in distress. Unlike the dog, the young ones have a
bushy tail which is not curved. Donald has reported a set of hybrid
jackal-dogs to have the innate fear for man, which is not observed
in these pups, but they are extremely playful with their master just
like their mother.
It is common for the members of Canidae, especially dogs and
jackals, to regurgitate food for the benefit of young ones up to six
weeks. Such regurgitation was noticed in this case only after the
sixth week, apparently when the mother felt that the youn ones
were not properly suckled.
Whether the offspring will be sterile or fertile when interbred,
or when crossed with the dog or the fox, is yet to be seen. Such
interbreeding between jackals and dog's is probably of natural occur-
726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NA RU RAL isis O CLE AYE Vio) mpd
rence in the outskirts of jungle villages, but fertile crosses between
foxes and dogs are comparatively rare.
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, 15 fo ASYAUINIITE LEVEN IRAN)
‘PTAMBARAM,
May 20, 1953.
4. WILD BUFFALOES AND TAME
I refer to your quotation from Captain Baldwin’s ‘The Large and
Small Game of Bengal’, given in the Miscellaneous Notes of Volume
51 {1) at the conclusion of Mr. R. P. Noronha’s account on the
above subject.
I have had occasion during the last three years to make fairly
extensive enquiries in this connection in and around the sanctuaries
and forest areas of Assam, and in certain respects my findings dis-
agree with those of Captain Baldwin. I found, for instance, that
the Assamese and the Nepalese herdsmen of Assam have a_ very
marked dislike for wild bulls associating with domestic herds
for the following reasons :—
(a) As soon as a wild bull starts associating with a domestic
herd he immediately kills the domestic bulls, which prevents the
herd being kept up as explained in (b) below.
(b) As a result of wild bulls mating with domestic cows, approxi-
mately 90% of the calves are still-born. Why this is so I have
been unable to ascertain and you may be in a position to throw
more light on the subject, but I should like to quote J. W. Best
who says in his ‘Shikar Notes’: ‘Wild bulls frequently take over
the mastery of a domestic herd, and although they mate with
them, the calves are said to be still-born and the cows die at their
birth’... Best was talking about wild buffalo in Madhya Pradesh
and I found his remark equally true about Assam, although my
enquiries did fail to corroborate that the cows also usually die.
(c) As stated by Captain Baldwin, such wild bulls often lose
their fear of man and sometimes even become killers, not hesitating
to attack on sight any human being who tries to approach the
herd they have taken possession of. This feature, besides being
fraught with grave danger for the herdsmen, makes it almost impossi-
ble for the domestic cows to be milked and picketed. A noteworthy
point in this connection is that it is usually a young bull, driven
out of a wild herd by a stronger bull, who begins to take an
active interest in domestic cows, but occasionally one also comes
across an old animal taking a similar but more casual interest
after having been ousted from a wild herd by a strong ‘up-and-
coming’ young bull.
In conclusion I should also like to state that I had opportunities
to see a few mature cows who were the product of wild bulls mating
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 727
with domestic cows. These animals were invariably very conspicuous
in their herds by virtue of their size, heavy build, exceptionally large
horns and, on closer observation, very much bigger hooves.
Post Box 1309,
BoOMBAyY-1I, SURENDR LALL
March 25, 1953.
l
5. WILD BUFFALOES AND TAME
(With ~a photo)
With reference to the note on the above subject by R. P. Noronha,
the quotation from Captain Baldwin and the interesting comment on
these two by Surendr Lall [above], the following observations may be
of interest. They are the result of some 16 years’ study of this
problem in those parts of Assam where herds of domestic buffaloes
are grazed in close proximity to wild ones.
Firstly, I do not think it right to presume that the solitary wild
bull buffalo which joins up with a herd of domestic ones has in all
cases been driven out from the wild herd by a stronger bull. As in
the case of elephants and gaur, the solitary bull buffalo may have
left the wild herd of its own free will: the advantages to it of such
Wild bull buffalo with domestic cow near Kaziranga Wild Life S.nctuary, Assam
a course are obvious—a harem with little or no rivalry! I agree
with Surendr Lall that the solitary wild bull buffalo mixing with
domestic herds may be either an old or a middle-aged animal.
728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Captain Baldwin seems to have contradicted himself by saying
first that ‘The Assamese keep no tame bull buffaloes so they are
dependent on the wild bulls for keeping up the breed’, and later that
‘We have frequently shot these bulls at the request of the villagers’.
Surendr Lall is correct in stating that the owners and herdsmen of
domestic buffaloes in Assam strongly dislike the wild bulls coming
into their herds. But they have no option in the matter. They
cannot keep a domestic bull in such circumstances, for if they do it
instantly gets killed or driven away by the incoming wild one. The
wild bull also usually chases away herdsmen, and often follows the
domestic herd up to the picketing lines and thereby prevents milking.
With regard to Surendr Lall’s belief that approximately 90% of
the calves of wild bulls and domestic cows are still-born, and his
reference to J. W. Best’s statement that the cows die at the time
of calving (in Madhya Pradesh), these statements need qualifying,
i think. Enquiries made by me have shown that about 75% of such
calves die between birth and eight days after birth, because the
domestic cows have not sufficient milk to feed the half wild calf,
owing to the poorer grazing than that enjoyed by the wild ones. Of
the cows themselves details are not available, but I have been told
that the smaller sized domestic cows often fail to conceive, or else
if they conceive they die at the time of calving. The bigger and
stronger domestic cows conceive more easily, and usually survive the
ordeal of producing a calf larger than normal.
As the wild buffaloes are larger and stronger animals, so the
calves of wild bulls and domestic cows are larger, sturdier and hand-
somer than those which are domestic on both sides. Also, as Surendr
Lall points out, their horns are larger and more circular, and their
hooves bigger.
A point which seems to have been missed is the marked decrease
in the milk supply of cow buffaloes which have been bred from a
wild bull. The owners and herdsmen on the north and south boun-
daries of Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary in Assam recently informed
me that the milk supply of cross-bred cows drops by a half, from
1-13 seers to 4-2 seers per day per cow. These cows of mixed
descent are also reported to give trouble to the herdsmen at time of |
calving.
On the other hand A. J. W. Milroy, a former Conservator of
Forests of Assam and an ardent wild life conservationist, believed
that the milking capacity of cross-bred cows was actually greater. In
a report on the year 1935-1936 he wrote °. . greater encouragement
given to the breeding of the half-wild stock (i.e. the domestic herds
which are loosely grazed near the haunts of wild ones) for which
Assam has always been famous, and which needs crossing with the
wild bulls from time to time to preserve its size and milking qualities’.
More investigation is needed on this point..
Previous articles and notes in the journal of this Society have
usually dealt with the shikar aspect of buffalo. In these more
enlightened times, when the camera and the note-book have largely
replaced the rifle, a complete ecological study of the wild buffalo
seems called for.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 729
A great deal of observation in the different parts of the country
where the wild buffalo is still found needs to be done, in order to
produce a complete assessment of the advantages and disadvantages
of wild blood in herds of domestic buffalo. The opinions of stock-
breeders, agriculturists and veterinary surgeons should also be sought.
In order to make the task easier for the staff of the Forest
Department, buffalo owners, herdsmen and other persons interested
in this subject, I have compiled the following questionnaire which
may be of some use.
ag Ringe wre lowmlll [ow i A Ilo.
(a) Is the solitary wild bull which leaves the wild herd usually a
young bull? or a middle-aged one? or an old one?
(b) Is it usually ousted from the wild herd by a stronger bull?
or does it leave the wild herd of its own accord?
(c) Are there occasions when more than one wild bull joins a
domestic herd? If so, with what result?
2, BeEMAVIOWUr OF tine wWeullal Ino welik
(a) Does it always kill or chase away the domestic bulls?
(b) Does it always chase and give trouble to the herdsmen and
milkers ?
(c) Does it always return to the jungle at the end of the day?
or does it wait outside the picketing lines till morning?
Seasons.
bo
(a) Do the wild bulls join the domestic herds at all times of the
year? or during special seasons?
(b) Do domestic buffalo come into ‘season’ more in certain months
than in others?
(c) What is the period of gestation, and when are calves usually
born?
A. DOMESTIC COWS Sry GG Wye el sw cl oo It
(a) Do all cows conceive? or only some? If so, which ones?
(b) Do any cows get injured or die at time of service? If so,
what proportion, and why?
(c) Do any cows die at time of calving? If so, what proportion,
and why?
The offspring of wild bull and domestic cow.
bi
{a) Do all calves survive? If not, what proportion die?
(b) Are the calves always larger and stronger?
(c) What other differences are apparent in these calves?
(d) If the calf is a female, when grown up is the milk supply
greater or less than that of a purely domestic cow? By
what amount?
(e) Does such a cross-bred. cow give trouble at time of calving?
or at time of milking?
{f) If the calf is a male, when grown up does it fetch an equally
good price as a purely domestic animal when sold?
730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
(g) Are there any other advantages or disadvantages of wild
blood coming into a domestic herd? If so, what are they?
And do the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, or
vice versa ?:
It is suggested that, with the approval of the Conservators of
Forests, all reports collected through personnel of the Forest Depart-.
ment should be sent to the respective Divisional Forest Officers, copy
to Mr. E. P. Gee of Doyang T.E., Oating P.O., Assam, who will
be only too pleased to compile all information thus received.
Doyanc TEA ESTATE,
OADING EAOe Be PaGhe
ASSAM,
Ai AS Bo TCS 3}.
6. CANNIBALISM IN HEDGEHOGS
The hedgehogs, Hemiechinus auritus coilaris Gray and Hardwicke,
and Paraechinus micropus Blyth are found in abundance in this semi--
arid region of Rajasthan. During my studies on their embryology I
have collected a large number of them. In the laboratory I keep them in
wooden cages of large size, in which a trial has been made to provide:
them with more or less natural conditions. The cages are kept in.
well ventilated rooms where plenty of air and light can be had.
In August-September 1952, when their breeding season was over
the females were caught from their respective burrows along with:
their young ones. Many of the latter were in the ‘closed eye’ and
suckling stage. But they possessed a remarkable power of rolling”
up; they used to lie during the day as a ball of spines, the OS being
born with spines.
Once our servant totally forgot to feed them for about a week,
so the hedgehogs were very hungry and famishing. One evening”
two of them were noticed attacking a young one which was on’ the
move. The points of attack were the posterior limbs, which were:
later chewed. The young made a pathetic noise which was not very
easy to hear. After a short while the attackers succeeded in getting
the young unrolled and started eating the abdomen. Three others
joined them. I cannot, however, ascertain whether the mother of
the young was also among these, since the body of a hedgehog is so
covered with spines that it is very difficult to tell the sex just by
looking at one.
The other night a hedgehog, Hemiechinus a. collaris, died a
natural death. Next morning I observed that both the species, H.
a. collaris and P. micropus, were busy breakfasting on the carcase.
In January 1953 I fed them on a dead specimen with its abdomen cut
open. Most of the hedgehogs present in the cage relished the viscera.
Thus both types of cannibalism are present among hedgehogs =
feeding on a dead companion, and killing it and then feeding on it.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 731
However, when properly fed the animals do not, usually, molest one
another.
Brrta CoLiecE, Pant, ISHWAR PRAKASH, sc.
April 24, 1953. Research Scholar
7. A COLOUR VARIATION, AND ALBINISM IN THE GIANT
SOQUIRREL—RATUFA INDICA
Subsequent to the publication of ‘Races of the Indian Giant
Squirrel’ (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 50, pp. 467-474), we have had the oppor-
tunity of examining 89 additional specimens collected by the Mammal
Survey and recently returned to Bombay by the British Museum.
While they fully confirm our conclusions, a specimen (male)
collected by J. Riley O’Brien at 3,000 ft. elevation, 5 miles north of
Gungavadori in the Palni Hills {whence no others were collected)
represents either an individual or a local colour variation.
It differs from maxima, which occurs in the neighbouring areas,
in having the sides of the body more reddish brown, and which colour
in varying shades is prominent on the face, between and behind the
ears.and also on the fore and hind feet. The tail is not completely
black as in maxima, but has a large amount of dark reddish-brown
patchily distributed between the base and the tip, which are both
black. The forehead patch and the ear-tips are also darker than in
maxima. he label reads ‘occurs in evergreen jungles on the slopes
and not at Gungavadori itself’. .
It may also be of interest to record an albino obtained by Jamshed
Panday at Mahableshwar.(Western Ghats) 4,000 ft., Satara District,
Bombay, on 29th December 1952. The specimen had pink eyes and
is pure white as compared to the normal coloured eyes and dirty-
creamy white of dealbatus. Other normal coloured squirrels were
noted in the same locality.
114, APOLLO STREET, Fort,
Bompsay, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
Ali B7i, OVS 2% jE CS DANTE
8. JUNGLE NOTES FROM SOUTH INDIA
While out on shikar a few days ago my daughter and I observed
an interesting incident.
A cow elephant, with a very young calf, was browsing in a grass
patch just below us late in the afternoon. Suddenly it swung round
and made repeated short rushes at an animal in the grass, trumpeting
and keeping its calf behind it. Then we heard a roar and realised
the intruder was a tiger, which, we thought at the time, appeared
to be attacking the elephant and its calf. The whole proceeding
only lasted a few minutes and the elephant and tiger then departed in
opposite directions. We later found the tiger, or rather tigress, had
732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
four cubs with it; and both mothers had obviously been keeping
each other away from their young !
The tigress and her 4 cubs made a pretty picture a day or two
later, basking in the sun in short grass on a hill-top (5,500 {t.). The
cubs climbed all over their mother and played while she lay on her
side or licked them and herself alternately.
2) (Oyo OUbe Bey) back Upropet a sold along an elephant path, we
unaware of our presence on the same path!
3. We saw 5 vultures in the morning poised motionless in the
air just above our heads in the teeth of a heavy east wind—just as
one sees kestrels do. They remained so for about an hour or more.
I have not seen this happen before; there was no kill in the vicinity.
HONNAMETTI ESTATE,
ATTIKAN P.O.,
viA Mysore, Re €; MORRIS
(SoutH Inp1a)
March 6, .1953.
9. MYSTERY PREDATOR
Some friends of mine on a tea estate nearby (in the central Assam
plains, not far from the Naga Hills) had the misfortune to lose their
goose the other night. The circumstances were rather peculiar.
The following morning the door of the out-house, in which the
goose had been sitting on her seven eggs for about two weeks, was
found open, and a trail of feathers showed the direction in which
some wild predator had carried off the goose into some jungle close
at hand. The actual goose was never found. No tracks of any wild
creature were found, but the ground was very hard at the time.
This in itself is an ordinary occurrence. But six of the eggs
also disappeared, one being left in the nest. Of these six eggs,
one was found next day buried in the vicinity, but uncovered by earth.
The other five eggs were found during the next few days, all in
different places about 50 yds. to 100 yds. from the out-house,
cunningly buried in the ground.
I have never heard of such burying of eggs by any wild predator.
Perhaps some other member of the Society may be able to throw some
light on this mystery?
Doyane TEA Estate,
OaTinG P.O., Beeb GE
ASSAM,
April 26, 1953.
10: THE AHMEDABAD TENT €LUB IN. EARLIER DAYS
The records of this Tent Club, in four bound and padlocked
volumes covering the years June 1858 to June 1931, (with a gap of.
—
- years previous to this) have been deposited in the library of the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 733
Bombay Natural History Society since 1928. The occasion is stated
in the Society’s journal Vol. 29, p. 1040.
In the first volume we read that on the roth January, 1859, the
Hunt met at Dohnao and killed two boars. Eleven spears were
present, among them General Roberts and Lieutenant Roberts. Very
seldom were initials entered in the records so we can only surmise
that the General Roberts: and Lieutenant Roberts out that day were
in all probability the famous Field Marshal Lord Roberts and his
father. Lieutenant Roberts was out on other days for several years,
but the General only on that one day.
? The Honorary Secretary from June 1858 to March 1859 was
Lieutenant P. H. LeGeyt who was an outstanding pigsticker, as he
took ‘first spear’ during all the Meets of that afetoe Hadow was
the runner-up on several occasions, and other prominent names were
Coulson, Bulkley, Propert, Percival, Pottinger, Fasken and others.
On the 15th January 1859 Hadow’s hunter ‘Diamond’ fell down dead
at the death of the first of the two boars killed that day. Both first
spears to LeGeyt. The Hunt shikari, Buka, was awarded sixteen
rupees from the funds for those two pig.
For some years the boars killed were entered in the records
according to estimated ages, and it was not until 1868 that heights
in inches were adopted. ae the six fighting boars killed in the
season 1872-73 one was 374 in. and another 36 in., and all the first
spears in that year were taken by Surgeon R. Bustead. On 3rd May
1872 Boustead’s horse was so badly ripped by a wounded boar which
got beneath his body that he had to remain in the jungle for 17 days.
During the Season 1874-75 seventeen pig were killed and D. G.
Mackenzie secured nine first spears. A number of the boars killed
by the Hunt at that time measured 33 in.
On 6th May 1874 Lieutenant Auchinleck, R.A., was out with two
others, Major Oldershaw and Lieutenant Stacey. Perhaps that
Auchinleck was the father of the distinguished soldier who became
Commander-in-Chief of the Army in India.
The volumes contain spirited water-colour paintings and pen and
ink sketches of various Hunt incidents. One of these is of a horse-
man taking a purler over his horse’s head to perhaps land on the
back of the fleeing boar, for it looks like that; while another depicts
the rider being swept from his saddle by the branch of a tree, to the
evident astonishment of his mount! During a run on 31st March
1871 the galloping horsemen had to drop 84 ft. into a sunken road.
The scene is well depicted in a spirited water colour showing the
“horses dropping into the road and the hunted boar fleeing in the
near distance. On a day in March 1871 is recorded the unusual
occurrence of a 30 in. boar of estimated age 44 years having died
‘squeaking’. Perhaps his near ancestry had some village porker
blood !
Some of the records are couched in amusing terms. ‘The pig
rolled over and appeared to be a ‘‘gone coon’’, when by a great effort
he got on his legs, considered a moment, and found his way through
an adjoining hedge. His subsequent fate is buried in mystery, and
‘may well act as a ‘‘caution’’ in the way in which a pig will often, at
734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the last moment, evade the most vigilant enquiries of his anxious
friends !’
There were plenty of accidents and injuries. ‘As Mr. Bulkley
approached on a shy young horse the boar charged, and evading the
spear planted his tushes deep and wide in the calf of the rider’s leg,
fortunately without unseating him.’ The narrative of the 1859
Christmas Meet occupies twelve pages of the journal. At the close
is entered by W. H. P. (Propert) ‘(N.B. The above talented journalist
has this moment left for Kurrachee.)’ The gallant fight put up by
one of the boars is well told. After describing the finding of the
boar and the damages he inflicted on several of the horses, ‘It would
be tedious to relate the many charges that were made and received,
and the spears that were broken by this gallant boar before he
received his quietus. Bleeding from a dozen wounds and _ bristling
with broken spears he still shewed an undaunted front; and when he
died at last it was in sullen silence and not a squeak betrayed that
lis last moment was come.’
The sport related by G. E. Hancock in a letter (28-2-67) to the
Honorary Secretary deserves further record. After describing some
blank days and the losing of several boars he wrote, ‘At last I was
closing on him in a thick cotton field when the horse’s legs caught —
in the cotton and castor-oil stalks and down he came. I flew over
his head taking the saddle with me, for the girths broke. I was up
again in time to see the boar turn down a lane to the left, jumped
on my bewildered horse and rode him bare-backed down the lane
as hard as he could pelt. The lane luckily led into the open where I
saw the old boar making the most of his time for the next cover.
Settling myself well down to my horse’s back-bone I urged him across
the open, and just as the boar plunged into another thick cotton field,
i collared him. He turned on me so sharp and unexpectedly that,
as you, reader, would have done nine times out of ten in such
circumstances—I missed him! and, Oh Misery ! driving my spear into
the ground, split the shaft half way up. Grasping it together, as a
drowning man may grasp a straw, I rushed at him again-—and this
time, prepared for anything. As I came up, he, as I expected,
charged desperately—down went my spear between his shoulder
blades where neck and body join—First Spear and Last Spear for it
rolled him over dead—and thus I broke my luck.’
In the Tabular Statement of the Hunt for the year 1864 it is
seen that five ‘first spears’ were taken by Auchinleck. At the foot
of the Summary is recorded,
‘The Hunt met 20 times, and killed 27 Boar. Vivat Regina’
BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON
April 5, 1953. : Lt.-Col. 1.4. (Retd)™
11... ERADICATING BATS FROM BUNGALOWS
I. was interested to read Mr. R. M. Aldworth’s note in Vol. 51 (2)
under the caption ‘A Novel Method of eradicating Hornets’. By
strange coincidence, the same method is adopted in Mandla {Madhya
Pradesh), but for a different house pest. In this case the pests were.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 735
not hornets or bees but they were the small insect-eating bats. In
1924, the D.F.O. North Mandla’s bungalow was infested with a large
number of these bats. Apart from disturbed nights, the musty smell
was Over-powering, and in the morning the building floor was littered
with their droppings. Realizing my trouble, a Gond orderly cut and
collected the thorny branches of wild ‘Ber’ (Zizyphus) bushes. This .
plant has recurved spines, closely grown all over the branches, and
the orderly fixed them up without using any twine or ropes under
the roof, at all likely entrances or exits. After sunset these bats
tried to get out of their roosting places and there was regular
screeching for a long time from each and every bat. As we know,
bats’ wings are made of membranous skin with a network of nerves,
and the recurved spines inflicted very painful wounds. Bats. left the
bungalow completely from that day.
I think, this experiment is worth trying on fruit bats (flying
foxes). Messrs. I.C.I. (India) Ltd., have advised Mr. E. P. Gee to
use 10 lbs. of Opencast Gelignite with a No. 6 Detonator. No cost
is given for one charge of this explosive. On the other hand, one
man can collect enough thorny branches to cover the crown of a
fruit-bearing tree. Owing to the recurved nature of ‘Ber’ thorns
one has only to hurl these branches at random on to the crown
of the tree without tying them up. In South American orchards
they cover each tree with a net during fruiting season. In this
method of protecting fruits, they found that the bats learned to creep
up the tree over the stem bypassing the net.
But in my opinion if thorns are used instead of expensive nets
or dangerous explosives, the problem of getting rid of flying foxes
can be effectively solved.
SECUNDERABAD,
June 14, 1953. S. R. DAVER
72. WHY DO DEER AND OTHER MAMMALS LICK EARTH
R. A. McCullough, Research Associate in the University of New
Hampshire writes—
‘We are trying to ascertain why deer frequent non-saline brackish
licks in New Hampshire. We have arrived at the conclusion that it
is not due to inorganic matter through the use of the spectograph.
We are now doing organic. analysis.
There is some evidence accumulating here that there is a sex
Selective factor in the use of these licks—namely, that the females
make much heavier use of them than do males. Have you observed
this in India? | )
I have only been able to find two references to the effect that non-
ruminant animals have been observed at these licks—one observation
each of a bear and a porcupine. Do non-ruminant mammals or birds
frequent your licks?’ | |
Elephants and tiger are recorded in previous journals eating the
earth of ‘salt’ licks as an aperient. (R. C. Morris, xxxvill: 385;
736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL, HIST. SOCLETYG™ Vol, bil
i. Hubback, xl: 730.) Members are invited to send in such further
information as may be available.
114, APOLLO STREET,
BomBaAy, a EDITORS
AGN Ay SOE Be
13. THE PIED MYNA AND BANK MYNA AS BIRDS OF
BOMBAY AND SALSETTE
When writing on the birds of the Bombay Island and Salsette
(1936), we did not refer to the Pied Myna (Sturnopastor contra). It
is a bird of northern and eastern India, not ordinarily found west
of Hyderabad in the Deccan or south of Masulipatam in the Kistna
District. :
In 1940, however, we recorded a pair of Pied Mynas frequenting
a part of Dharavi near Sion Station, Bombay. ({j/.B.N.H.S., Vol. 42,
p. 191.) Subsequent to this another pair was noted on the Dharavi-
Kurla road on 6th November 1942, followed by pairs or parties in
December 1943, September 1949 and February 1951.
On 12th May 1951, a pair started making a nest in a peepal tree
adjoining a godown at Dharavi. The nest was of the usual globular
type, about ro ft. from a house crow which was sitting on eggs.
Heavy rains, however, washed out the nest and the birds disappeared.
On 16th August 1951 a pair with fully-fledged young was noted at
Kurla, and this year (1953) a pair again nested in the same peepal
and hatched three young.
The furthermost record from this centre so far is of a_ solitary
specimen seen among a flock of Jungle Mynas (Aethiopsar fuscus) at
Powai Lake (about 5 miles north of Dharavi) on 21st June 1941.
It therefore appears that a few birds, doubtless originating from
escaped cage birds, have definitely established themselves around Sion
and Kurla, and it would be interesting to see how far they extend them-
selves and in what time. Several species of mynas have become
established in different parts of the world, having been originally
taken there as pets.
The status of the Bank Myna (Acridotheres ginginianus) around
Bombay is also curious. In 1890 Barnes recorded that he saw them
‘in the city of Bombay busily employed in excavating holes in the
embankment of the Wodehouse Bridge near the Railway Station at
Colaba; they did not, however, breed there as the boys persecuted
them too much’. In r1g900 there was a severe drought in Gujarat
where the Bank Myna is common. A few were then noted around
Bombay together with a number of other unusual birds which were
driven far south of their accustomed haunts in search of a livelihood.
During the last 50 years there has been no other record of this species,
but in June 1953, V. C. Ambedkar, a young ornithological enthusiast
from Poona who was visiting Bombay during his vacations, reported
a nesting colony from Bandra. According to him-a small number
have nested in the same place for the past two or three seasons.
Upon investigation we discovered about six pairs nesting in holes in
\
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 737
4
a well in his compound near the Fisheries Department’s tank along-
side of the main Godhbunder road. The nests contained fledglings
and full-fledged young.
BomsBay NatuRAL History SOcIeETvy,
BomBay, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
(
June 20, 1953. SALIM ALT
14. THE TIBETAN SISKIN [SPINUS THIBETANUS
(HUME)] IN NEPAL
On January 28th last year while picnicing at Godarvari, 5,000 ft. at
the foot of the jungle-covered hills in the south of the Nepal Valley I
saw a large flock of small finches in the alder trees (A. nepalensis).
They were feeding on the cones of these trees, but whether picking out
the seeds or catching insects of course I could not see. I had a very
good view of them. The males with bright yellow breasts were in
the minority, the heavily streaked females must have outnumbered
them by at least 4 to 1. I should think there were about 80 birds,
probably more. They were very like the Scottish siskin and kept
up a continual twittering. I did not see them again until April 4th
this year when we had 2 days’ holiday for Easter. and camped on
Sheopuri to the north of the valley at 8,400 ft. Early in the morning
a small flock of about 15-20 of these finches appeared in a flowering
rhododendron just in front of our tent. ‘Against the sky it was
impossible to make out any colour, but the small pointed bill and
forked tail were unmistakable. My husband shot one, and it proved
to be a female Tibetan Siskin (Spinus thibetanus). Sir Norman Kinnear
who kindly identified the skin at the British Museum, tells me that
this is the first record for this bird in Nepal. Next morning
they appeared again at the same time. They would all alight in a
rhododendron tree, feed for a few minutes, twittering all the time,
then as if at a signal they would all rise together and fly on to another
tree. They followed the same route both mornings. Again females
greatly outnumbered the males.
KATHMANDU,
April 28, 1953. DESIREE PROUD
{5. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE GREENBILLED MALKOHA
— (RHOPODYTES VIRIDIROSTRIS JERDON)
On 6th March 1948 while in camp with the Gujarat Ornithological
Survey at Pandwa, Surat Dangs, I shot and lost a specimen of the
Small Greenbilled Malkoha (Rhopodytes viridirostris Jerdon).™ Apart
from the very clear view I had of the bird, a few feathers were picked
up and they confirmed the identification.
On 1oth May 1953, I saw one fly- across the road in the forest
below Karnala Fort, Pen Taluka, Kolaba District, (North Konkan).
738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
'
It has apparently not been recorded from the West Coast, north of
Belgaum (Butler) and Ratnagiri (Vidal). Therefore, the above obser-
vations would extend the known range of the species.
CHOP HAZ cs COs,
75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY,
MiGya ts eat@5 ee
|The Greenbilled Malkoha has evidently a much wider distribution
in Western India than the Fauna implies. More recently (17-7-1953)
Rev. E. M. Shull procured a specimen at Mulchond in the Surat
Dangs,—a female in breeding condition. The Gujarat Ornithological
Survey noted the species also at Ajwa in the environs of Baroda
City, and we have records from Daulatabad, ca. 100 miles east of
Nasik.—EDs, |
16. COMMON GREY HORNBILL (TOCKUS BIROSTRIS)
EATING FRUITS OF THE YELLOW ‘OLEANDER
(THEVETIA NERIIFOLIA)
Apropos of Mr. M. Krishna’s note in Vol. 50, pp. 943-944, of this
journal, I should like to bring to your notice that I have observed the
Common Grey Hornbill eating the fruits of Yellow Oleander.
On 12th September, 1946, two pairs of Common Grey Hornbills
were in our compound in Kavasseri (Malabar Dist.). One of the
birds flew to a thicket of the yellow oleander (a very common hedge
plant hereabouts) and straightaway picked a green fruit. Holding
it near the very tip of its bill, the bird began to roll the fruit about,
dexterously separating the pulp from the stone on one side. Then,
as it turned the drupe about to remove the pulp on the other side,
the fruit slipped off. With surprising skill, which one would hardly
expect of this clumsy bird, it just dipped its head, caught the falling
fruit in mid-air, and calmly resumed peeling. When about three-
fourths of the pulp had been removed, the bird let the stone drop.
Raising neck and bill vertically, it jerked its head sharply downwards,
and swallowed the pulp. This is the only instance recorded in my
notes, but I think on three or four other occasions I have seen the
same thing.
Koels (Eudynamis) have often been found resorting to bushes of
Yellow Oleander and lingering there for a time, but I never noticed
if they ate the drupes. That some birds (and animals too?) do eat
these fruits fairly regularly is evident from the half-eaten fruits always
found at the foot of these bushes.
GOVERNMENT VICTORIA COLLEGE,
PALGHAT, K. K. NEELAKANTAN
May 25, 1953:
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 739
17, JUVENILE BRAHMINY KITES (HALIASTUR INDUS)
LEARNING THINGS THE MODERN WAY
We discovered the secret of imparting instruction to the young
through entertaining sports and games only recently. Yet a couple
ot young Brahminy Kites that I watched one day seemed to have
almost perfected the method. What is more, they did not have any
mentors other than themselves.
It was on the 14th of September, 1952. At 5.30 in the evening,
I was roaming about looking at birds near a river. A pair of Brahminy
Kites in juvenile plumage flew about over a compound, one chasing
the other, turning and twisting with the greatest ease and speed.
As I watched, the bird which was being pursued dropped from its
talons something that fluttered down slowly in the breeze. The
binoculars revealed this to be a dead leaf of the jak tree. Even
after the leaf had been dropped, the chase continued merrily for
a time. When the excitement of the game diminished, one bird flew
skimming over the topmost twigs of a jak tree, snatched a dead leaf
in its talons as it flew, and rose. Seeing this, the other bird at once
gave chase. A couple of minutes later the second leaf also dropped—
or was dropped—without in any way affecting the tempo of the sport.
After a time, however, one of the birds flew back to the jak tree and,
repeating the manoeuvre already described, bore off another withered
leaf. Thus the game went on for quite a long time. Never once did
either of the kites try to retrieve the falling leaf; they seemed to know
quite well that it was of no importance, or that it was easier to pluck
another leaf than to get back the fallen one.
Off and on, however, the bird with the leaf bent its head while
in flight, and pretended to peck at the leaf as though it were some
prey. When for the fourth time, one of the birds plucked a leaf and
began the game over again, a Jungle Crow joined, and participated
with an enthusiasm even exceeding that of the kites. The crow never
pecked at the kite, nor did it try to fly after the leaf when it was
dropped. The kite which was chased seemed to invite the crow to
close with it, instead of avoiding contact. When a second Jungle
Crow flew up to share the sport, each kite took on one crow. But
only one of the kites continued to go every now and then for a jak
leaf. The cawing of the two crows attracted two more, but mean-
while, one of the kites grew tired of the game and flew off. The
other kite continued with all the crows as pursuers. After a time
it too decided to call it a day and sailed off silently.
This was undoubtedly a kind of ‘organised game’ devised by the
young kites with the excellent idea of training themselves for life.
Perhaps those adult Brahminy Kites which are often outwitted by
crows never knew anything about this system of self-instruction
when they were young?
GOVERNMENT VICTORIA COLLEGE,
PALGHAT, . K. K. NEELAKANTAN
May 25, 1953.
14
740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
18. THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
I was most interested to read the article on the Great Indian
Bustard by Farid H. B. Tyabji in the Journal, Vol. 51 (1) p. 276,
December 1952, for I feel it is a sort of challenge to all past and
present ornithologists who have not recorded these birds in such large
numbers. However, it reminds me of an interesting day I spent many
years back in 1933. I was out for a drive from Bhavnagar and at
Trapaj, 24 miles away, I came upon a drove of Great Indian Bustard.
There were about twenty of them and quite conspicuous. The country
was open and undulating studded with bushes. I got out of the car
to fire with my rifle a .318 W.R. at them which I did from a distance
of about 200 yards. At the report of the rifle about 400-600 Eastern
Common Cranes flew up from the background; it was a grand sight,
bustards flying low in one direction and the cranes in the other, almost
in all directions. The Great Indian Bustard is almost extinct in
Saurashtra where it was formerly seen everywhere in suitable localities.
Dit BAHAR,
BHAVNAGAR, K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHBJI
April 25, 1953.
[A very plausible explanation of actually what Mr. Tyabji himself
may have witnessed.—Ebs. |
19. STRANGE HABIT OF TERNS BREEDING
ON GODAVARI SAND-FLATS
While looking for details about the Pheasant-tailed Jacana, I found
certain notes in my diaries on a peculiar practice of River and Black-
bellied Terns (Sterna aurantia Gray) and (S. melanogaster Temminck) |
observed at Rajahmundry.
These. two species of terns appear to be resident in the locality,
indulging only in irregular local movements. I used to pay particular
attention to them in the breeding season, and found them nesting in
company with the Little Swallow-Plover on the larger sand-flats of
the river. In March and April most of these terns went away from
the river to the tanks and a marsh near the Rajahmundry railway
station, to obtain fish. Though the river itself contained plenty
of crystal-clear water, and was teeming with many kinds of fish,
the terns, especially the River Terns, flew all day up and down
between the sand-flats and the marsh or tanks to fetch fish for their
young ones. The marsh is roughly half a mile away from the river,
and some of the tanks only a couple of furlongs; a few tanks to
which River Terns were found going lay two or three miles away!
These birds occasionally fished even in the shallow, miniature pools
beside the railway line, competing with Brahminy Kites and crows.
It is roughly from January to April that the terns are found going
from river to tanks, etc. for fish. 1 once saw terns in the marsh busy
fishing in September. 7
The greatest activity is found in the morning and evening. I have
seen as many as 50 Blackbellied Terns fishing with feverish haste in
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 741.
a tank some 100 yds. away from the river, in the twilight of evening.
In March and April terns returning to the river always had a fish,
one or two inches long, held transversely in the bill. Very often a bird
flying from the river met this one and there ensued a chase the end of
which I could never discover. I did suspect, however, that these
were mates and the chase ended in a transfer of the fish from one to
the other. After 8.30 a.m. the traffic between river and inland waters
slowed down considerably, but never ceased completely. At least
one or two River Terns could be seen flying overhead to and fro. In
March I have heard the calls of the River Tern overhead as late as
10.15 p.m. even when it was pitch dark.
This does not mean that the terns never took fish from the river
itself; I have found both River and Blackbellied Terns catching river
fish. Why then did the terns often fly so far as three miles (perhaps
even more) when they could have procured enough and more of food
a few feet away from their nests? Was fish from pools and tanks
taken only for feeding nestlings? Are terns in the habit of feeding
even at night during the breeding season? Has this practice anything
- to do with the comparative abundance of small fish (more suitable for
feeding young birds) in the tanks and marshes?
GOVERNMENT VICTORIA COLLEGE,
PALGHAT, ; K. K. NEELAKANTAN
May 25, 1953: -
[This habit of flying long distances to procure fish for mates on
nest or nest-young, when plenty of such could presumably be obtained
closer at hand, has been observed also in the case of the Whiskered
Tern (Chlidonias hybrida), e.g. on the Hokra Jheel in Kashmir.—EDs. |
20. OCCURRENCE OF THE PHEASANT-TAILED JAGANA
(ZYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS) IN
MADRAS STATE
I must confess that I was very much surprised to find the two notes
on the Pheasant-tailed Jacana. in Madras State (LBoNoléloDon Wl.
50, pp. 406-407 and 947-948). I have come across the Pheasant-tailed
Jacana so often and in so many places in the northern half of the
State that I would assert unhesitatingly that it is one of the commonest
of water-birds in that area (that part of the State which will shortly
be the Andhra Province). Here the Jacana is mostly seen in non-
breeding plumage, and in small flocks or parties. ;
However, the first time I saw this bird was in Madura (in the
latter half of the year 1944) when owing to mental and physica] myopia,
I mistook a large flock of these birds in non-breeding plumage for
Sociable Lapwings, and promptly wrote to the Society. Fortunately,
Mr. McCann, the then Curator, could not quite believe it, and no harm
was done. (A warning to those who are too cocksure about their
identifications).
This flock remained in Madura for weeks. Then on 3rd April,
1945 I saw two in winter plumage on a tank at Velugubonda (Godavari
Dist.). : Hone Jon Bl s2Oq' | ig
Tee PE)
742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
On 8th April, 1945 I saw a number of smal] flocks in the Madu-
ranthakam Tank on the way to Vedanthangal. All but two of the
birds were in winter plumage, the exceptions being in transitional
plumage with long tail.
On 11th January 1947 a flock of 200 or more was seen in the
Thantikonta Tank (Godavari Dist.). All were in non-breeding plumage,
but quite a number had long tail plumes which did not curve over
sickle wise, but resembled the tail of the Pintail Duck.
On 22nd August, 1948, on a marsh near the Rajahmundry railway
station, I saw many pairs. Most birds seemed to be in full breeding
plumage, but one individual which was closely studied, lacked the
yellow on nape and neck. A week later, on another visit, the birds
were found very active and vociferous. The local name for the bird
is ‘thoottu-pitta’.
On 12th January, 1949, there wasn’t a single Pheasant-tailed Jacana
in the marsh.
There are some of the records gathered from a few volumes of
my diary. I am afraid I did not care to note down every one of the
dates on which I came across this bird, as during some periods not
a day passed without my seeing a few Pheasant-tailed Jacana. Birds in
winter plumage used to be found invariably in the summer months
in every village tank, marsh, and even on the lily-and-weed pads
in water-logged trenches beside the railway lines. The numbers in
these cases were never very large. I suspect that this Jacana breeds
in the marsh near Rajahmundry railway station, though I never found
any positive evidence.
The note-book containing my observations on the birds of the
Kollair (or Kolleru, a vast brackish lake near Ellore, W. Godavari Dt.)
not being with me now, I cannot give the dates and details about
Pheasant-tailed Jacana found there, but I have very vivid recollections
of incredibly large flocks in winter plumage which were found wherever
we went in March and April.
In my opinion, the Pheasant-tailed Jacana may be listed as one
of the commonest water-birds of the Andhra region, and a frequent
winter visitor to suitable places like Madura district on the east coast,
farther south.
GOVERNMENT VICTORIA COLLEGE,
PALGHAT, K. K. NEELAKANTAN
May 25, 1953.
21. BREEDING OF RALLINA EURYZONOIDES
NIGROLINEATA (GRAY) IN THE
DARJEELING DISTRICT
On June 5th 1952 I was shown a nest in the middle of a tea bush
by one of the coolies plucking leaf. It was about nine inches across,
eighteen inches from the ground and made of sticks and dead leaves.
In shape it was a shallow saucer and firmly placed in the middle
framework of the bush. It contained 7 pure white eggs, one of which
I took for identification purposes if the nest should be destroyed.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 743
The following day I put the bird off the nest but was unable to
get a glimpse or a clue as to its identity.
~ On June 21st the bird was sitting closely and I was able to get
a view of her from only twelve inches away. She was rufous with
olive on the head and back and the flanks were conspicuously barred
with black and white. When she left the nest she demonstrated at
me by making an extraordinary noise like a hiss of a snake only deeper
and more guttural. This was repeated about six times as the bird
was making away in the undergrowth. The bird was still sitting on
June 24th, but during the night the nest was destroyed possibly by
rats as all I found was one egg on the ground with a large hole in the
side and bits and pieces strewn over the ground.
I sent the egg to the Bird Section of the South Kensington Museum
for identification, and it was confirmed as being that of the Indian
Banded Crake, formerly Rallus superciliaris superciliaris Gray.
I can find no records of the occurrence of this bird in the Darjeeling
District. This nest was found at 3,300 ft. elevation.
Tumsonc Tea ESTATE,
MaryBoncG, P.O., W. H. MATTHEWS, o.B.0.vu.
via DARJEELING, D.H. Ry., :
April 12, 1953.
|B. B. Osmaston has in two successive years found it breeding at
Dehra Dun (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 24, p. 824 and Vol. 26, p. 429). He
records that the bird sat very closely on the eggs and pecked at his
hand when he put it out. ‘All the time she was delivering her attacks
she gave vent to a peculiar noise somewhat resembling the swearing of
a cat.’—EpDs. |
22. OBSERVATIONS ON THE NESTING HABITS OF
SOME COMMON BIRDS
In my village in Kavasseri, (Palghat taluk, Malabar) there is a
big Kali temple which was sheltered on all sides by a teak and irool
plantation till the trees were cut down in 1950. The trees were all
about 20 ft. in height, and in most places there was plenty of under-
growth such as lantana, etc. This wood was a sure draw for breeding
birds in the months of April, May and June. From 1943 I used to
spend many hours almost every summer afternoon in it. Curiously
enough, one particular patch of this wood, bordering on a broad
footpath, on the northern side of the temple, and adjacent to a road
well sheltered by ancient mango trees, was a favourite with every
kind of bird nesting here. I have found nests of the Indian Tree Pie,
Blackheaded Oriole, Whitebrowed Fantail-flycatcher, Tailor Bird, and
Large Cuckoo-shrike; and failed to find the nests of Little Minivet,
Common Woodshrike, Whiteheaded Babbler and Iora which I was
certain, bred here.
The fact that many of these birds chose to nest within a small
area of a large wood resulted in my noticing some interesting facts
about their relationship and general behaviour. I shall restrict myself
744 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
for the present to some of the most outstanding instances of this
‘communal’ nesting.
In March, 1943, I came across a nest of the Blackheaded Oriole
(c/2), one of the Indian Tree Pie (c/4), and one of the Whitebrowed
Fantail-flycatcher (c/3). Being more interested in birds’ nests than in
bird behaviour, I took all the clutches, only casually noticing that all
three nests were within fifteen to twenty feet of one another. All the
eggs were fresh, but I could not say which bird had laid first. I]
assumed then that the oriole and the flycatcher had chosen to build
within the tree pie’s territory for protection.
In 1944, 1945 and 1946 all these birds and many others were found
haunting the same spot, but no nests were found. However, I began
to realise that during the breeding season Indian Tree Pies and Black-
headed Orioles were a little too often found in company, though
occasionally the orioles were really chivying the tree pies.
It was in April 1947 that I got a good opportunity to study the
behaviour of these birds at close quarters. On the 25th of April, I
found a Large Cuckoo-shrike’s nest (c/2) on a tree beside the
footpath. While watching this, I kept an eye on other birds in the
area, and saw that when one of the Large Cuckoo-shrikes went to
chase a crow away, it was eagerly assisted by a Blackheaded Oriole
and a pair of Whitebrowed Fantail-flycatchers. This led to the dis-
covery of the flycatcher’s nest on the 30th (c/3). On the 1st of May,
a tree pie’s nest was also discovered close by (4 chicks, a few days
old). On the 4th I found the oriole’s nest (c/2). It was hardly 30
feet away from the tree pie’s; the tree pie’s was about 50 feet away
from the cuckoo-shrike’s; and the fantail-flycatcher’s was only ro feet
from the cuckoo-shrike’s. The nests were all on different trees.
It was obvious that the first bird to lay eggs was the tree pie.
Then the cuckoo-shrike ; the flycatcher and the oriole must have follow-
ed suit, in that order. For the cuckoo-shrike’s two eggs hatched out
on the 3rd of May, the flycatcher’s on the 6th, and the oriole’s on
the 12th. All the chicks of the tree pie left the nest and reached
adulthood safely. One of the two chicks, of the cuckoo-shrike dis-
appeared before the 15th, and the other, I assume, left the nest safely
between the 23rd and the 27th of May. The chicks of the fantail-
flycatcher disappeared on the 12th, and those of the oriole on the 2oth.
In both cases they were undoubtedly snatched by some predatory
creature, most probably the tree pie itself.
I spent an hour or two every day from the 25th April to the 23rd
May- near these nests and was able to study the behaviour of these
birds to some extent. The tree pie’s route to its regular feeding
places led away from the oriole’s nest, but was well within the
‘territories’ of the cuckoo-shrike and the fantail-flycatcher. The
cuckoo-shrike never attacked the tree pie, though no crow, kite or eagle
was ever allowed to pass by in peace. The fantail-flycatchers did not
harry the cuckoo-shrikes, but could never tolerate the tree pies. Every
time a tree pie flew that way (which was necessarily often), the
flycatchers went madly in pursuit. The flycatchers were often assisted |
by a pair of Common Wood-shrikes, which in turn were frequently
harassed by the flycatchers! When the cuckoo-shrike flew at a passing}
crow, the flycatchers and the orioles often joined it, but the oriole |
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 745
never turned against the cuckoo-shrike, and rarely attacked the tree
es |
2 At first I could: not understand how the nests of the smaller birds
remained safe for such a long time within the tree pie’s territory.
But soon it was discovered that when there were eggs in the nest,
the tree pies never foraged in the immediate neighbourhood of their
nest-tree. Invariably they flew some 100-200 yards straight east
before beginning the search for food, thus leaving a sort of ‘sanctuary’
round about their nest. When, however, the tree pie brought out
its chicks, adults and young wandered about all round the nest-tree.
In the course of this, as was inevitable, they must have come across
the nests of the smaller birds and rifled them.
In 1948, April-May, another set of nests was found in the same
place. On the 30th of April I saw a tree pie being chased by a pair
of indignant Blackheaded Orioles and a pair of Large Cuckoo-shrikes.
The cuckoo-shrikes attacked the tree pie only when it was on the
wing, whereas the orioles dived at it even when the tree pie sat quietly
on a branch. In 1947 the cuckoo-shrikes never took any notice of the
tree pies. ,
On the 4th of May I discovered the tree pie’s nest (c/4), and 20
feet away, the nest of the oriole. I could not examine the oriole’s
nest. On the 5th a tree pie and an oriole were chasing a Common
Grey Hornbill away from this spot. After the hornbill had escaped,
the oriole turned against its erstwhile ally, the tree pie, and followed
it until the tree pie returned to its own nest. Observations on these
nests could not be continued as I had to leave the place for a short
period. On my return on the 26th I found that the tree pie as well
as the oriole had left the area.
On r9th May, 1949, I discovered at the same spot the nest of a
Blackheaded Oriole containing a single chick, and saw a pair of Large
Cuckoo-shrikes of which one bird had nesting material in its bill. On
the 21st May a tree pie’s nest was found 25 to 30 feet away from the
oriole’s. There were eggs in the nest. On the 28th the orioles were
seen feeding their chick. The tree pie was sitting on eggs. From
the 29th of May to the roth of June I had to be away. On roth June
both nests were found deserted.
So, four times, definite evidence was found that these birds often
nest close together. But it appeared to me as though (1) this was due
to a common attachment to a particular nesting spot, rather than to
the weaker birds’ desire for protection; (2) they rarely became recon-
ciled to each other’s presence in the area; (3) the tree pie let others
live in peace till its chicks hatched; and (4) this was due to the tree
pie’s habit of leaving at least a hundred yards around its nest
unexplored while brooding eggs.
I hope some bird watcher will take up this thread and pursue it.
It is quite on the cards that similar favoured spots may exist wherever
_ birds are common.
GOVERNMENT VICTORIA COLLEGE,
PALGHAT, | K. K. NEELAKANTAN
May 25, 1953.
746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
23. MORE ABOUT VIZAGAPATAM BIRDS
In ‘Birds of the Vizagapatam District’ (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 45 pp.
333-347) I listed the birds seen during two short visits and drew attention
to the paucity of published literature. Subsequent to this I have
had letters from Capt. G. Gowland, R.N. and Mr. N. A. Leslie adding
to the list, and it might be worth while placing them on record.
Except where otherwise stated the information is from Mr. Leslie :—
Uroloncha malabarica (Linn.). The Whitethroated Munia.
‘Capt. Geoffrey Gowland, R.N. informed me in June 1950 that he
had seen this species near Vizagapatam.’
Motacilla alba subsp. The White Wagtail.
‘A flock near Pottangi village, east of Koraput (near Jaypore) in
February 1949’.
Motacilla maderaspatensis (Gmelin.). The Large Pied Wagtail.
‘A pair near Koraput in December 1948’.
Falco peregrinus :
The bird recorded as a laggar on page 343 of Vol. 45 of the Journal
is a peregrine. I have marked the bird as of this species on the label
and cannot understand how it was transformed into a laggar!
Falco tinnunculus. The Kestrel.
‘Frequently seen hunting round war-time coast battery adjoining
Vizagapatam Lighthouse—also seen near Koraput’.
Spizaétus cirrhatus. The Crested Hawk Eagle.
‘Between Araku and Anantgiri in February 1949’.
Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham). The Blackwinged Kite.
‘Identified on lines suggested by Whistler under heading ‘‘Pale
Harrier’? near Koraput’.
Circus macrurus (S. G. Gmelin). The Pale Harrier.
Mr. Leslie saw it at Padwa in December 1948 and IJ had overlooked
Donald’s (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 16, p. 505) note on this species together with
Marsh and Pied Harriers collecting to roost on a bare plateau on 13th
February.
Larus ridibundus. The Blackheaded Gull.
‘Vizagapatam Harbour—common’.
Sterna aurantia (Gray). The Indian River Tern.
‘Occasional’.
Charadrius dubius. The Little Ring-Plover.
‘Small flock near Tuni’ (Tuni is in East Godavari District adminis-
tratively but on the border of Vizagapatam District).
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 747
Lobipluvia malabarica. (Boddaert). The Yellow-wattled Lapuring.
Capt. G. Gowland saw it near Vizagapatam.
Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus). The Blackwinged Stilt.
‘Single bird near Tuni in October 1948’.
Scolopax rusticola (Linnaeus). The Woodcock.
In the Journal (Vol. 23, p. 777) appears a note recording a wood-
cock at Salabam 4,000’ in the Eastern Ghats 18° 10’N./82°45’E. on 26th
February. I have already referred to the Gazetteer records from Padera,
west of Sankrametta. Does the paucity of data regarding the move-
ments of the woodcock from the ornithologically better investigated
Deccan and Western Ghats indicate that the birds may perhaps reach
the Nilgiris by way of the Eastern Ghats?
Capella gallinago (Linnaeus). The Common Snipe.
‘Shot. Plentiful near Koraput’.
Pseudibis papillosa (Temm. and Laug.). The Black Ibis.
‘Single bird in September 1948 at Chittivalasa near Bimlipatam,
15 miles south of Vizianagaram’,
Dissoura episcopus episcopus (Boddaert). The Whitenecked Stork.
‘Plentiful in Koraput/Jeypore area’.
Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert). Cattle Egret.
‘Common’.
A ‘List of Duck Shot in Waltair District in 1899’ J.B.N.H.S., Vol.
12, p. 575 includes Common and Garganey teal and Comb Duck. WNetta
rufina, the Redcrested pochard (223) tied with gadwall (260) as the
commonest duck.
c/o Faiz & Co.,
75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY,
June 25, 1953.
24. DOMESTIC POULTRY DISEASES NOW ENDEMIC
IN JUNGLE |
It is evident that the domestic poultry diseases known as ‘Ranikhet
Disease’ and ‘Chicken Cholera’ are now endemic in the Reserve Forests
of the Kollegal and North Coimbatore Divisions (Madras State), and
also in parts of the Mysore District. I have frequently, in the last
few years, come across remains of junglefowl, partridge, quail, and
occasionally of peafowl. It was obvious that they had not been killed
and devoured by predatory animals. As the areas were all not far
from cultivation and villages I made. enquiries from the local jungle
tribe (Sholagas) and my suspicions that game birds were falling victim
to domestic poultry diseases were confirmed. Junglefowl can often be
748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
seen feeding and consorting with domestic poultry; and are bound
to catch the latter’s periodic diseases. The majority of dead and sick
game birds must of course be picked up and devoured by animals.
The very great decrease within recent years of game birds such as
junglefowl, partridge, quail and peafowl in areas in which they were
once abundant, is thus explained, accentuated as the position is by
netting by pardis.
HONNAMETTI ESTATE, ;
ATTIKAN 'P.O;, Re ©. MORRES
via Mysore, (S. INDIA),
December 31, 1952.
[In June 1953, a batch of partridges containing both the Grey
and the Painted, were seized from a professional catcher who was
illicitly hawking them in Bombay city. All the birds died within three
days, the cause, as confirmed by the Assistant Disease Investigation
Officer (Poultry), Bombay State, being Ranikhet Disease. In December
(1952) the Society had also received a half-grown chick of the Painted
Partridge (Francolinus pictus) shot near Kalyan, Bombay. | The
specimen had white encrustations around both the eyes as also similar
patches in the still naked areas under the wing. |
In sending the specimen to the Bombay Veterinary College for
examination and report, we enquired whether the same disease was
seen among poultry, whether it appeared periodically in epidemic form,
and if it seemed likely that this partridge chick could have contracted
it from domestic fowls of the nearby villages since they may often
feed in the same fields. This presumably happens in the case of chicken
cholera and ‘Ranikhet Disease’.
Prof. R. M. Kalapesi, the pathologist of the Bombay Veterinary
College, writes about the infection of the partridge chick as
follows :—
‘Favus is a chronic dermatomycosis affecting chickens, occasionally
turkeys and very rarely canaries and wild birds. It may also occur
in mammals including man.
It is commoner in fowls of the larger Asiatic breeds than in the
European fowls and more so in males than females, especially in the
sixth to the seventh month of life.
It is caused by the Achorion group of Fungi which in birds is
Achorion gallinae and characterised by the formation of peculiar disc-
shaped crusts with depressed centres and known as scutula from their —
shield-like appearance.
Infection occurs by direct contact with objects containing the fungus.
It is also believed that the infection may be carried by air. Young
birds are particularly liable to the disease. The disease is generally
mild and sporadic in nature, may exist in a flock for several months
but few losses directly traceable to it are experienced. Man is sus-
ceptible, therefore care should be taken to prevent transmission if an
outbreak occurs. ¥
For prevention and control remove and dispose of all the infected
birds, move the flock to new quarters and disinfect the place.’—Eps. |
749
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
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0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Cr
26. SCENTING POWER OF BIRDS
With reference to Col. Burton’s note on p. 675 of Vol. 50. That
well known field naturalist Abel Chapman discusses the subject at
length in Borders and Beyond pp. 421-439, and again in Retrospect
pp. 150-155. His opinion is that while the vast majority of birds (even
Great: Bustard) wholly ignore the safeguard of scenting, wildfowl on
the water are keenly alive to the faintest clue from scent, though duck
and teal in flight, being above the line of scent, are not affected by it.
He considers that ‘Geese though equally receptive of scent, are apt
to await—with rapt attention—some slight ocular corroboration of a
risk already revealed to their olfactory senses’, and adds that ‘of all
the duck tribe, teal (though the most simple) are the most keenly
receptive of scent’. As is usual with this careful observer, he sup-
ports his statements with a number of examples. My own experience
with wildfowl is exactly the same. On many occasions I have from
a distance spotted duck or teal within easy range of a tank bund.
I have then approached under cover of the bund, and provided the
wind was right have always found the birds in the same position.
Should however the wind be blowing from me towards the birds, then
on topping the bund I have invariably found them out of range, either
swimming away or already in flight. A particular instance last year
at Gundlupet serves to confirm this. Projecting from the main bund
of the tank is a curved ring-bund constructed some years ago when
the tank was breached. A narrow path along it affords easy and
silent access under cover of tall rushes well out into the tank. On
the evening in question I wished to pick up a couple of bird for the
pot. A recce under cover of the bund showed about 50 garganey some
100 yards away and close to the ring bund. A silent approach found
the birds quite undisturbed and at close range, and a couple of shots
gave me what I wanted. It may be noted that on this occasion the
wind was blowing from the birds towards me. On the following
evening I found the birds in the same place, but the wind had now
changed and was blowing from me towards the teal. I had scarcely
started on my stalk when they all rose and flew away. They could
not possibly have seen me as I was very well hidden and the only
explanation of their alarm is that my scent was carried to them.
KALHATTI P2OF
NILGIRIS, E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,
March 10, 1953. Lt.-Col., 1.4. (Retd.).
27. ADDIDRIONS DT O,RECORDE DEE OODATEMS TOR RENE
BULL FROG (RANA TIGRINA)
In December 1952 my attention was attracted to the much swollen
stomach of a frog (Rana tigrina) when I was injecting Reeve’s India
ink, into its heart to facilitate the minute tracing of arteries and veins.
On cutting open the stomach, I found to my surprise a Fat-tailed
Lizard (Uromastix) about 10 inches long and a large head of a spider
(Galeodes agilis Poc.). The lizard was an adult one and was not affected
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 751
by the gastric juices. It was lying coiled up, the head being nearer
to the anal region. The body of the arachnid was digested; only
remains being of the head, which was unaffected, because of its
chitinous nature. Probably the lizard was captured shortly before the
frog was chloroformed.
The capture of the Uromastix, by the frog can be explained, because
of its sluggish condition in the winter, but the capture of the Galeodes
is difficult to be explained for it is extremely active and can cover
ground very fast, and so at first sight it would appear somewhat
strange how such a fast creature should fall a victim to a comparatively
slow moving batrachian.
Preying by a large frog on a smaller one is quite common but
I do not know whether the Uromastix and Galeodes are also normally
included in the menu of the frog.
BIRLA COLLEGE,
PILANI, ISHWAR PRAKASH, m.sc.,
March 30, 1953. Research Scholar.
[Among the varied dietary of the Bull Frog (Rana tigrina) the
following items have been recorded in notes published in previous
journals from time to time—mouse, young ground thrush, fully grown
sparrow, chicken, snipe, pitta, land crab, toad, rat snake about 3
feet long, scorpion and the caterpillar of the Psychid moth together
with its case of babool spines.—Ebs. | .
28. NEW. LOCALITY RECORD OF RANA HEXADACTYLA
LESSON
While examining a collection of frogs and toads from Goa, brought
in by Mr. L. B. Nogueira, an assistant in the Museum, I came across
a number of specimens of Rana hexadactyla Lesson in various stages
of development.
The distribution of this species is restricted to South India and
Ceylon [Boulenger (1890 and 1920) Fauna Volume ‘Reptila and
Batrachia’ 441-42| and his subsequent ‘Monograph of the South Asian,
Papuan, Melanesian and Australian Frogs of the Genus Rana’. Rec.
Ind. Mus., xx, 10-12.
Bhaduri (1933 and 1943) recorded this species twice from Bengal
[J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 514; ibid. xliv, 484] and McCann (1934) has a
note on its occurrence in Bombay (ibid. xxxvil, 742). We have in
our collection a couple of specimens (donated by Ingoldby) from
Waziristan.
As far as is known this is perhaps the first record of this species
from Goa and this together with the former ones, goes to show that
Rana hexadactyla Lesson is not so very limited in its range as is
commonly believed, but seems to compete with its congener Rana
cyanophlyctis Schneid., which enjoys a very wide distribution in
Peninsular India. Some more records from varied localities are,
however, needed to confirm this.
752 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ATS@s SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Rana hexadactyla Lesson owing to its more secretive nature and
greater degree of camouflage-perfection eludes observation and capture.
Both the species, however, never leave water.
114, APOLLO STREET,
BoMBay, VE KS CHAK
June 1, 1953. Assistant Curator.
29. APOSEMATIC INSECTS AND THEIR FOOD PLANTS
Mr. Sevastopulo’s comments (J.B.N.H.S., 50, p. 951) on Mr.
Winter-Blyth’s remarks dealing with the possible interrelation between
aposematic insects and their food plants interested me greatly, and
called to mind some observations made in the field some years ago.
At the time, I speculated on the possibility of the food plants imparting
the protective odours emitted by such insects, but did not commit my
observations to paper. I saw no valid reason why the offensive or
otherwise noxious properties of the food plants should not be reflected
by the individuals feeding on them. How often has it been noted that
edible water-fowl when feeding on certain aquatic vegetation are
distasteful, which, at other times are delicious? This is particularly
true of wild duck.
Some years ago a note was published in the Journal describing the
‘poisonous’ effect on humans who had eaten fish which in their turn
had fed on the fruit of the Kalaw (Taraktogenos sp.). The fish acquire
the poisonous qualities only at the time when they feed on the kalaw
fruit, and are perfectly wholesome at other seasons. Here we have
an instance of the food imparting its poisonous qualities to the flesh
of the fish without otherwise affecting the fish in the least. Similarly
I think it is well-known that the body odours of mankind (apart from
the deliberate application of external scents) very often reflect the
diet of a particular individual or community. For example, garlic —
(Allium ursinum) or methi (Trigonella foenumgraecum) if eaten
regularly is ‘sweated out’ and gives a distinctive body odour. Some
other edible substances produce the same result. Similarly, people
who consume much vegetable oil ‘exude’ the oil, and the skin looks
‘oily’. From such examples it seems clear that the food plays an
important part in producing particular odours. Perhaps during the
process of digestion some of the odoriferous substances become more
concentrated and are exuded through the skin. The constitution of
aposematic insects possibly have special means of concentrating these
substances and using them, to advantage by storing them in special
organs or cells. However, here I must leave generalizations and turn
to specific instances.
Aularches miliaris: The colouration of this grasshopper is well-
known and therefore needs no description. The nymphs of the species
display more black and red; the green and yellow markings, are absent.
The nymphs, like the adults are gregarious, but more so. They collect
|
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 753
in large numbers ranging from fifty to a couple of hundred. Such
gatherings may be seen sitting on the leaves of Heterophragma rox-
burghi during the hot and dry weather. They sit on the upper surface
of the leaves in full view, but if alarmed they drop to earth and
seek shelter on the forest floor. Incidentally Heterophragma is perhaps
an exceptional tree in the deciduous forests in so much that it is the
only tree which is in full leaf when others are leafless, and leafless
during the monsoon when all other trees are in full foliage! The
black, naked trunks and branches stand out remarkably during the
rains, just as the ‘silvery’ stems of Sterculia urens stand out during
the hot weather.
The crushed leaves of Heterophragma, as well as the flowers and
fruit emit a pungent, offensive odour. The nymphs of Aularches feed
on the leaves of this plant and emit a similar odour when handled.
I do not know what the natural enemies of this grasshopper are but
it certainly enjoys a certain amount of immunity from predators. In-
cidentally, Hetevophragma itself is seldom attacked by insects, but
the leaves are subjected to a brown rust.
During the monsoon the adults of Aularches feed mainly on the
foliage of Gloriosa isuperba. In some years these grasshoppers appear
in greater numbers than usual and in consequence extensive damage is
done to Gloriosa. Whole patches of the plant are defoliated. Gloriosa
is known to be highly poisonous and the crushed leaves give off a
strong acrid odour. The grasshopper, as though ‘aware’ of its warning
colours and its defensive noxious odour, sits in the open and is not
easily disturbed; at most, it will ‘kick off’ into another portion of the
bush, and will make no attempt to hide. Although provided with
strong wings it is seldom seen in flight. When caught it emits a
frothy mass at the base of the jumping legs, at the same time vomit-
ing a blackish liquid, in the same way as many other grasshoppers do
under the same circumstances. The smell of the foam is very acrid
and reminiscent of the crushed leaves of Gloriosa but in more con-
centrated form. The odour of the vomit is similar but not so volatile.
The smell is so strong that the air is permeated with it. As in the
case of Heterophragma, Gloriosa enjoys a fair share of immunity from
insect pests.
The interesting part of Aularches is that the nymphs and adults
feed on different plants and both reflect the odour of the particular
species they predominantly feed upon.
Poecilocerus pictus F.: Poecilocerus is another grasshopper re-
markable for its brilliant colouring. It is always associated with the
two species of Calotropis (procera and gigantea). It is more commonly
found in the drier areas on C. procera than in the wetter regions. I
am not familiar with the early hopper stages, but as far as I am
aware the insect does not feed on any other asclepiad. Although the
animal is brilliantly coloured, the colouring is slightly masked by a
soft ‘bloom’ resembling the bloom found on the plants themselves.
It is somewhat heavily built and sluggish of habit—reluctant to move.
When disturbed its first attempt to. evade the intruder is to move
round to the opposite side of the branch. On the whole it is less sportive
754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 651
than Aularches and less gregarious, one or two being the usual number
on each plant. When handled it emits an odour similar to the bruised
leaves of Calotropis at the same time vomiting a pungent smelling
liquid. As far as I can remember this species does not produce the
foam at the base of the legs as does Aularches.
LEPIDOPTERA: Among the butterflies and moths there are
numerous examples exhibiting aposematic colouration coupled with noxi-
ous odours, the odours resembling the crushed parts of the food plants.
For example, Danais chrysippus reflects the odours of the various ascle-
piads upon which it feeds. Danais limniace larvae feed on the leaves of
Crotolaria (retusa?) and the butterflies themselves collect in vast
numbers on the same plants, sometime accompanied by Euploea core.
Limniace has an odour resembling the Crotolaria. Many other
examples could be quoted, but as some have already been referred to
by other authors I shall not labour the subject.
HEMIPTERA: Among the so-called garden- or mother-bugs
there are some marked examples exhibiting the similarity of odour bet-
ween the food plants and the animals themselves. Some go still further
by ejecting a smelly fluid. This fluid, should it reach the eye or other
mucous membrane, may cause a certain amount of smarting as I have
experienced to my cost when out insect collecting at night! Never-
theless, there are some which emit quite a different odour to that of
the food plant. I am not attempting an explanation of this pheno-
menon! In spite of the warning colours and disagreeable odours and
perhaps taste (to most birds) the cuckoos feed largely on bugs.
COLEOPTERA: Among the beetles there are also numerous
examples showing similar and dissimilar odours to the food plants.
To take a single example, the flea-beetle, Haltica, feeds largely on
Ammania and emits the same odour as the plants. That these beetles
appear in such large numbers as they do each season seems to indicate
that apart from their colouring and their habit of ‘kicking off’ when
alarmed (as many Chrysomelidae do), they appear to enjoy immunity
from would-be enemies on account of the odour they emit.
There seems to be little doubt that the odours which protect many
insects from would-be enemies are derived directly from the chemical
properties contained in the food plants, some of which may be elaborated
into other offensive substances during the process of digestion. The
change of food plant seems to occasion a change of odour as in the
case of Aularches. However, there is much to learn of the life-cycle
of many of the commoner aposematic insects which might throw some
light on the subject, and a careful biochemical analysis of both insect
and food plants may produce some interesting results.
DOMINION MUSEvuM,
WELLINGTON, CHARLES McCANN, F.L.s..
NEw ZEALAND,
December 31, 1952.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 755
Come NOH TON ad hie INDIAN] SPE CIESTOR WHE GENUS
LYCAENOPSIS FELDER (LEPIDOPTERA—LYCAENIDAE)
A short time ago Sir Keith Cantlie told me that the key on page
225 of ‘Identification of Indian Butterflies’ for separating Lycaenopsis
argiolus sikkima from jynteana by the number of ribs on the androconia
had been found by Mr. D. F. Sanders to be unreliable. So I looked
into the matter. #4
In the first edition (1927) of the ‘Identification’ I had treated
sikkima as a synonym of argiolus jynteana. Shortly after the publi-
cation, I had been in correspondence with the late L. J. Toxopeus,
who published several papers on the genus, and the changes made by
him may be summarised thus :—
(1) 1926 Treubia vill: 365. Lycaenopsis moorei nov. for the 9
type of lavendularis Moore, found to be a ¢.
(2) 1927. Tijd. voor Ent. Luxx: 294. Actyolepis puspa felderi
‘for the second puspa form in Ceylon. He considered that lilacea
Hampson (=crissa DeNicéville) was the puspa form from S. India.
(3) Id. p. 120. Regarded Celastrina jynteana and sikkima as
species, the first with 14 to 15 ribs on the androconia and the second
with 11 or 12.
(4) 1928. Tijd. voor Ent. Lxx1: 224. Introduced lavendularis as
the name for the limbata form from Ceylon.
Except for lilacea I accept the changes made by Toxopeus as I was
unable to check them in India.
Now I have examined the material in the British Museum (Natural
History) and, after studying the published literature and dissecting
several specimens, I have come to the following conclusions :—
(a) lavendularis Moore (=moorei and felderi Toxopeus) is the correct
name for the puspa sub-species from Ceylon.
(b) lilacea Hampson (=crissa DeNicéville) is the name for the puspa
form from S. India. Both have strongly marked seasonal forms.
(c) limbata is a species with sub-species amitra Fruh. from Ceylon:
sub-species limbata Moore from S. India to Bengal: sub-species placida
~DeNicéville from Sikkim to Burma.
(d) sikkima Moore is a synonym of argiolus jynteana, a protean sub-
species of the wide-spread argiolus, one of whose forms bothrinoides
was mis-spelt bothrioides in the ‘Identification’. Dry season forms
of placida, with reduced markings, are not always easy to separate
from jynteana, | |
(ec) I prefer to retain the generic name Lycaenopsis as used in the
‘Identification’ and deprecate the tendency to split up easily recognised
natural groups into a number of genera. For instance the well-known
genus Argynnis is now left with a single species !
British Museum (Natura Hisrory), }
LoNnpon, 3 W. H. EVANS
May 18, 1953. |
15
756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
31. MORE ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL
During the course of fiveanonths spent with a party of mountaineers
under the leadership of Major H. W. Tilman, D.s.o., M.c., in Central
Nepal in 1950, I made a small collection of butterflies for the British
Museum. The 25 species included in the following list by no means
represent the fotal number of varieties seen, but the list may be of
some interest as an addendum to Colonel Bailey’s ‘Notes on Butter-
flies from Nepal’ which was recently published in the Journal (Vol, 50:
64-87, 281-298). That the collection is so small is mainly due to the
fact that I was primarily concerned with collecting botanical specimens,
but is also due to the fact that, in my limited experience, butterflies in
the hills are generally encountered flying at high speed down steep
hillsides !
The area visited would certainly repay a visit by an experienced
entomologist for it seemed to be particularly rich in such orders as
Orthoptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera.
With a single exception all the localities quoted, above 10,000 ft.,
are in a dry zone, the upper valley of the Marsiyandi River being
protected by the Annapurna Himal which rises to over 26,000 ft., and
so effectually protects it from the monsoon.
I am indebted to Mr. A. G, Gabriel of the British Museum for the
identifications.
PAPILIONIDAE
1, Papilio philoxenus Gray f. typ.
Evans 2.15.
Common among bushes at the edge of fields. Thonje, 6,500 it.,
aE mo:
2. Papilio janaka Moore f. typ.
Evans 4.4.
Common among bushes at the edge of fields. Thonje, 6,500 It.,
26-5-50.
3. Papilio machaon everesti Riley.
Evans 4.29.
Sparingly on bare open stony slopes and among dwarf juniper.
gees /p ) P S J
Jargeng Khola, 15,500 ft., 5-7-50.
4, Parnassius epaphus sikkimensis Elwes.
Evans 13.3. ; ;
Sparingly on steep grassy slopes. Khangsar, 15,000 ft., 27-7-50.
5. Parnassius hadrwickei f. correctus Bryk.
Evans 13.4.
Frequent on open grassy slopes. Jargeng Khola, 14,000 ft., 3-7-50;
Khangsar, 15,000 ft., 24 & 27-7-50.
6. Parnassius delphius lathonius Bryk.
Sparingly on steep rocky hillsides at great altitudes. Thorongse,
18,000 f{t., 6-8-50.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
~I
ON
I
PIERIDAE
7. Colias dubia ssp.
Evans 16.8.
Sparingly on grassy slopes. Khangsar, 14,500 to 15,000 ft.,
27-7-50.
8. Colias fieldii Menetr. f. typ.
Evans 16.11. ;
Plentiful in grassy places. Manangbhot, 11,500 to 14,500 ft., July
to September. .
9. Colias arida ssp.
Evans ?
On grassy hillsides. Jargeng Khola, 14,500 ft., 2-7-50; Khangsar,
16,000 ft., 29-7-50. |
SATYRIDAE
10. Lethe baladeva Moore.
Evans 3.2. ‘
Common among bushes at the edge of fields. Thonje, 6.500 ft.,
24-5-50.
11. Lethe nicevillei Evans.
Evans 3.9.
Dudh Khola, 11,500 ft., 23-8-50.
12. Raphicera moorei Butl. f. typ.
Evans 4.6.
Frequent in grassy clearings in forest. Kupar, 8,000 ft., 18-8-50.
13. Paroeis sikkimensis Steger.
Evans 10.2.
Sparingly among juniper scrub on steep hillsides. Khangsar, 15,000
ft., 24, 27 and 29-7-5o.
14, Aulocera brahminoides Moore.
Evans 11.1.
Sparingly on open hillsides among juniper scrub. Khangsar, 14,500
ft. and Marsiandi Valley, 12,000 ft., 27 and 30-7-s0.
15. Callerebia scanda optima Walk.
Evans 13.5. 3
Field on the edge of forest. Thonje, 6,700 ft., 30-8-s5o0.
NYMPHALIDAE _
16. Vanessa kashmirensis aesis Fruh.
Evans 36.10.
Sparingly between 12,000 and 15,000 ft., all specimens much worn.
Jatgeng Khola, 14,500 ft., 2-7-50; Khangsar, 14,500 ft., 27-7-50,
Also in June, | |
798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
17. Argynnis childreni Grey f. typ.
Evans 39.2.
Frequent in mixed forest. Marsiyandi Valley, 9,000 ft., 31-8-50.
18. Argynnis lathonia issaea Moore.
Evans 39.8.
Fairly frequent. Marsiyandi Valley, 8,200 ft., 25-5-50 and Khangsar,
14,500 ft., 24-7-50 and 13,500 ft., 10-9-50.
19. Argynnis eugenia Eversm.
Evans 39.11.
Fairly frequent. Khangsar, 14,500 ft., 24-7-50 and 16,000 ft.,
AES
20. Melitaea arcesia irma Higgins.
Evans 40.5.
Common. Manangbhot, 11,500 to 16,000 ft., at end of July.
LYCAENIDAE
21. Celastrine hugelii Moore.
Evans 20.19.
Common. Among bushes at the edge of fields. Thonje, 6,500 ft.,
24-5-50 and 30-8-50, and Thangja, 6,700 ft., 20-8-50.
22. Zizeeria maha Koll.
Evans 22.2.
Among bushes at edge of fields. Thonje, 6,700 ft., 30-8-50.
23. Albulina near pheretes Hubn.
Evans ?
Common in grassy places. Manangbhot, 12,500 to 16,000 ft., July.
24. Polyommatus stoliczkana Feld.
Evans 24.2.
Common in grassy places and among junipers. Manangbhot, 11,500
to 15,000 ft., July.
25. Lyceana phleas Linn.
Evans 35.2.
Common locally in grassy places. Manangbhot, 12,500 to 14,000
fits ae)itllye
GADDEN’S CLOSE,
RinGwoop, Hants, D. G. LOWNDES,
ENGLAND, ; Colonel.
March 15, 1953.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 759
32. A UNIQUE CASE OF A PROFUSELY BRANCHED
PALMYRA PALM
(With a photo)
The tree photographed is an interesting case of paae ‘Pal
(Borassus flabellifer) growing
near Tavabaconpour (Pondi-
cherry). The tree is profusely
branched distally, having about
a dozen branches each with
its own crown of leaves. The
crowns of leaves are normal in
All Ges PeCts em DESI OnE Mem
they growth iy iof *) leaves @:is;
however, as vigorous as in adult
trees. Compare the crown of
leaves of the branched tree
with that of the tree in the
background of the photograph.
It appears that the branched
condition is due to damage
of the apical portion of the tree
in an earlier stage of its life
history. |
I am thankful to Mr. Abel
Clovis (Judge, Pondicherry) for
the photograph.
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY, Ws Go INe SIONGial
ANNAMALAINAGAR,
March 23, 1953.
33. NOTES ON THE PHOTOGRAPHY OF FOSSILS, WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO A SPECIMEN OF INDOBATRACHUS
FROM WORLI HILL, BOMBAY
(Communicated by Charles McCann, New Zealand)
(With a plate)
This specimen, of a fossil frog from the Inter-Trappean Beds of
Worli Hill, Bombay, presents a problem quite commonly met with
in the photography of fossils, namely: that of a specimen whosé
colour matches that of its matrix and which lies in the same plane
as the matrix.
The problem of how to separate these two cannot be solved by
either of the well-known ‘plane-separation’ or ‘colour-separation’
techniques. The former depends on a difference of plane Bomween
760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. o1
fossil and matrix, so that light, falling obliquely, creates highlights
and shadows. The latter on a difference in colour, or in tone of a
colour, that can be exaggerated by an appropriate colour filter.
A close examination of this fossil shows that the skeletal: residue
does not lie consistently in one plane but has become vertically dis-
lodged in an irregular fashion, so that there are areas where the
skeleton, although not actually overlaid by thin films of shale, has,
here and there, been pressed more deeply into its matrix. Thus
oblique incident light, glancing across the uppermost plane, could
not reach these sunken areas and would not, therefore, illuminate the
whole of what is visible to the eye. Clearly some method must be
found which is independent of both colour and relief, but is able to
differentiate between possible differences in the reflection characteris-
tics of the two substances of fossil and matrix.
The writer has for some time been using an experimental camera
designed for carrying out research on such problems as this. With
this apparatus it is practicable to submit a specimen to a series of
tests in order to measure its reactions to various illumination and
photographic conditions. In this instance it was found that while the
skeletal residue behaved like’ a regulary reflector, the shale matrix
behaved like a diffuse reflector. :
When illuminated by a directional beam of light from a_ point
source incident upon it at an angle of about 20° from the normal,
slight polarisation was noticed. When the collimated beam itself
was polarised the effect was increased. With incident light at o°
the effect decreased, and appeared to reach a maximum at 10°—at
which the photographs were taken. The process of separation thus
started by optical means, it was a matter only of commonplace dark-
room practice to continue it further to a point at which maximum
contrast was achieved without loss of detail.
The illustrations show how the dark grey shale was raised in
tone relatively to the carbonaceous matter of the skeletal residue. In
these ‘translations’ of the specimen it is important to note how the
outside edges of the bones have registered as thin black lines, while
the interior surfaces register white. None of the black in these
pictures is shadow, but arises from the angle at which a regularly
reflecting surface reflects light—the light is reflected away from the
lens by the curvature of the surface. On the other hand, interior
surface areas are normal to the light and -reflect back an image of
the light source—mirrorwise.
Between the outer edge of the bone and the central surface area
is an intermediate area of graded tones. These have almost dis-
appeared from the present pictures owing to the contrast having been
exaggerated for reasons already given. This has led to an increase
in width of the black outlines and an even greater increase in area
of the white portions. Fortunately this does not affect the accuracy
of the lineal representation, since the thickening takes place in one
direction only—towards the centre—leaving the outer edge of each
black line as in nature.
From the spreading of the white outwards a certain amount of
information can be gathered about the spherical contour of the bone.
A relatively wide white band indicates that a relatively wide area, of
<
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IVEY Saqavyg
AO as
"906 “ISI}[ “IVN AvaWwog ‘Nanof
-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 761
central Surface is normal to the lens, in short, that a section of
the bone at that point would be more elliptical than circular. Con-
versely, a very thin white line would suggest a raised knife-like
edge. But in drawing these conclusions due allowance must be
made _for tonal distortions, for the angle of incident light, the
diffuseness of the light and for the size of the light source.
In summarising, it may be said that in the photography of certain
types of fossils greater clarity may often be obtained by utilising the
diversity of reflection characteristics of fossil and matrix and so bring
about, in the first place by optical means and then by controlled pro-
cessing techniques, a separation of the two that will enable printable
illustrations to be made. At very small angles of incident light
where no shadows are thrown the photographic image often reveals
structural characters not evident in pictures taken by more oblique
light.
Dominion Museum,
WELLINGTON, CHARLES HALE
NEw ZEALAND,
May 5, 1953.
34. COMMENT ON ‘THE MANI-JAL OF THE CHILKA
LAKE—A SPECIAL NET FOR BELONIFORM FISHES’
Dr. S. Jones and Mr. K. H. Sujansingani in their note published
in Vol. 50 (1) (pp. 287-288), have stated that Mani-Jal is a novel
type of net used only in the Chilka Lake and that existing records on
fishing methods in India and elsewhere in the world do not contain
any reference to this type of net.
Probably, the authors have not referred to Hornell’s Fishing
Methods, Part I, published in the Administrative Report for 1922-
1923, Madras Bulletin No. 18, wherein he has described the same
net under the name ‘Kuzhi Valai’ used in the Negapatam backwaters.
He has also stated-that it is exclusively used for catching the gar-fish,
Belone strongylurus. So there is no reason to believe as the authors
say ‘this net has not been introduced from elsewhere but has had its
origin in this section (Balugan) of the Chilka region itself’.
BALUGAN, . ;
May 28, 1053. M. PETER DEVASUNDARAM
35. GLEANINGS
Virus disease wins Pastures from Rabbits
‘Australia’s greatest pest, the rabbit, is rapidly being brought
under control by the planned introduction by the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization of the disease,
myxomatosis. :
The disease is spread among rabbits by mosquitoes and, in the
last three years, has gained such ground that the Lands Department
762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61
of Victoria now estimates that more than go per cent of the rabbits
have been destroyed in large areas of the State. Similar destruction
is reported from many parts of New South Wales, South Australia
and Queensland, with the result that farmers and graziers report a
phenomenal increase in the carrying capacity of their pastures.
The Minister for External Affairs, Mr. Casey, who is also in
charge of the C.S.I.R.O., said that if the gains won at such low
cost were maintained, Australia’s carrying capacity would increase
by the equivalent of 10,000,000 sheep. A Melbourne wool expert
has estimated that myxomatosis may have increased the value of this
year’s wool clip by 4,20,000,000. However, Mr. Casey warned that
in many districts, rabbits were showing increased resistance to the
disease and that, in a very few more seasons, myxomatosis might
have lost most of its killing power.’
(A.S.L.O. Newsletter No.. 58.)
(Reproduced from Science Newsletter No. 96, dated 4th March
1953, item No. 1506.)
Loads Hibernating under Water
“That frogs usually hibernate in the water of ponds is well-known
but there do not appear to be any records in literature that toads
have the same habit. The following therefore is of interest.
In 1927 I constructed a concrete lily pond in my garden, to ft. by
8 ft., by 2 ft. 9 in. in depth. A layer of sods covered by pea gravel
some 6 in, in depth was put in as a foundation for the lilies and
this was gradually increased year by year by the influx of dead leaves.
Krogs (Rana temporaria) spawned in the pond the spring after it was
built and a year later toads (Bufo bufo) followed suit. In subsequent
years both species availed themselves regularly of the ACTS MUU OIUIONN
thus provided. |
A few years after the pond had been built I decided to fence OE
a corner in order to grow some Flags (Iris pseudacorus). This
involved draining the nol and clearing it ‘of the mud at one end.
About mid-November the water was siphoned off and as soon as the
bottom mud was fully exposed I waded in to clear it from the corner
that had been selected. Almost at once a frog was exhumed. It
was quite torpid but snewed signs of animation as soon as it had
been rinsed in water and placed in my hand. The next few spadefulls
revealed more frogs, and then a toad was discovered. It also was
torpid but when cleaned and placed in my hand quickly responded to
the warmth. Subsequent digging shewed that in about 4 square
yards of mud 17 frogs and 5 toads were in hibernation. These were
later returned to the pond.
In the following spring both frogs and toads were spawning as
usual and they have continued to do so every year since.’—L. F. G.
Waddington.
Reproduced from the pane Journal of Herpetology, Vol. 1, No.
6, p. 112 (May, 1952).
NOTES AND NEWS
i meeting of members and their friends was held on Apyri! 15, 1953
to bid farewell to Col. R. W. Burton, who has left India to settle in
England. ‘During the 60 odd years during which Col. Burton has been
associated with the Bombay Natural History Society (he joined in
1893 and is one of our oldest members) he has shown the most lively
interest in its welfare. His name has become a byword in Indian
Wild Life Conservation, and particularly since the attainment of our
Independence there is no other single person who has done more to
focus the attention of governments, both Central and States, and of
the press and public, on the parlous condition of our wild life and the
urgent need for calling a halt to the wholesale destruction that is
rampant on every hand. His persistent hammering on the gravity
of the situation was largely responsible for the coming into being of
the Indian Wild Life Board with H. H. The Rajpramukh of Mysore
as President. The booklet he compiled at the instance of the latter
on the Preservation of Wild Life in India, places in readily accessible
form the principal contents of all the many important articles and
editorials which have been published on the subject in the Journal
during the last 70 years. The booklet will be a boon to all Wild Life
Committees and executives, and of the greatest assistance to them
for a proper understanding of the multifarious issues involved in this |
complex problem. This may be considered Col. Burton’s parting gift
to India, and every one who values our wild life for the national asset
it is, will be grateful to him for the enormous pains that have gone
into the preparation of the booklet.
Another benefaction left by Col. Burton to the Society—it is no
less—is his admirable general index of the Journal. This was
originally prepared by him for his own use, of course, but at the
Comrnittee’s request he has generously permitted us to publish tj in
commemoration of the completion of the 50th volume. With suitable
modificattons the index should be of inestimable convenience to all
users of the Journal in general and to its editors in particular.
All members of the Society will extend to Col. and Mrs. Burton
heartiest good wishes in their new domicile, and the editors hope that
the unfailing cooperation and encouragement they have always received
from Col. Burton may be maintained.
In the Journal (Vol. 49, pp. 815-832) we published the Bonibay
Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act 1951. This Act came
into force on Ist May 1953 and as detailed rules have been framed
thereunder, the gist of what one may and may not do is given below
for the benefit and convenience of sportsmen.
1. It is essential that all persons holding a ieence under the
Indian Arms Act 1878 register all their weapons on payment of Rs. 2
each, with the Wild Life Preservation Officer, The Commissioner of
Police in Bombay or the District Magistrate in the districts. This
will be in addition to the ordinary arms license fee.
TO4, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
2. Hxcept in defence of life or property you cannot shoot any bird
or anita! unless you possess a game licence which is of three kinds—
Small Game, Big Game and Special Big Game.
The following is entirely prohibited : —
Shooting of any game during the close season. }
Shooting or snaring the Great Indian Bustard throughout the
year.
Shooting sambar and chital except males with horns 30” and 20”
respectively.
Shooting bison and elephant with a rifle of smaller bore than
400 H.V. or 500 Black Powder except a H.V. Magnum 375.
Shooting game on private land except with the permission of
the owner. 7
(The distinction between Forest, malki and other lands is
eliminated and the game licences cover the whole of the State. The
game blocks in the southern part of the State will be maintained,
and will require separate booking).
Shooting in areas declared as sanctuaries. |
Shooting from motor ears (also other vehicles) either by day or
might.
Use of artificial lights except for carnivora over natural kills.
Shooting during the hours of night, i.e. one hour after sunset
and one hour before sunrise, except over natural kills.
Shooting any birds or animals at or on their way to a salt lick
or water-hole (except sandgrouse or water birds).
Use of slugs out of a gun against deer, gazelle or antelope.
Buying, selling or offering for sale of meat or any other part of
a wild bird or animal.
Shooting any immature bird or animal, or of one accompanied
by its young.
Considering the important part the Society played in bringing
into being the present Act and Rules, it is expected that its members
will extend exemplary cooperation to the State Wild Life Department.
ln nn EE ST A a Na nea
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
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Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions :
1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for
publication to other journals or periodicals, or have already been
published elsewhere, should not be submitted.
2. The MS should preferably be typed
one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.
3. All scientific names, to be printed in ale “ial i under-
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific
names alwa in with a small letter even if they refer ioe
person or a hae, e.g. Anthus hodgsont hodgsont or Streptopelia
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4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used
where identification has been authentically establi rison
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ae is based merely on sight, binomials should be used. —
Photographs for reproduction ee eens shee ena
ae Prints must be of a size not smaller than 33x24 inches
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6. Text figures, line drawings and nas ehould! be in Indian
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7. References to literature ghawiél The placed at the end ofthe
Po cont alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridge
journals or periodicals underlined Gates) and titles a peers
not underlined (roman type), thus:
Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Htbner. ‘Trans. ent.
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Prater, S: H. (1948) ; The Book | of Indian A nim als
Titles of papers should not be underlined.
8. Reference to literature in the text should be made b quoting ;
the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1949).
Prior mation Gonremnee (July 1948), the aoe consider
that each scientific paper be accompanied by i
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factual. It should convey briefly the content of the paper j
attention to all new information and to the author’s main Loan
It should also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions
of an experiment, and if possible the essential points oh any new
finding, pa or permite? ‘It should be concise and normally
10psis is ate et it should be carefull revised
114 Apollo Street, Fort,
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Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, with many coloured and black and
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Pot. SF
JOURNAL OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Vol. 51, No. 4
Editors
SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SANTAPAU
aM HSON4))
APR7 1954
DECEMBER 1953
Rs, 15
11th INTERNATIONAL ORNITHOLOGICAL
CONGRESS
The Permanent Committee for International Ornithologi-
cal Congresses has instructed the Ornithological Society of
Switzerland to organize the 11th international congress. It
is to be held at Basel from May 29th—June 5th, 1954.
According to the preliminary programme the opening of
the Congress will take place on Saturday, May 2oth at 2 p.m.
During the week in addition to congress discussions, there
will be two whole-day excursions to the Lower Alps and the
French part of Switzerland and short trips in the early
morning hours to the surroundings of Basel. Before and
after the Congress, excursions will be arranged to various
parts of Switzerland.
Ornithologists from all countries are cordially invited to
attend. ‘The congress fee is 30 Swiss francs, and applica-
tions should be sent in before the end of February 1954,
Applicants will be furnished with a detailed programme.
At the Congress a few survey lectures will be held by
lecturers specially invited. Other members may also lecture
or give short announcements.
A preliminary invitation to the Congress will be distribu-
ted through representatives in every country and can also
be obtained from the following address; XI. International
Ornithological Congress, Zoological Garden, Basel,
Switzerland.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51, NO. 4
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED RHINO-
CEROS (2. unicornis Linn.). By E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.z.s. (With two
plates) 508 sive 40 600 00 200
PLANTS FROM East NEPAL, PART III. By M. L, Banerji ... 500
NovtES ON THE BIONOMICS AND MORPHOLOGY OF Alyposidra successaria
WLK., A GEOMETRID Pest ON DAINCHA (Sesbania aculeata) IN
CorMBATORE. By K.P. Ananthanarayanan, B.A. (Hons.), and S. Venu-
gopal, B.Sc. (Zool.), B.Sc. (Bot.) (With a text figure)
SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE. PART II. By W. T. Loke. (With
six plates) a4 505 000 Ae Se 50
CRITICAL Notes ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME
BoMBAY Prants. JI—THE GENUS Zizyphus MILL. By H. Santapau,
SVos TROIS ollo= soo e@oo eoe eco @oo
THE DuM-NvT BEETLE—Coccotry pes dactyliperda FABR. AND ITS CONTROL.
By K. R. Nagaraja a B.Sc. (Hons.), and I. P. Janaki, B.sc. (With
a text figure) ... : 505 5
PROBLEMS OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN CEYLON. By Sunder Lai
Hora and T. V. R. Pillay
CurtTIs’s BOTANICAL MAGAZINE: ITS ORIGIN, HISTORY AND MISSION.
By M. B. Raizada, F.N.1. we 500
NARRATIVE OF A TREK AND OF NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS IN
KASHMIR IN MAy-JuNE 1942. By E. P. Wiltshire, F.R.ES. (With
two plates) ae oes ee arn ee
CouNnT OF BIRD NESTS IN A SMALL TOWN: DORANDA, SUBURB OF
RANCHI, BIHAR STATE. By Jamal Ara
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA—l1. FROM THE BRGIN-
NING TO THE MIDDLE OF WALILICH’S SERVICE. By I. H. Burkill.
(With a map) eoe eee eee eve eee
WHAT ULTIMATELY TERMINATES THE LIFE SPAN OF THE WHALE SHARK,
Rhineodon tpus? By E. W. Gudger. (With a plate and two text
figures) oop eee eve ° eco coo eae
Bronomics OF Monanthia globulifera WALK. (HEMIPTERA—HE&TEROP-
TERA: TINGIDAE). By U, S. Sbharga, M.Ssc., Ph.D. (With five figures)
TuE GENUS Cymbopogon SPRENG. IN INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. PART
Il, BK IN|, Ibe IBxoy oO 200 ,
LOCAL AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF COMMERCIAL FISHES OF BOMBAY. By
C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D. es aoe es
OBITUARIES :—
A.A. Dunbar Brander. (James W. Best) 5
Dr. Maurice Suter. (N. J. Hamilton & Ashoka Madeavican)
PAGE
801
805
809
819
825
839
846
879
885
890
917
926
$26
ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51, NO. 4
REVIEWS :—
1. Animal Ecology. By W. H. Dowdeswell. (H.A.) 500
2. Bird Migrants. By EricSimms. (H.A.) oe 300
3. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. By Henry Field. (H.
Santapau) O60
4, The Preservation of Wild Life in India—A Compilation. By Lt.-Col.
R,. W. Burton. (E.P.G.) . op of 500
5. The Indian Aquarist, and The Bulletin of the Bombay Aquarium
Society. (H. Santapau) oo 550 a0
ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY ... A
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
1. On the feeding habits of Bears. By M. 8S. Chandrasekhar (p. 934).
2. Albino Sambar. By B. Subbiah Pillay (p. 935). 3. Mystery Predator.
By D. G. Meston (p. 935). 4. Wild Life Conservation—The Problem of the
Deer. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 935). 5. Bayasand Fire-Flies. By R. M.
Aldworth (p. 936). 6. On the re-occurrence in Ceylon of Blyth’s Pipit—
Anthus campestris thermophilus (Jerdon). By W. W. A. Phillips (p. 937).
7. Crested Tree Swifts and wild Bees. By B. E. Smythies (p. 938).
8. Movements of Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica (Miller). By K. S.
Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 938). 9. Lesser Frigate Birds (Fregata minor)
in Bombay. By R. M. T. Taylor (p. 939). 10. Birds of Nepal. By Robert
L. Fleming (p. 939). 11. The use of poisonous sprays. By Lt.-Col. R. W.
Burton (p. 943). 12. Egg-laying of the Bloodsucker Lizard. (With a photo).
By Anonymous (p. 944), 13. Python capturing Chinkara. By Raja of
Jasdan (p. 945). 14. A note on the distribution of Anchoviella heterolobus
(Ruppell) and Anchoviella zollingeri (Bleeker) in Indian Seas. By S. Varada-
rajan (p. 946). 15. Rare Ocean Sun-fish (Wasturus lanceolatus Lienard) in
Bombay Waters. (With a photo). By C. V. Kulkarni (p. 948). 16, Occur-
rence of the Brine Shrimp Arlemia sp. in Bombay. (With a text figure).
By C. V. Kulkarni (p. 951). 17. Occurrence of Nephila matabarensis in
Bombay. (With a text figure). By T. V. Subrahmanyam (p. 952).
18. Notes and Queries on Land Leeches. By B. E. Smythies (p. 954).
19. Sexual behaviour of Land Leeches. (With a text figure). By J. L. Harri-
son (p. 959). 20. The Species of Crotalaria in Bombay. By H. Santapau.
(p. 960). 21. The Androecium of Zaverniera nummularia DC. By M.H.S.
Murthy (p. 962), 22. The Herbarium at the Poona Agricultural College. By
A, V. Gokhale and S. R. Godbole (p. 963). 23. Gleanings (p. 965),
NOTES AND NEws
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE
YEAR ENDING 3lst DECEMBER 1952... eee mi
THE HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1952 ais Sat
APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT COVERING THE PERIOD
JANUARY TO AuGUST 1953 ... ne ae. “se
STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING eA -.
PAGE
928
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929
930
931
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JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
1953 WOb, Hil No. 4
HORROR SERV TONS ONT DHE GREAT INDIAN
ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS (Rk. UNICORNIS LINN.)
BY
Bn IP, (Gi WIL CoMiezoS.
(IVith two plates)
IGN Ry OLDHUCERY © N
Since writing the paper The Life History of the Great Indian
One-horned Rhinoceros (dv. unicornis Linn.) published in Vol. 51,
No. 2, pp. 341-348, more information on the mating, breeding and
life span of this species of rhino is available from Kaziranga Wild
Life Sanctuary in Assam. To this have been added some observations
on rhino attacking humans, noises made by rhino, occasional sociabi-
lity of rhino and dung heaps of rhino.
MATING
A fifth case of rhino actually mating was observed in Kaziranga
by IL. Rynjah, the Divisional Forest Officer, and) R..C. Was, ithe
Range Officer. While accompanying the D.1.G. Police in the sanctuary
on Match roth) 1953, at4 p-m-., they came across a pair mating... L.
Rynjah has described the incident as follows: ‘The female standing as
usual and the male on the top of her back like the mating of buffaloes. .
We first saw them from a distance as the grass all around has been
burnt and we approached quite near to them and they did not seem
to mind us . . . we watched them for about half-an-hour. When they
finished they separated as other animals do and grazed again together
nearby’.
‘Three days previously’, continued L. Rynjah, ‘the Range Officer
when conducting the American Consul General round the sanctuary
saw the same pair running and playing between themselves and making
a whistling like sound .. . the female passing urine at short and
766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
frequent intervals .... Both these rhinos rushed towards the elephants
and came as close as about 30 ft, but stopped in front of the elephants
when the mahouts and Range Officer made a noise’.
It appears that this pair of rhino resented disturbance at the time
of courting, but at the time of actual mating did not mind the close
proximity of the forest elephant and visitors.
From the description and behaviour of this pair, and after a care-
ful scrutiny of photographs and cine shots, it seems certain that this
is the same pair which I had earlier christened as Romeo and Juliet.
These two almost mature rhino were observed and photographed by
me as early as on 1-11-1952 when I was taking R. C. Morris round
the sanctuary, again by me on 3-1-1953, and by E. R. Dungan on
7-2-1953. They were seen together by the Range Officer as late
as 10-4-1953. All this time, some five months, they were inseparable 3.
and this goes to show that courting and pairing can be prolonged
over a considerable period.
It will be noticed that the case of mating recorded above falls
within the same period in which the previous four cases occurred—
a period of ‘two months lasting from the end of February to the end
of April’. I am not yet, however, myself fully convinced that there
is any such fixed mating season, as the months of February, March
and April are the ‘season’ in which nearly all visitors come, very few
people visiting the sanctuary during the monsoon from May to
September.
Mating may not, therefore, be confined to the spring months.
On 2-8-1953 at Hathikuli I observed two adult rhino moving about
so closely together that they were almost certainly a bull and a cow.
And again on 15-8-1953 I observed two pairs of rhino, of which
one pair actually indulged in a little flirting. I am now inclined to
believe that the main mating season is February, March and April;
but that mating also occurs in January and May, and may possibly
also occur in June, July and August.
BREEDING
Another case of a newly born rhino calf in Kaziranga has recently
been reported. On the night of 9/1o-8-1953 four labourers of
Hathikuli Tea Estate were in their tongi (look-out hut built on poles)
watching over their paddy fields at night, to drive away rhino and
other crop-raiding animals. One particular rhino could not be driven’
away, and actually charged the men, who fled to their houses. Return-
ing with a force of twenty men, they drove the rhino across a small
stream back into the sanctuary.
Next morning a baby rhino was found caught up in the masses
of water hyacinth in the small stream. R. C. Das, the Range
Officer, was called to the spot, and he succeeded in rescuing the
baby which was ‘most savage with fear for the first half hour and
then became very quiet. There were six leeches on it, but no blood.
It was a pinkish colour, and had no tushes and no teeth. The place
where the horn will grow was very soft. It was calling for its
mother like a buffalo calf, and its mother was answering from a
distance with a similar call’.
Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pr Ane. a
The Kan Katta (Torn Ear) when it first came to Mihimukh had, in addition
to its torn ear, a scar on its nose and three gashes on its flank. In this picture,
taken a month later, the gashes had healed up
Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.
PLATE II
Author
This pair, known as Romeo and Juliet, were seen together for five months
Six of the seven rhino seen together at one mud wallow ;
just left
A. Jairamdas
another one had
THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS 767
The Range Officer sat up in the tongi the following night, with
the baby rhino tied up below. At about 10.30 p.m. the mother rhino
crossed the stream and approached. The baby was released, and.
mother and baby became re-united. On 11-8-1953 they were not seen,
but on 12-8-1953 they were both seen together across the stream by
the Hathikuli labourers.
Presuming that this calf was two weeks old when found, it must
have been born on July 26. With a gestation period of 184 months.
this means that mating took place on January 12, 1952.
The dimensions of the calf were :—
The Hathikuli Calf—
, Height Bg tt ae?
Length (including tail) .. co B®
LIFE SPAN
The aged solitary bull rhino, known to all and sundry as the
Boorra Goonda and referred to on page 346 of my previous paper,
died on June 8, 1953. It was seen by the local herdsmen on June
6, and it was observed that it had become very slow in movement, On
the morning of June 8, it was found lying dead, outside the sanctuary
and not far from the huts of the herdsmen. Its teeth were very worn,
and it is presumed that its death was due to old age. Its measure-
ments, as given by the Range Officer, were:
Length from root of tail to tip of nose... 10! 0”
Height at shoulder ... ue anes WEG”
Length of horn (front curve) oy TA
Weight of horn... soo 6 B MIDS. © OK
Value of horn (at present market RAtC) Ne eee INS Sede O75
The death of this fine old rhino will be a great loss, for the locality
in which it had lived in solitary retirement for at least 15 years is.
the very place where visitors usually enter and leave the sanctuary.
There is some consolation, however, in the fact that another old
bull rhino, called the Kan Katta, has turned up to take its place.
When the Kan Katta (Torn Ear) first arrived in this locality
near Mihimukh in November, 1952, it charged the forest elephants
on which were the D.F.O. and some visitors, but was warded off
by shouts. When I first saw it on 4-12-1952, it seemed to have
become used to humans; and since then it has become even more:
reconciled to its new life of exile near human habitation.
RHINO ATTACKING HUMANS
The two rhino named Romeo and Juliet were twice involved in
an attack against humans. Firstly on 7-2-1953 E. R. Dungan was
taking cine shots of these two rhino as they were playing, courting
and chasing one another. With him were two companions, one of
which was the Assistant Conservator of Forests of the sanctuary.
They apparently approached too close, and one of the two rhino
suddenly started chasing the A.C.F. The A.C.F., a young man,
ran as fast as he could over the dry ground, but the rhino put on a
768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ELSES O'CIEIEY, = Volo
sudden burst of speed and easily. caught up. With the impact of
its nose and mouth on the shoulder of the A.C.I*., the latter fell
headlong and broke his collar-bone. The rhino then quietly departed
without attempting further pursuit.
Again on 7-3-1953, when the Range Officer was taking’ the
American Consul General round the sanctuary, both these rhino
(Romeo and Juliet) ‘rushed towards the elephants and came as close
as about 30 ft. but stopped in front of the elephants when the mahouts
and Range Officer made a noise’. Three days later, when actually
mating as previously described, this pair was quite unheedful of the -
presence of humans on elephant-back.
In another part of the sanctuary recently a villager had placed
some fish lines in the shallow stream which forms the southern
boundary. One day he was inspecting these fish lines. While his
dug-out boat was being pushed through the thick water hyacinth it
actually struck a rhino which was resting unobserved in the water.
The rhino rose up, put its foot through the bottom of the boat and
inflicted an injury on the man with one of its lower tushes, causing
a gash 6 in. long on the thigh.
The following three cases were recently reported by an A.C.F.
from Laokhowa Reserve, and I am indebted to the Senior Conservator
of Forests for forwarding a copy to me. Laokhowa Reserve is an
isolated continuation of Kaziranga westwards down the Brahmaputra
river. I give the A.C.F.’s own words as far ias possible:
r. ‘On 1-2-1953... - one of my Assistant Foresters, Khageswar
Bora, went for enumeration of trees in a cut line . . . going forward
with the enumeration book and the pencil in hand looking up at trees
in front of him for direction to callipering. The reserve being very
open with Simul and Koroi with plenty of thatch underground he
could walk forward at.a speed as the trees for callipering were very
few. He was thus going forward with his eyes fixed above, suddenly,
when he looked down, he was face to face with a full grown male
rhino. The rhino looked at him, he dropped down his pencil and
the note-book on the spot and screamed out “Oh, I am undone, I am
undone’’.
‘At the same time he was pacing backwards fixing his eyes on the
rhino which was so long looking at him curiously; and hardly he
paced back about 6 steps when the rhino rushed forward and pushed
at his right knee with his mouth. After two pushes, the Assistant
Forester fell down on his buttocks on the thatchy ground. He
raised his two legs and kicked at the rhino’s mouth and at the same
time screamed out. The rhino paused for a moment and then walked
back about 15 ft. from the Forester. Thinking that the rhino had
left, the Forester got up instantly to run.
‘But lo, the rhino stopped and looked back when it saw that the
fellow had got up the rhino again rushed at him. Surprisingly
enough this time also he knocked the Assistant Forester at the same
knee and got him down. The Forester repeated the same thing.
Suddenly the rhino began to run at his heels.
‘The Assistant Forester got up, called for his two Abor labourers
and picked up his note-book, pencil, hat, etc. He took rest on the
spot and then continued his works. After completing the enumera-
tion in the line he returned back to the camp in the afternoon and
a
» igs
THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS 769
reported to me. He got bruises on his right leg and no injury was
done to him.’
2. ‘In the same reserve of Laokhowa on another day two of the.. .
men were cutting thatch. A rhino’s path in the forest is just Lke
a footpath. You can quite easily go on such a path even if it is
in very dense thatchy area. The men were cutting thatch just near
a rhino’s path. They could hear nothing as the sickle made a sound
with the thatch which could easily submerge any other sound.
‘They were engrossed in their works cutting the thatch leaning
forward with their haunch up when suddenly they got a tremendous
knock on the buttocks and both of them fell on their faces. When
they looked up they saw one wild rhino on his heels. The fellow
knocked them down with his flattened big belly without any know-
ledge to himself. The aime passed and the labourers resumed their
works
3. ‘On another occasion by the same time in the same reserve
one of the labourers was returning to the camp in the evening with
two bundles of thatch dangling on two sides of his shoulder. With
such a load the labourers generally go on strides rather than walk.
Unfortunately he was coming on a rhino’s track.
‘All on a ‘sudden he felt. a rhino heading through his opening in
between the two legs. This happened when the rhino was coming
from behind with his head downwards (it is known that head of
rhino lies much lower nearer the ground). The fellow could not ante
a moment when he found himself lying on the rhino’s back with
his back on it, the load of thatch bundles being fallen on sides. In
the next moment the fellow was thrown on one side of the track
and the rhino trudged along forward very majestically.’
Case 1 seems to confirm the experience of the first episode with
Romeo and Juliet: that rhino do not usually press forward their
attack once a man has been downed. Case 2 1s pecull iar—perhaps it was
because the men were ‘down’ all the time that the rhino ignored
them. Case 3 is extraordinary, and comment is difficult.
NOISES MADE BY RHINO
Early writers on natural history in India have described the rhino
as uttering no sound except a repeated grunt. For example (Sterndale
1884): ‘The only voice of the beast recorded is a grunt’. Sportsmen
in the last century, however, have referred to the noise made by a
rhino when wounded, and one of them (Lt.-Col. Pollok, 1879) wrote
: it makes such a noise it can be heard a long way off. The
noise once heard can never be forgotten’.
| I myself was present at the capture in 1949 of a young female
rhino, caught in a pit for the Cairo Zoo. It uttered deafening cries,
to be answered by its mother in the distance.
During the last cold weather in Kaziranga some interesting obser-
vations go to show that a whistling noise is made by rhino at the
time of courtship, probably by the female. In the afternoon of 3-2-
1953 E. R. Dungan observed for half an hour a pair of rhino at’
Laodhubi Bheel playing and courting. One was whistling and the
other was snorting—he could not be certain which sex was making
770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
which noise, but thinks that the male was doing the snorting and
the female the whistling.
Again at Mihimukh in the early morning of 13-2-1953 he saw
another pair chasing each other, whistling and snorting. And on
7-3-1953 there was the case of the Range Officer seeing Romeo
hae Juliet ‘running and playing between themselves and making a
whistling-like sound .
A theory has been Pavanced (S. Dillon Ripley, 1952) that when the
urge to mate comes on, rhino take to wandering—the whistling sound
being a ‘recognition’ sign between physiologically-attuned members
of the opposite sex. But the cases of whistling noises reported to
me and described above occurred only during the courting stage, and
appear to have been made by only one sex, the other sex making the
snorting noises. Further observation on this point is needed.
OCCASIONAL SOCIABILITY OF RHINO
The Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros is generally regarded as
a solitary animal, and it has also been suggested (S. Dillon Ripley,
1952) that rhino are solitary except ‘during a fight or when mating’
and that dung heaps belong to individual rhino of either sex and denote
‘territory’ when they are not in mating condition.
But from personal observations made in Kaziranga since 1939 I
have found that, although the rhino is not actually a gregarious
animal, there are certain conditions other than sexual which bring
them frequently together. At the time when the areas of burnt-off
grass produce tender green shoots in the spring rhino will congregate
in small groups while grazing; and I once saw as many as six rhino
in this way within a space the size of a football field, and have often
seen them in threes and fours.
At the time, also, of standing rice crops during the months of
August, September, October and November the same phenomenon
occurs. For example on 15-8-1953 I visited the area at Kaziranga
known as Kohora Grazing, which is outside the sanctuary but typical
rhino country and adjacent to cultivated rice fields. Within two hours,
in an area of about one mile long by a quarter of a mile wide I counted
twenty-two rhino at close quarters, without searching for them in
the elephant grass. They frequented this open area in the daytime,
and were in the habit of raiding the newly planted paddy at night,
so the local people told me. In one place four rhino, three adult
and one three-quarter-grown, were huddled together on dry ground,
so close that they were almost touching each other. Further on was
a pair together in some shallow water. Later I came across seven
rhino together—the Kan Katta a little apart and the other six closer
together, all seven of them in an area of about one acre. Two of
them were a pair and walked away together, and after a short while
indulged in a little flirting.
There is also the case of Romeo and Juliet remaining as a pair
for at least four months before mating. And again there is the
peculiar phenomenon of several rhino collecting at a small mud-hole
during the hot days of the monsoon. When monsoon floods invade
the sanctuary, the muddy wallows so much sought after by rhino
THE GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS 771
for warding of flies are very few and far between. The few that
exist are in great demand, and several rhino sometimes have to share
a wallow. For example, on 23-7-53 A. Jairamdas, while visiting
Kaziranga in company with the Range Officer, saw no less than seven
rhino lying in the same small mud wallow, which was so small that
the animals were all touching each other.
Dunc HEApS AND ‘TERRITORY’
As for dung heaps belonging to individual rhino and denoting
territory my own observations do not confirm this. It is my personal
belief that, although rhino generally remain in one particular part of
the sanctuary, they move about freely within that locality according
to availability of grazing, mud wallows, water, crops to raid and
so on.
I believe that dung heaps are used by any rhino which happens
to be passing by, after the fashion of dogs at lamp posts. On 3-1-
1953 while observing Romeo and Juliet in a place at least one mile
distant from where I had seen them on 1-11-1952, I was following
them on elephant-back. Juliet was leading and Romeo was close at
her heels, and our elephant was at their left flank, slightly behind.
As we were all passing a dung heap Romeo noticed it, turned off his
course to it and went through the motions of defecating—without
much result. Then he resumed his journey.
Again on 15-8-1953 I was on elephant-back observing a large bull
rhino as it was making its way westwards. I kept directly along-
side it at about fifty yards distance, waiting for a suitable opportunity
to photograph it. After we had gone about a quarter of a mile in
this way, the rhino noticed a dung heap in between us. — Leaving
its course and coming in my direction up to the dung heap, it turned
round and deposited its dung. Then it resumed its course. My
mahout, who said he had known rhino and their habits since he was
a boy, stated that dung heaps ‘are found all along rhino routes and are
used by any rhino coming along’. :
In this connection it is interesting to note that another observer
{Bengt Berg, 1933) seems to have come to the same conclusion after a six
weeks’ sojourn in the Jaldapara Sanctuary of Bengal. He says (I
quote from a rough translation): ‘I found that the old assumption
that the rhino visits the same place daily to relieve himself is not
quite correct. It rather seemed to me that where one rhino had left
his dung (the odour is overpowering) another one passing the spot
‘was wont to do the same’.
It may also be noted that a sportsman-naturalist (Thom, 1935)
has made similar observations on R. sumatrensis in Burma: ‘The
Sumatran Rhinoceros very seldom deposits its dung in the same spot
daily. As a matter of fact, they seem to me to only do so when
they accidentally cut across their own tracks at a spot where they
have previously evacuated. The odour of the droppings, even though
not their own, seems to attract the animal’s attention and causes
it to halt and evacuate at the same spot’.
In the area of Kohora Grazing and Vasalimari Bheel in Kaziranga
it has been possible during the cold weather of 1952-53 to observe
772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIERY, Vol. 51
some ten or twelve rhino, four of which were recognisable and known
by name—Boorra Goonda, Kan Katta, Romeo and Juliet. These four
recognisable rhino, together with the others, passed and repassed each
other within a locality of about one and a half to two miles across.
I presume that a weaker rhino will give way to a stronger one, or
else it gets injured. I also presume that 1f two rhino which consider-
ed themselves equal were to meet in the non-mating season, there
would be a fight and the loser would henceforth give way, thus
establishing a social order of precedence, or ‘peck order’ as in the case
of fowls.
One thing is certain: there is a lot of ‘scrapping’ going on all
the time between rhino, and there are a great number of rhino with:
scars, torn ears and gashes, the majority of which may be bulls.
The possibility of cow rhino also fighting among themselves should
not be altogether excluded until further observation has brought more
light on the subject.
When I first saw Kan Katta (Torn Ear) at Mihimukh on 14-12-
1952, this bull rhino had a torn ear, three gashes on its right flank
and a scar on its nose: it had evidently been defeated in battle and
had retreated to the edge of the sanctuary. Thereupon the Boorra
Goonda, an older bull, gave way without opposition and withdrew
half a mile upstream to the east.
REFERENCES
Berg, Bengt, (1933): Meine Jagd nach dem Einhorn (Frankfurt-on-Main).
Gee, E, P. (1953): The Life History of the Great Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros
(R. unicornis Linn.). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist; Soc., 54 (2): 341-348.
Pollok, Lt.-Col. F, W. (1879) :: Sport in British Burma and the Cassyah and
Jyntiah Hills.
Ripley, S. Dillon, (1952): Territorial and Sexual Behaviour in the Great Indian
Rhinoceros—A Speculation. Ecology, 38 (4): 570-573.
Sterndale, R. A. (1884): Mammalia of India.
Thom, W. S. (1935): Rhinoceros Shooting in Burma. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.
Soc., 88 (1): 141.
———
LANES IROL TB LANSIP INIA
FH
BY
= MM: L. BANERSI
Botany Department, Meerut College, Meerut
Part IIf
[Continued from p. 560 of Vol, 51 (3)]
i VPBRICAG EAE
Herbs or shrubs rarely trees. Leaves opposite or rarely alternate,
often marked with transparent or black dots, exstipulate. Flowers
solitary or cymose, terminal or even axillary; yellow, red, or white.
Sepals and petals each 5, rarely 4; petals contorted in bud. Stamens
indefinite, free or variously united in 3-5 bunches, rarely connate.
Ovary 3-5 or 1-celled; style free or connate; placentas parietal or
axile with few or many ovules, rarely a solitary basal ovule. Fruit
a septicidal or loculicidal capsule, or an indehiscent berry.
HypEricum Linn.
Characters the same.
Key to the species
Sepals 5, unequal; petals deciduous.
Stamens 5, adelphous at the base;
ovary 5-celled
Styles longer than the ovary
Glabrous shrubs 3-6 ft.; leaves
elliptic to ovate-lanceolate.
Cymes terminal, 3-5 flowered ... 1. H. cernuum.
Glabrous shrubs 1-2 ft.; leaves
oblong-lanceolate. Cymes many
flowered —
ty 2. H. cordifolium.
Styles not longer than the ovary
Glabrous shrubs 6-8 ft.; cymes
terminal and corymbose, few
flowered; flowers 2 in. diam. 3. H. hookerianum.
Glabrous. shrubs 1-3 ft.; cymes
terminal; few flowered; flowers
Th wibls CBIGYOOS Ga5, au ve 4a Ei painhim:
Sepals 5, connate at the base, equal
or unequal. . Petals persistent. Sta-
mens 3-adelphous at the base; ovary
3-celled
Stem 1-2 ft., stoloniferous. Cymes
paniculate. Capsule 4 in. FT. elodeoides.
OL
774 IKONOB INA ES fexXOMVU EVAN IN AILIOURAUIL, JUS IL, SOCIUBION, Wal, Bil
Stem slender, diffuse or prostrate.
Cymes few flowered. Capsule
4 in. os te ... 6. HH. wightianium.
Sepals 5; petals persistent. Stamens
connate at the base; ovary 1-celled s
Stem tufted or prostrate 1-15 in.;
leaves 4 in. or less. Flowers
+ in. diam. H. japonicum.
NI
1. Hypericum cernuum Roxb.
Wallich 4803!
i)
Hypericum cordifolium Choisy.
Wallich 4804! Scully, no number, no locality!
3. Hypericum hookerianum W. & A.
var. leschenaultii Choisy. Sepals acute. Ref.: Hooker’s
Vlora British India 1: 254, Wallich from Nepal.
var. linearis Banerji. Leaves very narrow, acute. Banerji
95, lTinpipli to Nepalthoke !
4. Hypericum patulum Thunb.
Waillich 4809! Maries, no number, no locality! Scully, no
number, no locality ! Burkill 29597) Chessapani & 29809, Chandragiri
Pass; Mukerji; Banerji 72, Dhulikhel to Kuwapani!
5. Hypericum elodeoides Choisy.
Wallich 4812B! Scully 205 and 310, no localities! Burkill
29664, above Markhu.
6. Hypericum wightianum Wall. (Syn. H. napaulensis Dyer, non
Choisy)
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 256, from Nepal.
7. Hypericum japonicum Thunb.
Scully 49 and 316, no localities! Burkill 29671, Markhu,
and 29848, Kakni; Banerji 158, Narkata to Mahadeophedi !
GUTTIFERAE
Trees or shrubs with yellow or greenish juice. Leaves opposite or
rarely verticillate, usually coriaceous and exstipulate. Flowers solitary
or in axillary or terminal fascicles, racemes or panicles, white or red;
dioecious, polygamous or hermaphrodite. Sepals and petals 4-12,
imbricate in 2-3 series. Male flowers: stamens usually indefinite ;
filaments 1-6 adelphous or free. Female flowers: staminodes many,
free or connate; ovary 1-2-celled sometimes many-celled; style Th,
usually short or o or rarely 2; stigmas free or connate often peltate,
as many as the cells. Fruit usually indehiscent and baccate, some-
times capsular.
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL
NI
“I
or
Key to the genera
Ovary cells 1-ovuled; style short or 0;
stigma large. Fruit fleshy 5 ie GMRonnuiG.
Ovary 2-celled with 2 ovules in each cell;
style distinct; stigma small. Fruit
dry Bt oe a 500 Bo MCS.
GARCINIA Linn.
Trees or shrubs with yellow juice. Leaves coriaceous; stipules
usually o. Flowers solitary, fascicled, umbelled or panicled; polyga-
mous or dioecious. Sepals 4-5. Petals 4-5, imbricate. Male flowers:
stamens many, free or variously connate; ovary rudimentary.
Female flowers: staminodes free or connate in groups}; ovary 2-12-
celled; stigma sub-sessile, peltate, lobed or entire; ovules solitary on
the inner angles of each cell. Fruit a berry with rough rind enclosing
several large seeds enclosed in a pulpy aril.
Garcinia paniculata Roxb.
A Wallichian sheet in Herb. Calcut., doubtfully from Nepal.
2. Mesua Linn.
Trees. Leaves opposite, thick, often transparent dots, Flowers
polygamous or hermaphrodite, large, solitary »or in pairs, axillary or
terminal. Sepals and petals 4 each. Stamens indefinite, anthers
large and erect. Ovary 2-celled; style long; stigma peltate; 2 ovules
in each cell. Fruit usually woody, subtended by the lignified sepals.
Seeds without aril.
Mesua ferrea Linn.
Wallich 4835! Burkill 29928, planted at Gorkha; Banerji 187,
Mahadeophedi to Katonge!
THERACEAE (DERNSTROEMIACEAE)
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, mostly evergreen;
stipules o. Flowers mostly solitary rarely paniculate or racemose ;
often showy, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite rarely unisexual. | Bracts
paired below the calyx. Sepals 5, free or slightly connate, imbricate.
Petals 5, free or slightly connate, imbricate or contorted. Stamens
indefinite in several series, rarely definite; hypogynous, free or slightly
connate, sometimes adnate to the base of the petals. Ovary 3-5-
celled; styles free or connate; ovules 2 or more in each cell, rarely
1; placentation axile. Fruit septicidal or loculicidal or indehiscent.
Ixey to the genera
Anthers basifixed
Flowers hermaphrodite; ovary 3-5-
celled dé ee: rman Clevenar
Flowers dioecious; ovary 2-3-celled ... 2. Eurya.
776 JOURNAL, BOMBAW AN ATMO AS MIE Sai 5S O)\ Gis vem 0 ael
Anthers versatile
Trees with papery leaves. Seeds
winged , ce ge sie Bo SEMMNEO.
Usually shrubs with membranous
leaves. Seeds wingless, ~. fa Aa Canmeallna.
t. CLEYERA DC.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves entire or crenate-serrate. Peduncles
shorter, often fascicled, flowers small, bracts minute or o. Sepals
5; petals 5, more or less connate at the base. Stamens many. Ovary
2-3-celled; style elongate, 2-3-fid at apex; ovules many.
Cleyera japonica Thunb. (Syn. C. ochnacea DC.—Dyer in Flora
British India 1: 283).
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 283. Wallch, from
Nepal. Burkill 29974, near Kathmandu.
2. EurRYA Thunb.
Shrubs. Leaves glabrous, usually crenate-serrate. Flowers small,
dioecious, sessile or shortly pedicellate in axillary clusters, or rarely
solitary. Sepals and petals 5 each, imbricate. Stamens in male
flowers 5-15, usually 12. Ovary 2-5-celled with as many free or
united styles; ovules many on axile placenta. Fruit a small globose
or ovoid berry.
Key to the species
by
E. symplocina.
E. acuminata.
bracteolate
bracteolate
Flowers crowded ; peduncles
Flowers about 5; peduncles
o>)
bo
bo
1. Eurya symplocina Blume.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 284. Weallich, from
Nepal. Burkill 29620, Chessapani Pass; Banerji 191, Reserve forest
near Okhaldunga!
2. Eurya acuminata DC. |
Wallich 1464! . Burkill 209695, forest above Chitlang;
Mukerji; Banerji 59 and 62, both between Dhulikhel and Kuwapani !
3. SCHIMA Reinw.
Trees with papery leaves. Peduncles usually erect, axillary or
solitary, or the uppermost shortly racemed. Flowers 2 bracteolate. -
Sepals 5, subequal. Petals 5, much larger, connate at the base.
Stamens indefinite, adnate to the base of the petals. Ovary 5, rarely
4- or 6-celled; style simple or slightly lobed at the apex; stigmas
spreading. Ovules 2-6 in each cell, attached laterally. Fruit a woody
capsule.
Schima wallichit Choisy.
Wallich 1455! Burkill 29581, Bhemphedi to Sisigarhi; Mukerji;
Banerji 60, Dhulikhel to Kuwapani! 407, Wapsakhani!
PLANTS PROM HAST NEPAL
~I
xi
~i
4. CAMELLIA Linn.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves evergeen, serrate, coriaceous or memb-
ranous. Flowers axillary, solitary or aggregated, sessile or shortly
stalked. Sepals 5-6, unequal, graduating from the bracts towards the
petals. Petals slightly coherent at the base. Stamens numerous,
outermost adherent to the base of the petals, innermost free. Ovary
3-5-celled’; ovules 3-5 im each cell. Fruit a short woody capsule.
Seeds usually solitary in each cell, wingless.
Ixey to the species
Shrubs with leaves 4-8 by 14-23 in.;
sepals glabrous; styles united for their
length a (G00 Ho Co WnenyjeCra.
Shrubs or small trees with leaves 3-4 by
1-14 in.; sepals silky externally ; styles
mMearly ree Sie 2. C. drupifera.
tr. Camellia theifera Grit.
Burkill 29823, Thankot; 29630, near Tambakhani.
2. Camellia drupifera Lour.
Ref.: Hlooker’s Plora British India 1: 293. Wallich, from
Nepal; Mukerji; Banerji 186, Reserve forest near Okhaldunga !
ACTINIDIACEAE
Trailing or climbing shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, glabrous or
with strigose simple or stellate hairs. Stipules absent. Flowers in
axillary cymes or fascicles rarely solitary, hermaphrodite, polygamous,
or dioecious. Sepals and petals 5 each, imbricate or sub-contorted,
deciduous. Stamens ro or more; anthers versatile. Ovary 5- or more-
celled or sometimes the carpellary walls scarcely reaching the central
axis; styles united or many and spreading. Ovules 10 or more in
each cell, spreading from the central axis. Fruit a berry or a dry
capsule.
ACTINIDIA Tindl.
The same -characters.
Actimdia callosa ULindl.
Wallich 6634 !
4 SAURAUACEAE
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, mostly serrate with
~ strong parallel nerves diverging from the midrib, often roughly
hairy. Stipules absent. Flowers hypogynous, mostly hermaphrodite,
in small axillary or lateral panicles. Bracts small and remote from
calyx. Sepals 5, imbricate. Petals 5, imbricate, free or connate into
7738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, INARA EIS Tens OCDE Myenniolsmoy
a short tube at the base. Stamens indefinite, adnate to the base of
the petals; anthers small, versatile. Ovary 3-5-celled; styles 3-5, free
or variously united. Ovules numerous in each cell, on axile placentas.
Fruit a berry, rarely dry and slightly dehiscent.
SAURAUIA Willd.
The same characters.
Key to the species
Flowers in axillary panicles. Bracteoles
-elliptic acute; petals recurved at the
apex e Bot ce a
Flowers in fascicles. Bracteoles linear-
deltoid ; petals not recurved at the apex 2. S. fasciculata.
rt. S. napaulensis.
1. Saurauia napaulensis DC.
Wallich 1469! Maries, no number, no locality! Scully, no
number, no locality! Burkill 29494, above Bichiakoh; Banerji 226,
Okhaldunga!
2. Saurauia fasciculata Wall.
Wallich 1468!
STACHY URACEAE
Shrubs or small trees. Leaves exstipulate, alternate. Flowers
small in axillary racemes or spikes. Bracteoles 2, connate at the
base. Sepals and petals 4 each, free, imbricate. Stamens 8, free;
anthers opening lengthwise. Ovary 4-celled; style simple with a
capitate peltate stigma. Ovules numerous on axile placentas. Fruit
a 4-celled berry.
STACHYURUS Sieb. & Zucc.
The same characters.
Stachyurus himalaicus Hk. f. & T.
Wallich 7417! Mukerji; Banerji 518, Hatia to Hongaon!
DIPTEROCARPACEAE
Resinous trees. Leaves alternate, entire or rarely crenate, penni-
nerved, usually with small stipules. Flowers regular, hermaphrodite,
usually sweet scented, in many or few flowered axillary and terminal
racemes or panicles. Calyx free and campanulate or short and adnate
to the base of the ovary. Petals contorted, connate at the base
or free. Stamens indefinite, 15, 10 or 5, variously connate or free;
filaments dilated at the base and connectives often produced into an
appendage. Ovary usually slightly adherent to the calyx, usually 3-
celled rarely 2- or 1-celled; style usually entire; ovules lateral or basal,
PLANTS PROM BAST NEPAL Ms
2 in each cell, Fruit an indehiscent nut or a 3-valved capsule enclosed
in the accrescent calyx and often winged due to the elongation of 2
or more sepals.
SHOREA Roxb.
Trees of great height, rarely of medium size. Leaves with inter-
mediate and ultimate reticulations inconspicuous, stipules large,
coriaceous or persistent. Flowers in axillary or lax terminal panicles.
Bracts usually persistent. Sepals imbricate and slightly adnate.
Stamens 15 in each series, occasionally as many as 100; connectives
with a subulate extension. Ovary 3-celled; 2 ovules in each cell;
stigma entire or 3-lobed. [Fruit closely surrounded by the bases of
the persistent sepals, outer 3 of which are developed into wings.
Shorea robusta Gaertn.
Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal; Banerji 147,
Deorali !
MALVACEAE
Herbs, shrubs or rarely trees; stellate hairs often present. Leaves
alternate, palminerved, simple or lobed. Stipules free or caducous,
or o. Flowers regular, bisexual or rarely dioecious, axillary, terminal,
solitary, clustered or paniculate. Bracteoles 2 or more, free or connate
forming an involucre, sometimes 0. Sepals 5 rarely 3-4, valvate more
or less united. Petals 5, twisted, slightly united at .the base with
the staminal tube. Stamens’ indefinite, rarely few, united into a tube—
monadelphous or becoming divided at the top into several groups;
anthers monothecous. Ovary 2-many-celled; ovules 1-many in each
cell; plancentation axile; style distinct or connate; stigmas linear,
peltate or capitate. Fruit a carcerulus of dry indehiscent mericarps or
a loculicidal capsule.
Key to the genera
Carpels separating from the axis at
maturity
Styles as many as the carpels
Bracteoles 3; carpels rounded, in-
dehiscent sit 200 lo Aah
Bracteoles 0; ae bursting ir-
reg ularly 2. Sida.
Styles twice as many as the carpels
Leaves with a large gland at the base
of the mid-rib, beneath; bracteoles
triangular- lanceolate 30 Bo Ore
Carpels not separating; fruit capsular |
Bracteoles not spreading; capsule 5-
valved Ue a8 joo Alo JEIMOISCUS.
[OURNALY BOMBA YIN ANWR CANIE SS TTEGSHIN wo O) (GG sli Varma iC oman
a |
eo)
©
1. Matva Linn.
Pubescent herbs. Leaves lobed. Flowers anillary, solitary or
clustered, pedicellate. Bracteoles 3. Staminal tube at the top divided
into numerous antheriferous. filaments. Ovary many-celled; ovules 1
in each cell; styles as many as the cells, filiform. Mericarps form ng
a round depressed fruit, separating when ripe from each other and
from the axis, indehiscent..
Malva verticillata Linn.
Wallich 1884/1!
2. Sipa Linn.
Herbs or undershrubs, pubescent with simple or stellate hairs.
Leaves toothed; stipules linear. Flowers pedicellate, axillary, soli-
tary or clustered. Pedicels disarticulating in the fruit at a jomt below
the calyx. Bracteoles o. - Sepals 5, connate below. Petals small,
white or yellow. Staminal tube divided at the top. Ovary 5-12-celled;
ovules pendulous, 14 in each cell; styles as many as the carpels;
stigma terminal. Iruit depressed globose enclosed in the calyx.
Ixey to the species
Plants velvety ; awns of carpels exceeding
the calyx. Carpels 10 ‘
Plants pubescent or tomentose (not vel-
vety); awns shorter than the calyx
Carpels 5. Leaves cordate or trun-
cate es cl earl. OUCH ONIGOe KONO
Carpels 6-10
Leaves linear-lanceolate, gla-
brous. Peduncles as long as
the petioles as ie
Leaves more or less rhomboid,
pubescent, hoary. Peduncles
twice as long as the petioles 3. S. rhombifolia.
-
cordifolia,
a
DH
bo
Ca)
acula.
1. Sida veronicaefolia Lam. (Syn. S. humilis Willd.)
Mukerji; Banerji 433, Banspani to Paktaru!
2. Sida acuta Burm. (Syn. S. carpinifolia Linn.)
Ref.: Burkill’s. Notes from a Journ. to Nepal.
3. Sida rhombifolia Linn.
Ref.:. Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal.
4. Sida cordifolia Linn.
Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal.
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 781
3. URENA Linn.
Herbs or undershrubs covered with harsh tomentum.. Leaves
angled or lobed with a large gland at the base of the mid-rib below.
Flowers sessile or shortly pedicelled. Bracteoles 5, connate at the
base, adnate to the calyx tube. Sepals 5, connate ‘into a campanu-
late tube. Petals 5, united below to the staminal tube. Stamens
monadelphous bearing sessile or shortly stalked anthers. Ovary 5-
celled, 1 ovule in each cell; style branched into 10; stigma capitate.
Fruit echinate.
\ Urena lobata Linn.
Wallich 1928! Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal.
4. Hipiscus Medik.
Herbs, shrubs or rarely trees. Leaves stipulate, palmately lobed
or cut. Inflorescence axillary or rarely terminal racemes. Bracteoles
5-12, rarely more or less or even 0. Calyx 5-lobed or 5-fid. Petals 5,
connate at the base with the staminal tube. Staminal tube truncate
or 5-toothed at the top, stamens at various heights. Ovary 5-celled;
ovules 3 or more in each cell; styles 5, connate below ; stigma capitate.
Fruit a 5-valved loculicidal capsule.
Key to the species
Calyx spathaceous, splitting down one
side and falling off at flowering time
Leaves ovate, usually palmately
divided into 3-7 oblong-lanceolate
lobes.. Peduncles equalling the
petioles. Bracteoles 6-10. Capsule
lanceolate bs oe Thole labelmoschus.
Calyx with 5 distinct teeth and _persis-
tent in flower
Leaves rounded or obtusely 5-angled.
Peduncles much shorter than the
petioles. Bracteoles 10-18; cap-
sule ovoid Sh aa: 25 EI cancellaius:.
Leaves cordate, palmately 3-lobed.
Bracteoles 4-8. Capsules oblong 3. H. lampas,
ioe)
1. Hibiscus abelmoschus Linn.
Wallich 1915! (1 am doubtful if the sheet is from Nepal.)
2. Hibiscus cancellatus Roxb.
Wallich 1920! Burkill 29436, Simalbasa to Biachiakoh.
3. Hibiscus lampas Cav. (Syn. Thespesia lampas Dals. & Gibs.)
Burkill 29478, Simalbasa to Biachiakoh,
Zee
782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
BOMBACACEAE
Trees. Leaves simple or digitate, alternate. Stipules deciduous.
Flowers hermaphrodite, large and showy. Calyx closed and valvate
in bud, rarely deeply lobed, often subtended by an epicalyx. Petals
often elongate or o. Stamens free or united into a tube; anthers
t-celled. Ovary 2-5-celled; style simple, capitate or lobed; ovules
2 or more in the inner angles of each cell. Fruit a loculicidal capsule,
dehiscent or indehiscent.
Key to the genera
Leaves simple or lobed. Bracteoles 4-5 1. Kydia.
Leaves digitate. Bracteoles o sq Do. JBOMMDNENS.
1. KyprA Roxb.
Trees with stellate tomentum. Leaves usually lobed, palminerved.
Flowers panicled, polygamous; bracteoles, stamens and styles vary
in different sexual forms. Bracteoles 4-6, obovate or spathulate ac-
crescent and spreading in the fruit and forming dry spathulate wings.
Sepals 5, divided to the middle into 5 ovate lobes, persistent. Petals
normally 5, unequally bilobed. Staminal tube divided about the middle
into 5 divisions each bearing 3 reniform anthers. In female flowers
stamens reduced in number or o. Ovary 2-3-celled, ovules 2 in each
cell; style with 3 branches. Fruit a 3-celled loculicidal capsule woolly.
Ixydia calycina Roxb.
Burkill 29443, Simalbasa to Biachiakoh.
2. BoMBAX Linn.
Trees with butressed trunks, clear of branches for a long distance
from the ground. Leaves digitate, deciduous; stipules small.
Flowers appearing before the leaves, clustered towards the ends
of the branches. Calyx leathery, cup-shaped, irregularly lobed.
Petals 5, oblong, obovate or linear. Stamens polyadelphous, indefi-
nite. Ovary 5-celled; ovules numerous in each cell; style clavate,
divided into 5; stigmas 5. Fruit a capsule dehiscing by 5 leathery
valves or woody.
Bombax malabaricum DC.
Burkill 29569, Hettaunda to Guelbi.
STERCULIACEAE
Herbs, shrubs or trees, the herbaceous parts usually pubescent.
Leaves alternate, simple or digitate, entire, toothed or lobed, usually
stipulate. Flowers in axillary cymes, regular, 1- or 2-sexual. Sepals
5, more or less connate. Petals 5, free or connate at the base or o. Sta-
mens 5 or many, monadelphous or rarely free; anthers in heads or in a
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 783
single ring at the apex of the column or dispersed on the outside of
the tube or arranged along the edge of a cup or tube intervening
staminodes, Ovary free 4-5- or rarely ro-12-celled, sessile or stalked;
ovules 2-many in each cell attached to the inner angles; styles as
many as the cells of the ovary, distinct or connate. Fruit usually
a 5-valved loculicidal capsule, sometimes of 1-6 spreading or spirally
twisted follicles.
Key to the genera
Flowers unisexual. Petals o
Follicles usually coriaceous, dehiscent ;
seeds not winged. Leaves simple or
digitate cam rcs ae
Flowers hermaphrodite. Petals present
Staminal tubes distinct from _ the
carpels and not enclosing them. No
staminodes
Staminal tubes elongated bearing
the stamens on its outer surface
in a cone. Style with 5-10 stig-
matic lobes; ovary 5-10-celled
Staminal tubes short, divided into
5 teeth bearing the anthers..
Styles, stigmas, ovary cells and
fruit valves) 5 each... Po elociian
Staminal tube short, bearing 5-1
staminodes with solitary or clustered
anthers between them
Stamens I seriate, anthers solitary
between each staminode. Petals
entire or 3-fid oer
Stamens 1 seriate, anthers 2-4
between each staminode. Petals
~vate, stipate a5 jn 4 Albroma.
1. Sterculia.
Eviolaena.
ho
5. Buettneria.
I. STERCULIA Linn.
Trees. Leaves simple, palmately lobed or digitate. Flowers in
axillary panicles or racemes, 1-sexual or polygamous. Calyx 4-5-fid
or partite. Petals o. Staminal column bearing at its apex 10-30
anthers. Ovary of 4-5 distinct carpels; styles connate below; stigmas
radiating. Ripe carpels distinct, follicular, woody or membranous.
Sterculia rubiginosa Vent.
Wallich 1133!
2. ERIOLAENA DC.
Trees. Leaves cordate, crenate or serrate, stellately pubescent
or tomentose beneath. Flowers 1-many on axillary peduncles, large;
bracteoles 3-5, laciniate, sometimes caducous. Calyx 5-fid or partite.
Petals 5, deciduous, dilated tomentose claws. Staminal column
784, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 5i
bearing many 1-anthered filaments. Staminodes o. Ovary sessile,
5-10-celled; style with 5-10 stigmatic lobes. Capsule woody,
loculicidal. :
Kxey to the species
Leaves crenate-serrate. Peduncles_ 1-
flowered; bracteoles pinnate 1. E. wallichu.
Leaves unequally serrate. Many- flowered
panicled cymes; bracteoles entire or
rarely lobed Se er ac; 2. Eeaspecta pilus.
1. Eriolaena wallichii DC.
Wallich 1174C!
2. Eriolaena spectabilis Planch.
Wallich 1173C!
3. Mevtocuia Linn.
Herbs or undershrubs, downy. Leaves simple. Flowers clustered,
panicled or corymbose. Calyx 5-toothed or fid. Petals 5, spathulate.
Stamens 5, opposite the petals, connate at the base or upto the
middle. Staminodes minute or o. Ovary sessile, 5-celled; styles 5,
free or connate at the base. Fruit a loculicidal ceed capsule.
Melochia corchorifolia Linn.
Scully 46, no locality !
4. ABROMA Jacq.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves cordate, ovate-oblong, serrulate. Few
flowered leaf-opposed peduncles. Sepals 5, connate at the base.
Petals 5, purplish, prolonged above into a large spoon-shaped lamina.
Staminal cup of 5 fertile and as many sterile divisions, fertile sta-
mens opposite the petals. Staminodes longer than the fertile filaments. |
Ovary sessile, 5-celled; styles 5. Fruit a 5-angled, 5-winged |
-septicidal capsule. |
Abroma augusta Linn.
Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a one to Nepal.
5. BueTTNERrA Linn.
Herbs, shrubs or trees, often climbers, and frequently prickly. |
Leaves often glabrous, various. Flowers minute in much branched
axillary or terminal cymes. Sepals 5, connate at the base. Petals 5,
limb with a long strap-shaped 2-fid appendage. Stamens 10, connate |
below, 5 stamens alternating with 5 staminodes. Ovary sessile,
5-celled; styles entire or 5-fid. Fruit a spiny septicidal capsule.
PLANTS FROM EAST NEPAL 785
Key to the species
Leaves elliptic. Peduncles short. Cap-
~sules covered with long spines wi di.) B. erenulata,
Leaves sub-orbicular or oblong. Peduncles
as long as the petioles. Capsules cover-
ed with curved spines shi 200 Dy By, OSVOO
t. Buettneria crenulata Wall.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 376. Wallich, from
Nepal. f
2. Buettneria aspera Coleb.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 377. JWallich, from
Nepal.
TILIACEAE
Trees, shrubs or herbs, usually with mucilage in the bark and
leaves. Leaves usually alternate, simple or lobed; stipules free,
deciduous or rarely persistent or o. Flowers regular, hermaphrodite.
or rarely 1-sexual in terminal or axillary cymes. Sepals 3-5, free
or united, usually valvate. Petals 3-5, rarely 0, imbricate or valvate.
Stamens usually indefinite inserted on an elongated or short torus, free
or sometimes 5-adelphous. Ovary free, sessile, 2-10-celled; styles
columnar or divided into as many as there are cells of the ovary.
Fruit fleshy or dry, dehiscent or indehiscent.
Key to the genera
Fruit a 2-4 partite or lobed or entire
unarmed drupe, containing 1 or several
pyrenes. Usually trees or erect shrubs 1. Grewia.
_ Fruit a prickly or bristly capsule; herbs
or undershrubs a a eeeiniirnyeLlan
Fruit an unarmed capsule; annuals or
prostrate perennials ee .. 3. Corchorus.
t. GREWIA Linn.
Trees or erect, straggling or climbing shrubs, usually stellately
pubescent. | Leaves 3-7-ribbed. Flowers usually in axillary, extra-
axillary or terminal cymes, fascicles or panicles. Sepals 5, distinct.
Petals 5, usually with a gland at the base, generally shorter than
the sepals, rarely o. Stamens indefinite, inserted on a short or
elongated glandular torus. Ovary 2-4-celled; style subulate; stigma
Shortly lobed.
786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
Key to the species
Leaves 3-ribbed, ovate-lanceolate
Leaves scabrous above, pubescent
below. Peduncles opposite the
leaves, much longer than the petioles.
Fruit 1-4 partite 1. G. opposittfolia.
Leaves glabrous. Fruiting pedicels and
peduncles usually 3 times longer than
the petioles, Fruit 2-partite ... 6. G. disperma.
Leaves finely densely appressed, tomen-
tose beneath. Fruiting pedicels
and peduncles short and stout. Fruit
2-partite | 2 Cem Ounce
Leaves 5-ribbed, obtuse, cuneate or
rounded at the base, coarsely crenate 3. G. sapida.
Leaves 3- or 5-ribbed. Peduncles shorter
or slightly longer than the petioles
Leaves 4-5-ribbed and a little oblique
at the base. Fruit slightly lobed,
epicarp hairy until old, breaking
away from the stones ms
Leaves 3-ribbed, equal at the base.
Fruit distinctly bilobed, at length
4. G. hirsuta,
glabrous ae fy: ee Ge POLV GIG.
Leaves 3-5-ribbed at the base, Fruit
globose, tomentose with a crustace-
ous rind nthe a ... 5. G. scabrophylla.
1. Grewia Oppositifolia Roxb.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 384.
bo
Grewia damine Gaertn. (Syn. G. salvifolia Heyne.)
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 386.
=)
3. Grewia sapida Roxb. |
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 387; Banerji 150,
Narkate to Mahadeophedi !
4. Grewia hirsuta Vahl.
Burkill 29464, Adhabhar to Bichiakoh.
5. Grewia scabrophylla Roxb.
Burkill 29546, Hettaunda.
6. Grewia disperma Rottl. (Syn. G. laevigata Vahl.)
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 380.
7. Grewia polygama Roxb.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 391; Scully, no
number, no locality! Hooker f. & Thom., no number, no locality!
PLANTS FROM EAST NEEPAL "87
2. TRIUMFETTA Linn.
Herbs or undershrubs covered with stellate hairs. Leaves serrate,
simple or sometimes 3-5-lobed. Flowers axillary or leaf-opposed,
few or densely cymose. Sepals 5, oblong, mucronate at the apex.
Petals 5, rarely 0, thickened at the base, stamens indefinite or rarely
10, ovary 5-celled ; style filiform; stigma 2-5-toothed. Capsule globose
or oblong, spiny, indehiscent or separating into cocci.
Key to the species
Fruit including bristles 1 in. across,
hirsute. Leaves ovate-acuminate,
softly tomentose beneath. Perennial
herbs ve ass soo Hho dl, PULOSDS
Fruit including bristles 0.5 in. across.
Glabrous annual herbs Me: 200 Bo Lo GMa.
Fruit including bristles 0.2-0.25 in. across.
Glabrous herbaceous undershrubs ... 3. IT. rhomboidea.
1. Triumfetta pilosa Roxb.
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: 394.
2. Triumfetta annua Linn,
Wallich 1082!
3. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.
Burkill 29423, Simalbasa.
3. CorcHorRus Linn.
Herbs or undershrubs covered with stellate hairs. Leaves simple,
serrate, lower pair of teeth usually prolonged into hairs. Flowers
small; peduncles short, axillary or leaf-opposed, 1-few-flowered.
Sepals 4-5; petals 4-5. Stamens indefinite or 8-10. Ovary 2-5-celled,
style short, apex stigmatose. Fruit a loculicidal capsule, echinate or
muricate,
Key to the species
Capsule elongate, angled, 5-valved.
Leaves ovate-lanceolate, finely serrate
or crenate BS Sob :
Capsule globose, rigid, 5-valved, woody.
Leaves oblong, coarsely serrate or
crenate o06
2. C. olitorius.
i Cx capsularis.
1. Corchorus capsularis Linn.
Burkill 29535, near Hettaunda.
2. Corchorus olitorius Linn.
Ref.: Burkill’s Notes from a Journ. to Nepal.
788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
KLAEOCARPACEAE
Trees or shrubs without mucilage. Leaves entire, alternate or
whorled, stipulate, stipules persistent or caducous, Flowers usually
hermaphrodite, in axillary racemes, regular. Sepals 4-6; petals 4-6,
free, laciniate or rarely entire. Stamens indefinite, inserted on a
cushion-like disc. Ovary sessile, 2-5-celled; style columnar. Fruit
a drupe.
ELAEOCARPUS Linn.
Trees. Leaves simple, usually crenate or serrate, sometimes
entire. Flowers usually hermaphrodite, rarely polygamous, in axillary
or lateral racemes. Sepals 4-5; petals 4-5, laciniate or lobed. Sta-
mens indefinite, inserted between glands on the disc. Ovary 2-5-celled;
style subulate, entire. Fruit a drupe with a single stone.
Key to the species
Ovary and drupe 5-celled, stone tu-
bercled, grooved. Racemes drooping 1. E. ganitrus.
Ovary and drupe 3-celled, stone tuberc-
led, pitted. Racemes ascending pee 2a SCHMOLL:
1. Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb.
Wallich 2660A!_ Burkill 29923, Gurkha; Banerji 427,,
Aisyalukherka to Banspani !
2. Elaeocarpus serratus Linn. .
Ref.: Hooker’s Flora British India 1: gor. Wallich, from
Nepal.
(Concluded)
NOTES ON THE BIONOMICS AND MORPHOLOGY OF
HYPOSIDRA SUCCESSARIA WLK., A GEOMETRID
PEST ON DAINCHA (SESBANIA ACULEATA)
IN COIMBATORE
BY
K. P. ANANTHANARAYANAN, B.A. (Hons.)
AND
S. VENUGOPAL, B.Sc. (Zool.), B.sc. (Bot.)
)
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore
(With a text figure)
LWPRO DW CT LO N
Geometridae are seldom pests on cultivated crops, though there
are Over 1,000 species in the Indian region. These are mostly denizens
of the forests and hilly regions. Many of them often stray into the
plains and are occasionally recorded in small numbers as larvae or
adults, but there are very few instances of these ordinarily multiplying
to pest proportions. Of the few recorded as pests in South India,
mention may be made of Buzura (Biston) suppressaria G. on tea
(Fletcher 1t914 and Ayyar, T. V. Ramakrishna 1940), Semiothisa
pervolgata Wik. (Cherian and Rangiah Pillai 1938) on Daincha, and
Chloroclystis sp. (Padmanabha Ayyar 1943) on inflorescence of mango.
More recently, in the course of their investigations and studies on
Geometrid larvae, a few more caterpillars, namely Thalassodes (Oenos-
pila) flavifusata Wik. and Thalassodes immisariopalina B. on Eugenia,
Pseudoterpna species on Zizyphus and Hyposidra successaria Wik. on
Daincha, have been collected and reared by the authors. Of these
latter, the form Hyposidra successaria Wlk. is found to occur in
Coimbatore quite regularly on its host plants of which Daincha appears
to be the most important. The insect occurs alone or in company
with Semiothisa on Daincha crop, and the caterpillar is found capable
of doing notable damage to the foliage. The economic importance
was brought to light, when large numbers of these caterpillars appeared
in the above green manure crop for the last two years during which
damage by Semiothisa was not conspicuous. The caterpillar Hyposidra
shows some interesting features in its morphology and general habits
and the observations so far made are noted below, together with
suggestions for control of the pest.
Host Plants: Stray caterpillars of Hyposidra have been
collected and found to breed on a variety of plants such as rose,
castor, cabbage, sugarcane, Euphorbia hirta, Chittagathi, and in large
numbers on Daincha. The insect in nature multiplies to pest scale on
Daincha only. Under laboratory cages, it has been successfully reared
on the leaves of both castor and Dratiacthen.
790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52
The Moth: Hyposidra successaria Wik. belongs to the sub-
family Boarmiinae. The moth is fairly big having a wing expanse of
6 cm. for female, 4 cm, for male and showing varying shades of
chocolate-brown and brick-red colour. The antennae of the male are
pectinate. In general build the female moth is stout and large as
compared to the male specimen (figs. 5, 6). A brief description refer-
ring to this moth (Hampson, F. B. I.—Moths, Vol. m1, p. 214) is as
follows :—
‘Female with the outer margin of hind wing produced to points
at the veins. Male, with the outer margin of neither wing excised.
Antennae pectinated. Postmedial line on underside slightly sinuous,
not crenulate. Habitat, throughout India, Ceylon and Burma; Java.
Expanse ¢ 42, 960 millim.’
LirE HIsToRY AND HABITS
The moths copulate the next day after emergence from the pupae,
and the female lays eggs in groups on the surface of the leaves of
the host plant (vide fig. 1). Each female moth is capable of laying
about 250-300 eggs which it does in batches in the course of 5 or
6 days. The tiny caterpillars come out in 5-6 days’ time. The larvae
are very active even from the first day and show a tendency to
climb up and move about, with characteristic looping motion to reach
all portions of the plant. They feed at first by scraping green matter on
tender leaves, and during later stages cut edges or feed on entire leaf-
lets leaving only the thicker veins and midribs. The caterpillar is smooth
and black during first two stages, showing change in colour to brick-
red in later stages of growth. The larvae feed voraciously on the
foliage, and when occurring in large numbers on Daincha, reduce the
foliage to mere stalks skeletonising the crop. With larval period
ranging from 15 to 21 days, the full-grown caterpillar pupates in the
soil without any silken cocoon. The moth emerges in about a week
and the life cycle from egg to adult is completed in about a month,
as noted in the course of a few rearings recorded below :—
Table showing life cycle of Hyposidra successaria W\k. reared
on Daincha
Date of egg Date of | Date of Date of _ Total period
laying hatching — pupation emergence in life cycle
|
19-9-51 23-9-51 11-10-51 19-10-51 30 days
do. do. 10-10-51 19-10-51 30. do.
co. do. 11-10-5} 18-10-51 29 ~do.
do. do. | 12-10-51 20-10-51 Sido;
do. do. | 11-10-51 19-10-51 30 do.
do. | do. ) 12-10-51 20-10-51 31 do.
do. do. 11-10-51 19-10-51 | 30 do.
do. do. 11-10-51 19-10-51 30 do.
27-3 -52 31-3-52 15-4-52 23-4-52 28 do.
do. | do 17-4-52 25-4-52 29. do.
do. ! do. 18-4-52 25-4-52 29) ido:
do, | do. 20-4-52 27-4-52 30 do.
THE BIONOMICS OF HYPOSIDRA SUCCESSARIA WLK, 791
DESCRIPTION OF STAGES:
1. Egg: The egg is oval in shape with either end blunt. It
measures about 1 mm. and is greenish and soft (fig. 2).
2. Larva: (i) First Stage.—The newly-hatched larva is about
0.6 mm. long, and deep black in colour with 5 white cross bands
on the abdomen. The body is slender with head as broad or slightly
broader than body segments. Hairs or setae are sparse, both on
head and body. A few yellowish spots are found on the mid-dorsal area
and the ventrolateral region.
(ii) Second Stage.—The caterpillar is about 1.3 cm. and soon grows
to bigger size. The slender smooth black coloured body shows five
white transverse intersegmental stripes in the anterior abdominal
region, now in more pronounced manner. The black head bears in-
conspicuous ocelli at the sides, and pale brown labrum below, the
latter being distinctly marked out from the black clypeus. The three
pairs of thoracic legs are also black and are directed forwards, with
pale brown claws. The prolegs are two pairs only, shown on the
6th and 1toth abdominal segments. They are fairly stout with plant-
bearing crochets broad and tipped brownish. The growing larva
looks entirely black, but for the presence of the characteristic white
transverse stripes across thorax and abdomen. Each cross stripe is
made up of four white elongated shining spots. The stripes, one on
the anterior border of the prothorax and 5 on the posterior borders of the
first five abdominal segments are distinct. The prothoracic cross band
ends on either side below in a cluster of 2 or 3 dots which appear
partly fused together. Short inconspicuous hairs are present on the
head and body. The ventral side of the larva is dusky black without
dots.
(iii) Third Stage.—The caterpillar now measuring 2 cm. has the
head slightly bigger than the girth of the body. The head ts dull black
due to mottlings. The frontal area on the head, is slightly depressed
and pale coloured, and the adfrontal area is thin and narrow. The
general body colour is dull black. Transverse white dotted cross lines
persist over the prothorax and the first five abdominal segments. Paired
brick-red spots, placed immediately behind white cross bands on the
‘mid-dorsal region, are seen clearly on the prothorax and on segments
I, 2, 3 and 9 of the abdomen. The lateral clusters of dots are also
changed to reddish tint. The spiracles are visible as black specks.
(iv) Fourth Stage.—The caterpillar about 2.3 cm. grows bigger
with active feeding. The head, dull black, is slightly smaller in size
than the thickness of the body segments. More important change is
in the colour pattern. The transverse white bands on the 1st thoracic,
and the 2nd and 5th abdominal segments are reduced and faint, while
those on the 1st, 3rd and 4th abdominal segments are thick and clear.
Red dots more in number than in previous stages, are seen dorsally
on the thoracic and abdominal segments. Lateral red dots are also
conspicuous in all segments except in the 2nd and gth abdominal
segments. The general body colour tends to be brownish. The
792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
spiracles on the thorax and on the 8th segment, appear larger than the
rest, each having a central pale area bounded by a black rim.
1. A castor leaf showing eggs on it; 2. Three eggs magnified; 8. A full- “grown
caterpillar; 4. Pupa; 5. Moth (female); 6. Moth (male).
(v) Fifth Stage.—The full-grown larva (fig. 3) attains a length
of 3-34 cm. The colour is pinkish or dark brown or brick red. The
transverse band formed by white linear spots persists, with brownish
or brick red patches at the sides. Paired brown dots are prominent
dorsally on) 2nd and 5th abdominal segments. The body is stout
cylindrical, and its surface smooth and devoid of tubercles. The setae,
barely seen at the sides, are in the form of very thin and short hairs.
The head region is smaller, shiny, smooth and faintly marked with
mottlings and black ocelli. Legs are dark brown, and prolegs stout
and strong to support the body off the substratum. The caterpillar
at this stage, is most active in feeding and movement. The looper
marches from plant to plant with great alacrity, and_ occasionally
remains erect, resting on its prolegs, ant siniulating bare twig.
3. Pupa: ‘The full-grown caterpillar, prior to pupation, ceases
feeding, drops to the eround, suffers reduction in size by shrinkage
and undergoes its last “moult lying in the midst and shelter of fallen
leaves. The pupa is dark brown, oval and measuring about 1 cm. in
length and gives emergence to the moth in about 8-9 days (fig. 4).
THE STATUS OF THE PEST AND SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS. CONTROL
Next to Semiothisa, the recently noted Hyposidra is the most
serious caterpillar pest, defohiating Daincha crop in Coimbatore. The
caterpillar, especially when in large numbers, can easily be recognised
by the colour, posture and looping movement. The symptoms of
damage are characteristic. It may occur alone or in combination with
Séiniothisa, which it resembles. in general habits and external features
10 a great extent. Hyposidra is distinetiishable from Semiothisa by
THE BIONOMICS OF HYPOSIDRA SUCCESSARIA WLK. 793
the size and colour pattern. Hyposidra grows bigger in size, is devoid
of tubercles, and is coloured black in the early stages and brick-red
in the final stages, with cross markings. The caterpillar Semiothisa,
on the other hand, is smaller, pale to dark green in colour and having
on its body surface minute black tubercles bearing short hairs, at
the same time showing no marked colour changes or cross markings
except for two black spots Donal on the 2nd abdominal segment lasting
up to the fourth stage. :
_ Application of a 5% BHC or DDT dust, at the rate of 15 Ib. per
acre, effectively controls both these pests.
REFERENCES
1. Ayyar, T. V. Ramalsrishna, (1940): Handbook of Economic Entomology for
South India; 361.
2. Cherian & Pillai, Rangiah, (1938): Madras Agricultural Journal, 26 (5):
166-168.
3. Fletcher, T. B. (1914): Some South Indian Insects: 390.
4. Hampson, G. F. (1895): The Fauna of British India—Moths, ili: 214.
; 5. Padmanabha Ayyar, K. S. (1943): Indian, Journal of Entomology, 5 (I and
II): 55. :
SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE
BY
VV eee OKE
Part II
(With six plates)
[Continued from p. 596 of Volume 51 (3)|
Bluethroated Bee-eater. Merops viridis viridis Linnaeus.
Among the smaller birds, there is no flight so swift or so purposeful
as that of the bee-eater. The dive under full power followed by a
quick upward zoom, the sudden twists and turns as it flies, the
loud snap of the bill as some unfortunate insect is caught with unerring
accuracy—these are characteristics which distinguish the bee-eater
from every other bird in the air. Its powers of flight are such that
I well remember seeing on one occasion, in Kashmir, when a _ bee-
eater was being harried by a pair of over-zealous Golden Orioles,
how, by sudden movements it turned the tables on its attackers and,
to the bewilderment of one of the orioles, the would-be pursuer found
itself the pursued !
All bee-eaters are handsome birds, with good, clean aerodynamic
forms and beautiful colours. One of my most happy memories of
birds is the pleasure and astonishment I felt when I saw, for the
first time at close range through a peep-hole in the photographic
hide, the glorious colours of a European Bee-eater—the chestnut and
geolden-brown of the upper parts, the bright yellow of the throat, and
the blue-green of the belly.
The breeding bird of Singapore belongs to a different species to
the one just described. Its colours are less spectacular, but still so
beautiful as to demand recording in colour film.
My photographs are the first to be taken on Singapore island
where Merops viridis appears to nest only in very small numbers.
The nest was found on July 13th, 1952, when a pair of very excited
birds were noticed diving at a cat on the ground. Instead of the
more normal hole in a bank, this nest tunnel had been dug in friable
sand in the flat earth of a garden; indeed, so friable was the sand
that when I eventually tried to uncover the egg chamber, the wails
of the tunnel collapsed too easily to permit me to follow it to its
ultimate destination.
Two young birds, almost ready to fly, made up the junior members
of the family. They were fed at frequent intervals by a pair
of most attentive parents whose journeys to the nest were sometimes
spaced only a few minutes apart. Winged insects of various kinds
were brought: dragonflies of several colours; moths and butterflies ;
a wasp with a striped body; fat, furry bumble-bees with a yellow
thorax; a grasshopper; honey bees, as well as other unidentified
—
Journ. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I
(Speedflash) Author
Resident Swallow (Hirundo tahitica abbotti)
(qso10 JO sOUASqe 9}0N) “jSou 7 OSUOIC peTlez-joyoeY U
eAeyeN
40yjnp
‘90S ‘ISIH ‘1VN AvaNog ‘Nunof
Il FIvIg
SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE 795
insects. The parent-birds sometimes went down the tunnel, and at
other times would be met at the entrance by a hungry young bird.
There was not much noise at feeding time.
When I put up the lamps for the speedflash, the adult birds were
frightened by them and this resulted in a curious example of reflex
action. I had noticed that whenever an adult disappeared down the
tunnel, a shower of sand would be thrown up through the entrance:
fear, in this instance, made the bird cautious about disappearing out
of sight even though the desire to enter the nest was great. Confused
by anxiety, it lowered its breast to the ground (although still just
outside the tunnel), whereupon, the emotional spring having been
touched, the whole behaviour-pattern followed, and the little feet went
into frenzied action, throwing a stream of sand into the air.
The weather was hot during the days I was photographing the
bee-eaters with the mercury inside the hide, on one occasion, rising to
104°F. with the sun behind light clouds. There is no doubt that
the bird photographer in a tropical climate achieves his results by
the sweat of his brow.
Resident Swallow. Hirundo tahitica abbotti (Oberholser). :
In tropical countries like Malaya, where the swallow is not the
harbinger of summer, there does not exist that sentimental regard
for the bird which it enjoys in countries where the passage of the
seasons is more pronounced. Moreover, a large number of our swallows
stay with us all the year, and bring up their families in our midst,
so that there is not that period of absence which, we are told, ‘makes
the heart grow fonder’. Yet no one, however familiar he may be
with this gentle bird, can help but admire its easy grace of flight and
the trusting character which makes it the friend of man. In Malaya,
as elsewhere, swallows seek human company, although there does
not exist here quite that degree of intimacy between man and bird
which is one of the most charming features of life in the vale of
Kashmir.. Some of our buildings, nevertheless, have been found
constructionally suitable for swallow housing, and as one of the owners
of Singapore’s highest building, the Cathay, it gratifies me to see
that both the swallows and the house swifts have found it acceptable
for their domestic needs.
Swallows, when they drink, make a pleasing ceremony of it,
hoisting their: wings as they skim the water’s surface and dipping
their heads for a quick beakful. Among the many visitors to the
official residence of H. E. the Commissioner-General for the United
Kingdom in S.-E. Asia, Mr. Malcolm MacDonald, at Bukit Serene,
none, I know, were more welcome than the swallows who used to fly
down to the swimming pool for a drink, after the other distinguished
visitors had left it for their lunch.
Formerly, it used to be considered that Hirundo tahitica was
largely a frequenter of the coastal regions of Malaya, but today it
has spread to the hills as well, and there are records of its nesting
at Fraser's Hill (4,000 ft.) and Cameron’s Highlands (5,000 ft.).
The illustration facing page 794 was taken inside a disused air-raid
shelter in the Buona Vista area of Singapore, and is an example of
speedflash photography. The colour of the nest was red, because the
796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HITST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
earth used to build it was of red laterite, a type of soil commonly
found in Malaya.
Large Racket-tailed Drongo. Dissemurus paradiseus platurus (Vieill.),
This handsomest member of the family Dicruridae is said to be a
common bird of the Malayan lowlands, the northern race malayensis
being found up to 3,o00 ft. In Singapore, except in areas like the
Bukit Timah forest reserve, or around the reservoirs, the smaller
southern race, platurus, is certainly not common. My pictures of
the bird were taken on Bukit Timah Hill, The nest was first dis-
covered on May 25th, and at that time already contained two young,
in down and quills. As it was placed some 25 ft. up a tree, a
machan had first to be built before photography could begin. |
therefore did not expose my first film until June rst.
The Racket-tailed Drongo is an all-black bird about twelve inches
long. The outermost tail feathers, extending in two bare shafts for at
least as great a length as the body, ends in two flat discs or rackets.
Its red eye gives the bird an appearance of fierceness which its
character does not belie. When I climbed on the nest-branch to
remove some leaves before photography, the adult birds dived at me so
persistently and relentlessly that I found myself involuntarily ducking
to avoid the feathered arrows which flew close to my head. These
black bolts from the blue came through the branches in such scream-
ing power-dives that I was not surprised subsequently to see one of the
birds with a racket missing from its tail. If the story told by Harington
(see page 797) may be believed, and I see no reason why it should
not, to the effect that the Burmese race of the Blacknaped Oriole
chooses to nest near drongos for protection, it certainly argues a
wise discrimination on the part of the former bird. |
The nest of the drongo is oriole-like,, and is attached to the
fork of a branch by its two ‘ears’. The cup, however, is shallower
and generally appears more flimsy. The young birds nevertheless
appeared to be well housed, and would duck snugly out of sight when
the parents raised an alarm.
The birds had several calls, one of which could perhaps be sylla-
bised as chah-chah, quick-quick ; chah-chah, quick-quick. The warning
cry consisted of a number of harsh notes, rapidly repeated, and was
uttered by the bird on guard who, at the same time, fanned out its
tail. Other birds’ calls were also imitated, and so exactly reproduced
that I was sometimes completely deceived. The curlew-like call of the
Whitebellied Sea-eagle was copied with such uncanny accuracy that for
some time I believed this bird to be in the neighbourhood. The drongo
with the single racket (which for convenience I will speak of as the male)
stood sentry most of the time, and left his mate to do the baby
tending, although occasionally helping with a beakful. It was diff-
cult to recognise the nature of the food brought, but on one occasion
it was clearly a green grasshopper and on another a wretched lizard
which had been battered to death.
The young birds which had a white gape and insides of the mouth
pale pink, possessed remarkably strong voices. There is no doubt
that they would have grown into redoubtable fighters of the sky if
tragedy had not overtaken them. I visited the nest on the after-
ai0de8uig ‘(sasuaui1y9 snjoid) sor podeuyorlg
LOYING
Il] atvid "90S “LSIE]T “LVN Avawog ‘Nanof
Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Author
Yellowvented Bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier personatus). Singapore Island. Photographed
by sunlight and speedflash
SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE 797
noon of June ist, and again on the following afternoon.
Two days later, I returned once more, but the nest and its
contents had disappeared, no trace remaining except for a few sad
wisps of grass on the ground. Whether it had been destroyed by
human beings, or by monkeys whose voices [ had heard on my
second visit, we shall never know.
The Blacknaped Oriole. Oviolus chinensis diffusus Sharpe.
This bird of magnificent hue, and, when it suits, of honied voice,
is one of those common birds of Singapore which, in its relations
with man, is friendly without being too familiar. It adds a bright
flash of colour to our somewhat overgreen tropical gardens, and is
soi little afraid of man, and all his works that it may often be seen, and
heard, even within city limits. Its body colour is a rich yellow
which explains why it is sometimes called the ‘mango bird’. The
bill is pink, and the eye orange, while a broad black band extends
from the base of the bill, through the eye, to meet behind the head
at the nape. Its more pleasing call is a long-drawn, rather surprised
wheeow, or a liquid chuck, tarry-you, but it-also has a harsh, grating
note, quite out of harmony with its otherwise beautiful character. This
goes to show, of course, that even Beauty has a little of the Beast
in her.
Despite its tolerance of man, the oriole usually builds its nest
fairly high up in some tree, well out of reach of human, and simian,
interference. There is an interesting note by Harington in the Journal
of the Bombay Natural History Society, (Vol. xx1, p. 585, 1912) which
says of the Burmese race of this bird, ‘They are extremely partial
to nesting under the protection of Drongos of either kind. I noticed
this more particularly in compounds, where, if there happened to
be a King-crow’s nest and any Orioles were heard in the vicinity,
it was almost a certainty that their nest would be near that of the
Drongos.’
The nest of the Blacknaped Oriole is a woven grass basket, hung by
two ears to slender twigs, is of robust construction and well shaded
by leaves even though it may be placed towards the tip of a branch.
Those examined by me have each contained two young, which appears
to be the common number for this species.
The plate facing page 796 is from a photograph taken at
a nest which was generously given to me by my friend Geoffrey
Allen. I had to build a tower 30 ft. high in order to reach it at
the top of a durian tree (Durio zibethinus). The two young were
still in down when I began photography on the 25th of March; at that
time they could not have been more than a few days old. Both
parents fed, one, as so often happens, being more solicitous than
the other. Some authorities say that the female may be distinguished
from the male by the tinge of green on her mantle, but although
I was not more than six ft. from the nest, I was not able to detect
any difference. At close range, however, it was noticeable that the
colour of the feathers of breast and back of both male and female was
not a pure yellow, but had fine black streakings in them.
Even at this tender age, the young were being fed the thick,
fat, green caterpillars of the Hawk moth, an enormous beakful for
5
798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
so young a bird, but somehow the meal was crammed down eager
throats, and swallowed, although with some difficulty. The interval
between feeds varied from a few minutes to nearly an hour, with
half-an-hour as the average. This infrequent feeding was hardly
surprising, in view of the substantial nature of each course.
The young left the nest on the 6th April, so that they were about
a fortnight before they became fully fledged. I regret I do not have
more exact dates: it would seem, moreover, that even for Indian and
Burmese birds of the same species more accurate data is not avail-
able. In the case of Oriolus oriolus, however, the fledging period
is said to be 14-15 days, so that a period of a fortnight for our bird
cannot be far off the mark. The young in its first-year plumage
lacks the black bands on the head, and so bears a resemblance to
the typical oriole (Oriolus oriolus), of Kashmir, and other more
northerly climes.
Yellowvented Bulbul. Pycnonotus goiavier personatus (Hume).
This is one of the commonest, possibly the commonest, of the
birds of Singapore. It is to be found on the island in very great
numbers, making its home in gardens, orchards, hedges, and any
type of open or scrub country. In the garden of my home at Gallop
Road, numbers nest each year in the bamboo clumps, or in low
bushes almost anywhere in the property. Great flocks are to be
seen in the evenings congregating and making cheerful conversation
in the tall grass area at that end of the land which is nearest Farrer
Road. In the Botanic Garden, the more eclectic of the bulbul popu-
lation find that the stems of the ground orchids make excellent supports
for their nests.
The moderately deep cup made of leaves, grass and rootlets, is
loosely attached to the bush in which it is placed. After a big
rainstorm, I have seen a nest in a bamboo clump pushed completely
over to one side so that the young, instead of using the bottom, used
one side of the wall; inthis precarious fashion they were reared
and eventually safely brought off. The nest is never placed very
high off the ground, and is usually well within arm’s reach. Two
eges form the clutch; they are normally of light brown or stone colour,
with heavy red- “grown markings, thickest at the broad end.
The Yellowvented Bulbul begins breeding early in the year, and
nidification extends over a long period. Both parents tend the
young, bringing to them insects as well as fruits and berries. In
my garden, the ripe fruit of the Tembusu (Fragraea fragrans) and
wild fig (icus benjamina) constitute a favourite item of diet which,
in the season, are shared with the Green Pigeons (Treron vernans),
Starlings (Aplonis panayensis) and Flying Foxes (Pteropus sp.).
Insects are also eaten, and flying insects sometimes caught on the wing.
I have seen a bulbul sharing the topmost branch of a great casuarina
tree with a group of bee-eaters, sallying with them into the air in
pursuit of a winged ant, cockily and blissfully unaware of the poor
comparison its own flight made with that of its co-diners. A. G.
Glenister says that the bulbul ‘is particularly fond of white ants
and, on those hot evenings when the earth opens and sends forth
ever-ascending clouds of would-be colonizers, many a white ant’s dream
of empire ends in the snap of a bulbul’s beak’.
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PLATE VI
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Author
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is vafflest
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Yellowbellied Wren-Warbler (Py
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SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE 799
The song can be called a song only if we are being more than
ordinarily polite, yet it has a gay, rattling quality which makes it a
fine tonic in a dismal world. Like the song, the plumage is sober,
but the bright yellow of the vent adds that little, unexpected dash
which marks Pycnonotus goiavier as Sobriety with a spot of colour
in the proper place. There its, indeed, in Singapore no more cheerful
or peaceful citizen.
Straits Robin. Copsychus saularis musicus (Raffles).
The Straits Robin, or Dayal, is not a robin, but a thrush. In
the tradition of the family, it is a fine songster, and one of the best
in the Malayan list. Of the voices that sing in the dawn chorus,
few are more rich, or full, or gifted with a wider range.
Its handsome black-and-white plumage makes it a conspicuous bird
as it hops about the lawn or perches on a post, jauntily lifting its tail
over its back and making itself perfectly at home. Readily seeking the
company of man, it sometimes rears its family even inside his
house.
The nest is, however, more often to be found in a hole in a tree
or post, and may be four to forty feet off the ground, although I
have myself never seen one above 30 ft.; this high nest was dis-
covered in a durian tree growing in my garden just behind the
kitchen and contained two young birds almost ready to fly. Usually
an untidy cup made of grass, leaves, twigs and other oddments, the
nest may sometimes nevertheless be most neatly lined with the fine
black stalks of a fern.
The ground colour of the egg is a pale blue, and a number of
purplish blotches decorate the surface. Three or four eggs form the
normal clutch.
Both parents feed the young, bringing a variety of food consist-
ing of grubs, grasshoppers, spiders, earthworms and even small
centipedes. When I was taking the pictures (one of which illustrates
this sketch) at the nest in a tree stump in my garden, there was a
great deal of pleasant singing about and around the nest when the
young were being fed; indeed, music while you eat is a charming
Copsychian custom.
Streaked Fantail-Warbler, Cisticola juncidis malaya Lynes.
The Streaked Fantail-Warbler is one of the most plentiful of
Singapore’s birds, and lives and nests in open grassland, especially
where there is lalang. Numbers of nests may be found to each
side of the dirt road which leads to the seaside area of Loyang,
and anyone who plays golf cannot fail to hear the sharp, scolding
click-click which seems to come from some unseen object in the
sky. This diminutive little warbler is driven by an explosive energy:
it climbs quickly when taking to the air, and once in the sky hangs
40 or 50 ft. above the ground, keeping aloft in a series of little
jerks which it makes with its fantail spread, and then, like a tiny
bolt it drops to the ground again, alighting gently at the last mo-
ment on a blade of grass. The passer-by who disturbs it is left in
no doubt about the feelings of the little body which, so to speak,
clicks a vehemently disapproving tongue at him from out of the
sky.
800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
The small, deep, egg-shaped nest, with the opening at the top,
is beautifully made. It is attached to three or four blades of grass
with spiders’ webs, and is thickly lined with the white, downy seed
of the lalang.
Nesting appears to take place in almost every month of the year;
I have found fully-fledged young on February 15th, and have seen
others being fed at the nest in the month of August. Two eggs
form the normal clutch, although I have on occasion found three.
Both adults feed the young, and so far as I have been able to
ascertain, small grasshoppers, spiders and grubs form the favourite
diet.
Yellowbellied Wren-Warbler, Prinia flaviventris rafflesi (Tweeddale).
The Yellowbellied Wren-Warbler is a shy little bird which does
not readily reveal its presence, although the clear, linked call is
easily and distinctly heard so that, as one drives along the roads of
Singapore in a car, it is surprising how often it strikes the ear. In
any open piece of grassland one may expect to find the bird, and
I always listen for its call as I drive past the Orchard Road Police
Station, a mere: three mules) from! the “centres of sthesereat city, of
Singapore. Outside the city limits it is found in abundance, but
because of its reluctance to fly in the open, anyone who does not
know its call might well think that it was rare. The alarm note
is a cat-like mewing which the young, even when still in the nest,
may be heard to use.
The nest is a cunningly contrived structure, built of grass, with
a roof over the top and a porch to shelter the entrance. It is placed
in a low bush only a few feet off the ground.
The nest, at which the accompanying photograph was taken,
contained three young birds whose gape and mouths were yellow and
there were two black spots at the base of the tongue. Both parents
engaged in the feeding, bringing a variety of insects of which I was
able to identify only a green grasshopper, a brown moth, and a small
green caterpillar.
The adult bird is a handsome creature with a yellow belly, pure
white chin and threat, olive brown upper breast and a red eye. The
long, floppy tail is conspicuous in flight.
(To be continued)
CRITICAL NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE
OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS
Il. THE GENUS ZIZYPHUS MILL.
BY
Hi SANTAPAU, S.J, F.N.I.
_ The genus Zizyphus is a well-established and common one in our
books on Indian flora. There are, however, a few critical points
that have to be elucidated and in some cases corrected.
1. Ziziphus or Zizyphus?
The first problem concerns the spelling of the generic name: should
it be Ziziphus or Zizyphus? The name is based on the description
given by Tournefort in Instit. Rei Herb. 1: 627, 1700; the name
was then spelt Ziziphus; but in accordance with the Internat. Code
of Bot. Nom., Art. 23a, this name cannot be considered valid, since it
dates from before 1753. Adanson, in Fam. 1763, gave the name
with the same spelling; Linne, in Gen. Plant. 89, No. 235, 1754,
mentioned the name Ziziphus Tourn. as a synonym of Rhamnus ;
but Linne’s name is not valid since the Intern. Code, Art. 46 provides
that ‘A name of a taxon is not validly published when it is merely cited
as a synonym’. Miller in his Gard. Dict., Abridg. Edit. 1754, first
published the name Zizyphus, and this spelling must be accepted as
the only valid one; the reference may be then Zizyphws Tourn. ex
Miller. On the subject please see Druce in Rep. Bot. Exch. Club
Brit, Isl, 1913: 423-436, 1914.
a Vine GCemader Or the SCMEFIC MAINE
Sedgwick, in Ind. For. 1919: 71, writes: ‘Z. xylopyra Willd.
More correctly Z. xylopyrus, as adopted by Mr. Gamble’. Gamble,
however, in his Fl. Pres. Madras, p. 219, lists Z. Xylopyrus (specific
epithet with a capital); most of the species are treated by Gamble as
feminine; the use of the capital in Xylopyrus shows that Gamble
agrees with Willdenow in treating the mame as a _ noun.
Willdenow, in Sp. Pl. 1: 1104, gives Z. Xylopyrus, and the use
of capital for the specific epithet seems to indicate that he
considers it as a noun, on a par with Z. Jujuba, Z. Oenoplia, etc. ;
on the other hand as Willdenow lists such species as Z. lineatus, etc.,
he clearly indicates that he makes the name Zizyphus masculine; as
the name, however, originates from Tournefort, the latter’s treat-
ment seems to set the rule about the gender of the name; Tournefort
gives Ziziphus sativa as one of the species, and in consequence the
name must be treated as feminine.
DeCandolle, in Prodromus 2: 21, considers the name Zizyphus as
feminine, and accordingly lists such species as Z. orthacantha,
Z. oxycarpa, etc.; but at the same time he mentions Z. Xylopyrus,
thereby indicating that he takes the name Xylopyrus as a noun,
802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURA EISi 1s OG IEAM ea Violatoi
In conclusion it may be said that the gender of the generic name
Zizyphus is feminine; but that the specific name Xylopyrus is a
substantive or a noun, and should, therefore, be independent of the
gender of the generic name.
3. Zizyphus Jujuba Lamk.
Linne, in his Sp. Pl. 194, 1753, lists the genus Rhamnus and
under it gives the following short description of Rhamnus Jujuba:
‘Thorns solitary, recurved, peduncles aggregated, flowers semidigy-
nous, leaves retuse, tomentose beneath.’ This is the basis of the
plant that in our Indian floras goes under the name of Zizyphus
Jujuba Lamk. It is clear, however, that Linne did not publish the
name Zizyphus jujuba.
On the other hand, Miller (in Gard. Dict., ed. 8, No. 1, 1768)
gives the name and description of Zizyphus jujuba: ‘Thorns paired,
straight, leaves oblong, serrated. Jujube with straight thorns growing
by pairs, and oblong, sawed leaves. Ziziphus Dod. p. 807. The
common Jujube.’ I have been unable to see the reference of Dodonaeus,
but Bailey in Man. Cult. Plants 646, 1949, clearly states that Miller’s
Zizyphus jujuba is different from the plant that Lamark described
under the same name in 1789. Further Bailey adds the following key
to the commoner species of Zizyphus:
Leaves glabrous beneath a eZee uo
Leaves densely tomentose beneath ... Z. mauritiana
Accepting the two plants, Z. Jujwba Mill. and Z. Jujuba Lamk.
as different from each other, it is clear that Lamark’s name is
illegitimate, being a later homonym in the sense of the Intern. Code
of Bot. Nom., Art. 74. The first valid name for the common Indian
plant is then Z. mauritiana Lamk. The nomenclature and synonymy
of these two plants is therefore as follows:— _
(a) Zizyphus jujuba Mill., Gard. Dict., ed. 8, No. 1, 1768; Bailey,
Man. Cult. Pl. 646, 1949.
Z. sativa Gaernt.
Z. vulgaris Lamk.
‘Glabrous shrub or small tree to 30 ft., spiny or unarmed, branch-
lets often fascicled, slender and having frequently the appearance of
pinnate lvs.; lvs. oblong-ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 1-2 in. long, obtuse
and sometimes emarginate, serrate; drupe dark red or brown, oblong
or ovoid, 4-1 in. long, with whitish flesh and a hard 2-celled stone.
S. Eur Sandel; Asian seb alley lOcascits
(b) Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk., Enc. 3: 319, 1789; Bailey, loc.
Cr. ;
Z Z. jujuba Lamk., ibid. 318, non Mill. 1768; FBI. et auct. ind.
passim; Webberbauer in Pfam. 3 (5): 402, f. 198A-D.
‘Indian or Cottony Jujube. Differs from Z. Jujuba in being ever-
green, and the twigs, infl. and under side of Ivs. densely white- or
rusty-tomentose. India; widely spread in warm countries.’ Bailey,
loc eit |
CRITICAL NOTES ON SOME BOMBAY PLANTS 803
It is clear, then, that our common tree, known locally as Bor or
Ber, cannot be called Z. Jujwba, and must be rightly called Z. mauri-
tiana Lamk. (=Z, jujuba Lamk., non Z. jujuba Mill.)
4. Zizyphus glaberrima Santapau, stat. nov.
Z. xylopyra var. glaberrima Sedgwick in Ind. For. 45: 71-72,
191g; Santapau in Kew Bull. 1948: 489-490, 1949.
This plant was described as a new variety by the present author
in 1949; the description of Sedgwick, however, is legitimate even
though it is not done in Latin; see Art. 53 of the new Code of Bot.
Nomencl. The credit for the discovery of the plant must, then, go to
Sedgewick.
After due consideration, however, it seems to me that one is fully
justified in raising the variety to specific rank. The present plant
differs from the typical Z. Xylopyrus Willd. mainly in the pubescence
of the leaves, the shape of the nerves of the leaves and the scarcity
of the thorns on stems and branches.
Willdenow in Sp. Pl. 1: 1104 described his plant, Z. Xylopyrus, .
thus ‘Zizyphus with solitary recurved thorns, leaves subcordate-ovate,
somewhat acute, tomentose on the underside, the corymbs axillary
ANG! IMIS” giMNGl GATS WAS MAKAKNKOS tO Ici O)os, Io. BS we Woe A
fuller description of the plant. The following is Retzius’ description:
‘RHAMNUS <xylopyrus stem with thorns, the thorns recurved, the
leaves ovate tomentose underneath, flowers corymbose. Shrub scarcely
higher than a man, growing at the bases of mountains in East India.
Branches whitish from a thin coating of tomentum, more rarely armed
with a single, small, recurved thorn under the petiole. Leaves broadly
ovate, often nearly cordate, not rarely oblique, unequally serrate, darl<
above, covered with a thin white tomentum beneath. Flowers in axillary
pedunculate corymbs, the calyces tomentose. Fruits a dry drupe larger
than a cherry, insipid, somewhat astringent with an irregular seed.’
By contrast with this plant, my new species is described as follows
in Kew Bull., loc. cit.: ‘Similar to Z. xylopyrva, but differing prin-
cipally in the leaves being completely glabrous or at most only the
primary nerves being somewhat ‘slightly pubescent. Small tree, erect,
up to 4 m. high, mostly very sparsely armed, not rarely either com-
pletely unarmed or on the contrary armed with many thorns. Branch-
lets pubescent when young, older ones glabrous. Leaves acute,
subacute, obtuse or even slightly emarginate, 3-nerved from the base
(the nerves not converging towards the apex of the leaf, but remaining
parallel from the middle of the leaf up to the apex of the same), base
acute or rounded and very unequal, completely glabrous or at most
sparsely pubescent on the primary nerves beneath, the margins ir- —
regularly denticulate, the petioles up to 6 mm. long, tomentose.
Stipules, in the absence of thorns, 2 for each leaf, filiform, up to 5
mm. long, caducous, but leaving clear scars which are visible even in
herbarium specimens. Flowers generally pentamerous, pale green in
colour; calyx and corolla as in the typical species (i.e. Z. Xylopyrus).
Stamens opposite the petals, green or yellowish-green, filaments some-
what thicker, equal in length to the petals, slightly tomentose; anthers
minute, 2-celled, basifixed, dehiscing by a longitudinal slit. Fruit
at first green, at length greyish brown or black, glabrous, up to
804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
21 mm. in diameter, globose or slightly .compressed at the poles;
pericarp woody or subwoody. Seeds orbicular, 8 mm. in diameter,
2 mm. thick.’
This new species is the only common one along the Western Ghats
near Bombay ; lately I have found the plant also in Saurashtra at the
foot of the Girnar, near Junagadh. Z. Xylopyrus Willd. is not found
in these parts of India.
REFERENCES
Bailey, L. H, (1949): Manual of Cultivated Plants.
Druce, G. C. (1914): The Abridgement of Miller’s Gardener’s Dictionary of 1754.
In Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Isl., 1913: 423-436.
Santapau, H. (1949): Novitates bombaienses. Kew Bull., 1948: 485-492.
Sedgwick, L. J. (1919): On the species of Zizyphus in the Bombay Presidency.
Ind, For, 45: 67-74.
THE DUM-NUIT BEETLE—COCCOTRYPES DACTYLIPERDA
FABR,. AND ITS CONTROL
BY
K. R, Nagaraja Rao, B.sc. (Hons.)
| AND
J. P. JANAKI, B.Sc.
(Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore)
(With @ text figure)
INTRODUCTION
The manufacture of buttons from dum-nuts is a comparatively
recent enterprise in India. The raw material for this industry is the
dum-nut, Hyphaene thebaica Mart., which is imported from the Sudan.
The nuts and the finished product are subject to the attack of the
Scolytid beetle, Coccotrypes dactyliperda Fabr., which renders the
former unworkable and the latter unserviceable. The first experience
of serious damage by this beetle to both the products was during
1947 at Coimbatore. Investigations are under progress since then
to devise an efficient, cheap and easy method of control against this
pest.
The dum-nut palm is a native of tropical Africa and grows
luxuriantly along the valleys of the Nile in Egypt (Burkill, 1935).
Attempts to introduce the palm in India, Singapore, etc., have not
so far been successful. The fleshy and fibrous part of the fruit is
reported to be very much like ginger-bread both in taste and in colour.
The seeds are very hard and are popularly known as ‘vegetable ivory’.
An allied species, Hyphaene indica Becc., occurs exclusively along the
coast north of Bombay in India, but the nuts do not appear to be
suitable for the industrial purpose.
THE PEST AND ITS LIFE-HISTORY
The beetle has been well known as a borer of the stones of the
date palm from very early days. The unrestricted movement of the
infested produce has enabled the pest to spread and establish itself
in other parts of the world as it has subsequently been found to
occur in India, Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago, Hawaii, Australia,
America, Africa and Europe (Gorton Linsley, 1943). The adult is
a small dark brown insect about 2.5 mm. in length. The head is
somewhat small, hidden beneath and is not visible from above. The
adults are mostly associated with the larvae, but the females come
out of the tunnels occasionally. Eggs are laid inside small burrows
~ made by the adult in the nut. The larval and pupal stages are creamy-
806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
white in colour and measure about 2.75 mm. in length. The entire
life-cycle may extend from 45-70 days, warmer weather conditions
being more favourable for the multiplication (Anonymous, 19309).
NATURE AND EXTENT OF DAMAGE
The adults and larvae attack and feed on the inner portions of
raw nuts as well as the finished product. The damage is characterised
by the presence of numerous tortuous tunnels (text figure) inside the
nuts and by the profuse ejection of a powdery material. The damage
is sometimes so severe that as many as 93 holes were present on a
single nut. The nuts are thus rendered unfit for use and the finished
product is unmarketable. The loss thus caused is about 20-40%.
THE DUM-NUT BEETLE
(COCCOTRYPES DACTYLIRBERDA FABR.)
INFESTED NUT
“714 4 Vip,
ri
Gay
GRUB
INFESTED NUT, BROKEN OPEN TO SHOW
THE SYMPTOMS OF BAMAGE.
ALTERNATIVE Hosts
The beetle has also been recorded in small numbers on other
economic products like the betel nut (Areca catechu L.), nut meg
(Myristica fragrans Houtt.), cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Bl.), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera LL.) and a number of other palms
(Beeson, 1939; Gardner, 1934).
\
CONTROL MEASURES
The earlier methods of control consisted of a timely destruction
of badly infested material or of heating the same to 135°F. with a
view to kill the pest mm situ. Fumigation with carbon-di-sulphide at
the rate of 5 Ibs. per 1,000 cu.-ft. was also recommended. The
heat treatment was cumbersome and costly. Fumigation with carbon-
di-sulphide, though effective, cannot be freely advocated because of the
fire hazard and of its high cost. f
DUM-NUT BEETLE—COCCOTRYPES DACTYLIPERDA 807
The present experiments had, therefore, to be restricted to two
of the cheaper and safer fumigants, viz., calcium cyanide and
‘Killoptera’ (a mixture of three parts ethylene dichloride and one part
carbon tetrachloride by volume). The usual dosage of calcium cyanide
is 3-4 lbs. per 1,000 cu.-ft. with an exposure for 24 hours, but it was
not found satisfactory. The probable reason may be the inherent
resistance of the insects to the poisonous gas or the inability of the
gas itself to penetrate thoroughly into the minute tunnels, where the
different stages of the pest are safely lodged. A higher dosage of
6-8 lbs. and an exposure for 48 hours had, however, the desired
effect. Similarly a higher rate of 30 lbs. and an exposure of 48 hours
was required in the case of ‘Killoptera’. The provision of an electric
fan also is sometimes recommended to hasten the volatilisation of
this fumigant. The respective costs of treatment worked out to Rs.
17 and Rs. 30 per 1,000 cu.-ft. of enclosed space. Calcium cyanide,
being cheaper, is recommended. This has become very popular among
the factory owners and about 1,760 bags of infested material were
treated during 1951-52 and rendered pest-free.
The above method is purely curative. The loss caused by the
pest could be minimised by following the accepted principles of
godown sanitation and adopting the necessary prophylactic measures
as detailed below. Prior to storage, the godown should be thoroughly
cleaned and later disinfected with BHC (benzene hexachloride) 10%
dust. or spray at 0.1% concentration (at 3 Ibs. of dust or 2-3 gallons of
the spray fluid per 1,000 cu.-ft.). The bags containing the nuts should
then be stacked properly and their external surface given a liberal
dusting with BHC 10% dust at 8 oz. per 100 sq. ft. This treatment
should kill the few insects which may be lurking here and there and
also serve as an effective barrier against secondary infestation after
storing.
Infested buttons also should be similarly fumigated. As these
are likely to be held in stock for indefinite periods, either by the
wholesaler or the retailer, dusting small quantities of BHC all over
and inside the racks, almirahs, etc., where the buttons are stored
may serve as a useful prophylactic measure. The addition of a few
crystals of paradichlorbenzene inside the cartons also proves quite
effective in keeping off the beetles.
SUMMARY
(i) The Scolytid Coccotrypes dactyliperda Fabr. is a serious pest
of dum-nuts and the buttons made out of them. (11) Infested stocks
of either whole nuts or buttons should be fumigated with calcium
cyanide. (iii) Prophylactic treatments, like disinfecting godowns prior
to the storage and treatments, like dusting the surface of the bags
with BHC ro% dust, will eliminate chances of secondary infestation.
(iv) The storage almirahs, racks, etc., where the buttons are stored
should be dusted with BHC as a prophylactic and curative measure.
Small quantities of paradichlorbenzene can also be used inside card-
board containers. (v) The cost of treatments suggested here is
cheap.
S08 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
ACKNCWLEDGEMENT
Our thanks are due to Sri. S. Ramachandran and Sri. V. Tirumala
Rao, Government Entomologists, for their guidance in the above in-
vestigations and help in the preparation of this note.
RebAEEERUEPNGGsENS
Anonymous (1939): Notes contributed by the Entomological branch—Agri. Gaz.
N.S.W., 50 (6): 317-320.
Beeson, C. F. C. (1939): Indian For. Rec., 5 (3): 301.
Burkill, I. H. (1935): A Dictionary of the Economic products of Malay Peninsula—
pp. 1217.
Gardner, J. C. M. (1934): Indian For. Rec., 20 (8): 14.
Linsley, Gorton (1943): The Date Stone Beetle in California and Lower California.
J. Econ, Ent., 86 (5): 804-805.
PROBLEMS OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN CEYLON!
BY
SUNDER LAL Hora
AND
Io Wo IR, IPImIL AS
Very few countries have had the benefit of advice from so many
specialists in planning the development of their fisheries as Ceylon.
In recent years, Dr. C. F. Hickling, Colonial Fisheries Adviser, the
late Dr. H. Blegvad, Director of the Danish Biological Station and
General Secretary of the International Council for the Exploration of
Seas, Dr. Ettrup Peterson with his collaborators, Dr. C. C. John,
Director of Research and Professor of Marine Biology and Fisheries,
Travancore University (now Deputy Director of Fisheries, Ceylon) and
Dr. G. L. Kesteven, Regional Fisheries Officer for Asia and the Far
East, surveyed the fishery resources of Ceylon and made _ recom-
mendations for fisheries development and research in the island.
Their reports have been published in the form of a Sessional Paper?
by the Government of Ceylon. Copies of this publication were sent
to several experts to elicit their views and some very useful comments
have been received from Dr. W. C, Neville, Chief, Fisheries Division
(Natural Resources Section), G.H.Q., SCAP, Tokyo, Dr. R. Van Cleve,
Director, School of Fisheries, Washington and Dr. A. W. C. T. Herre,
Scheol of Fisheries, Washington. Mr. W. H. Schuster, Chairman of
the Committee of Fish Culture, Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council and
now Fishery Biologist, F.A.O., Rome, has made a special survey
of the Inland Fisheries of Ceylon and his report has been published
separately as another Sessional Paper.* Mr. I. S. R. Munro, Senior
Research Officer, Fisheries Research Station of the Australian
Commonwealth Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Cronulla,
worked in the Department of Fisheries, Ceylon, for about 3 months
organising a programme of inshore marine research. This report
has been published as an appendix to the Administration Report of
the Acting Director of Fisheries for 1951 (Government Publications
Bureau, Colombo, 1952). In effect these publications and the comments
of experts together form a Symposium on Ceylon fisheries and lack only
a summing up and a final analysis of the opinions of these experts.
A NETS
1 This note was prepared, when one of us was offered the post of Director of
Fisheries, Ceylon, in 1951. It is now published in the hope that it may prove of
some use to others interested in the development of fisheries of this Island.
* Ceylon Fisheries.—Recommendations of Experts on Fisheries Development,
Research, Socio-economic and Industrial Problems. Sessional Paper WVI—1951,
Ceylon Government Press, Colombo. Price: Rs. 3.85, postage: 30 Cents (To be
purchased from the Government Publications Bureau, Colombo).
° Report on a Survey of the Inland Fisheries of Ceylon.—Sessional Paper XXIV—
1951, Ceylon Government Press, Colombo. Price: 40 Cents, postage: 10 Cents.
(To be purchased from the Government Publications Bureau, Colombo.)
810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
FISHERY RESOURCES OF CEYLON
The fisheries of Ceylon can be classified into five distinct ecological
units, viz., (1) Cold water fisheries in the hills, (2) Fluviatile and
lacustrine fisheries of the plains, (3) Fisheries of the brackishwater
lagoons, swamps and other tidal areas, (4) Inshore marine fisheries,
and (5) Offshore marine fisheries. A brief assessment of these fisheries
is given below seriatim.
Cold Water Fisheries in the Hills.—Apparently the hillstream
fisheries have been considered to be the least important and_ this
region has not received much attention from the experts. The upland
waters of Ceylon have imported Trout and European Carp in them,
besides the indigenous fishes. Apart from providing sport to anglers,
the hillstreams and other water areas in the region could possibly
contribute to the supply of acceptable varieties of fresh fish for local
consumption. Barbus (Tor) khudree is known to occur in Ceylon
waters and is a good sporting fish. More systematic work should
be undertaken on the cultural possibilities of this fish. The possibility
of expanding the culture of European Carp and Tench also needs in-
vestigation. Though there is reported to be a decided prejudice to
fresh water fish in the Island,’ the residents of hill stations will, in
all probability, prefer fresh freshwater fish to unhygienically prepared
dry saltwater fish, if attempts to popularise this are backed by adequate
propaganda. Under very similar conditions, the culture of Mirror
Carp and Tench has become a great success in the Nilgiris (India).
Mr. Schuster recommends an association of Gouramy, Helostoma and
Etroplus, for tanks which retain water for long periods. Mr. de Zylva
informs us that the experiments initiated by the Department have
shown that the Gouramy can thrive in the upland waters at about
4,500 ft. even though they did not survive at a height of about
6,000 ft. Etroplus is not generally believed to be suitable for such
waters; and for any large-scale culture programmes it might be more
advisable to concentrate on proved varieties such as the Common
Carp. Estimates of areas suitable for culture and quantities likely
to be consumed locally will have to be made before starting this
venture.
Fluviatile and LacuStrine Fisheries of the Plains.—The fisheries of
rivers, tanks and lakes form a comparatively neglected zone of fishery
resources in the country. There are several seasonal irrigation tanks,
freshwater lagoons as well as large perennial irrigation reservoirs of
an estimated extent of about 10,000 acres. abundant in fish fauna.
According to Dr. Kesteven, the lakes and tanks contain Gourami,
Catfishes, Murrel, Pearlspot, Wallago, Anabas and ‘Labeo; and the
rivers have Mahseer, Murrel, Pearlspot, Gourami, Catfish, Wallago,
etc. Mr. Schuster observes that there is a preponderance of predaceous
species indicating that nature took its unhindered course in these waters
and the predaceous species ‘have generally occupied such a prominent
position that no other species can subsist in their presence in any worth-
while numbers, while the stock of the vegetable feeding fishes has dimi-
—_— -——_——
* Mr. R. de Zylva, the Ag. Director of Fisheries, Ceylon, in a private communi-
cation informs us that ‘it is only the urban population that is fighting shy of buying
freshwater fish, but these fishes are very popular in the villages’.
PROBLEMS OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN CEYLON sll
nished so much that only a small part. of the food resources is actually
converted into fish meat’. Predaceous species are generally of good
flavour and taste and species of murrels and spiny-eels are greatly
relished in India. It may be desirable, therefore to start long-
lining for these fishes. It is obviously essential to control the
number of predatory fishes, but there appears to be religious and
other objections to fishing in many of these waters during the dry
season and the catches are estimated to be about 300 tons which are
chiefly dry-salted, or smoked. -According to the experts, no fresh-
water fish is very welcome to the fish-eaters of Ceylon, except the
Gourami which is bought in the belief that it is a saltwater
fish. A judicious management programme to restore the equilibrium
between herbivorous and carnivorous species is the primary need.
The stock of herbivores, such as Gourami, and the Pearlspot can be
substantially increased by both lake and river improvement methods
as well as cultural operations. A good beginning has already been
made by the Department of Fisheries in the stocking of inland waters
with Gourami fry.t In view of the paucity of suitable plankton feed-
ing fishes, the possibility of introducing exotic plankton feeders such
as Tilapia mossambica, Trichogaster pectoralis and Helostoma
temmincki will have to be explored. Experiments in the breeding of
T. mossambica are reported to have been successfully conducted and
according to the latest Administration Report of the Department, no
further imports of this fish will be necessary as the fish propagates
very rapidly.
Brackish Water Fisheries.—The coast of Ceylon abounds in salt
water lagoons affording lucrative fisheries and its rich estuarine
waters have an estimated extent of 300,000 acres. The important
‘catches consist of Mullets, Rays, Garfish, Cock-up, Prawns and not
rarely Milk fish. A few thousand men are engaged in fishing in these
areas and they use stake nets, traps, cast nets and brush wood and
other types of lures. This part of the industry is owner-operated
and according to Dr. Kesteven the production is estimated at a few
hundred tons per year.
Because of the coastal erosion in Ceylon waters, the sedimented
debris deposited by the rivers constitute the main source of fertility
of the estuarine waters. The better productivity of areas like Lake
Negumbo compared to those like Lake Chilaw is obviously due to the
rich deposits of soft mire.
Mullets, prawns and milk fish are well favoured items in the
markets and most of the specialists are of the opinion that there 1S
very good scope for developing their farming in this region. A
thorough biological survey of the localities that are likely to be
‘suitable for opening farms and the determination of their producti-
vity, the seasons and places of availability of fry, etc., will have to
be made initially before starting large-scale farming programmes.
All the economically important fishes and crustaceans of the
estuaries, except Etroplus suratensis, are inshore breeders and _ their
fry enter estuaries and backwaters. The sand bars formed in front
1 Administration Report of the Acting Director of Fisheries for the years 1940-
50, Part I—1940-47 by E. R. A. de Zylva, 1951, Ceylon Government Press, Colombo.
812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
of the estuaries are considered to be obstacles in the way of a conti-
nuous supply of fish and prawn seed to these brackish water areas.
Provision to ensure such a supply by breaking up the sand bars
wherever necessary appears promising. Mr. Schuster also recommends
the stocking of brackish waters with fry of Chanos reared in nursery
ponds. Mr. de Zylva informs us that a start has already been made
by the Department of Fisheries in this direction.
Inshore Fisheries.—The inshore fisheries of Ceylon are of the
maximum importance and represent approximately go% of the total
fishery resources. Nearly 40,ooo men employing about 6,000 cata-
marans and 4,350 outrigger canoes fish in the inshore waters with
about 3,500 seine nets and 5,4oo drift nets. They are responsible
for the supply of about 30,000 tons of fish annually. The beach
seines make heavy catches of Dussumeria, Sardinella, Anchovies,
Hilsa, Chirocentrus, Ilisha, Pomfrets, Horse. Mackerels, Sciaenids,
Dog fishes, Rays, Chorinemus, Mullets, Sillago, Arius and Prawns.
Hand-lines operated from the outrigger canoes or ‘orus’ catch chiefly
Kingfish, Tunnies, Barracoutas, Chorinemus, Lutianus and Epinephelus.
The large-meshed gill nets are employed for catching sharks and other
large fish such as Polynemus; and the small-meshed ones for Cho-
vinemus, Arius, Triacanthus, Platycephalus, Belone, Mullets, small
Sparids, Sardinella and small Flat-fish. Hand trawls or open water
seines catch small fish such as Sillago, Sardinella, Sciaenids,
small Scads, small Barracouta, Mene and Prawns. The pearl oyster
beds also fall within this ecological region. The fishermen are mere
wage earners in this region and the industry is operated by the middle-
men who own the gear.
There appears to be some difference of opinion among the experts
regarding the present position of the inshore fishery, While Dr. John
believes that the production from this region can easily be doubled
to meet the fish shortage, Dr. Kesteven finds reasons to believe that ‘the
induStry is virtually saturated and may in some instances be in, or approa-
ching, a depletionary condition’. He therefore recommends the diversion
of inshore fishermen to brackish and offshore sections. If Dr.
Kesteven’s surmise is correct, very great care has to be taken in
introducing the various effective modern gears recommended. It will
be advisable to make a thorough biological and statistical study of
the fish stocks before either intensifying the exploitation of the
1 Dr. John has further commented on this point as follows: ‘One of the advan-
tages of the geographical position of Ceylon is the fact that most of the migratory
shoals of fishes, which move shorewards from the Indian Ocean, first touch the
continental shelf of Ceylon and subsequently pass on northwards to the east or west
coast of India. The Tunnies, Mackerel, Butter fish, Anchovy and Ribbon fish are
some of the outstanding instances. In the case of such migratory fishes it will
be somewhat hasty to conclude that with the simple methods of fishing practised
in this country, the industry has reached a saturation point, or that inshore fisheries
have begun to show signs of depletion. The inadmissibility of this observation
can be proved by the fact that the neighbouring country of Travancore, which has
only a coast line of 172 miles, exports annually about 300,000 cwt. of dry fish after
meeting her domestic requirements. This is all the more significant when it is
remembered that some of the shoal fishes reach the coast of Travancore only some
weeks after they first appear on the Ceylon coast. If signs of depletion are notice-
able in Ceylon, naturally its consequences will be felt in Travancore also. But
this does not seem to be the case.’
PROBLEMS OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN. CEYLON 813
inshore fisheries or taking any steps to decrease the fishing effort in
these waters.
The handling and distribution of fish is in a very unsatisfactory
condition and calls for great improvement. Due to the ill-organised
state of the industry, the price of fish is too high and the fish
available in the markets is not quite wholesome. As Dr. John puts
it: ‘if the fishing industry is to be improved and the markets are
to be supplied with fresh and wholesome fish it is very essential that
the system of packing, preservation and transport should be com-
pletely reorganised on modern lines’. :
The continental shelf of Ceylon is a very narrow strip running
parallel to the coast, the width of it being only about 6 to 18 miles in the
southern half of the island. The northern half, however, is wider and
the widest region is between Mannar and Jaffna. The scope for exten-
sive offshore fishing is naturally limited to the northern part of
Ceylon and the Wadge and Pedro banks. Even these banks are not
more than 30-45 miles wide. Further, even though there are traw-
lable areas, the greater part is reported to be rough and uneven,
which make trawling difficult. The industry in this section at present
consists of trolling operations for sail fish, tuna, spear fish and mackerel ;
and hand-lining for reef fishes. There is also some jigging for tuna
and some use.of special ‘grab all’ gear for tuna and other midwater
fishes. In this section of the industry, ownership is somewhat com-
plicated ; the fishermen always own the gear but frequently do not own
the boats. Besides the local crafts, there are two steam trawlers working.
from Colombo, viz., an Italian trawler owned by a Colombo business-
man and the Ceylon Government trawler ‘Raglan Castle’. There
are no detailed records available regarding the production of fish
from this region. According to the Administration Report of the
Department of Fisheries for 1940-47, 6,392 cwt. and 4,175 cwt. of
fish were landed by ‘Raglan Castle’ in 1945-46 and 1946-47 respec-
tively. Unfortunately the landings of the Italian trawler have not
been studied by any of the experts during the surveys. Dr. Hickling
computes the rate of fishing of the Government trawler to be about
a ton of marketable fish per haul, or five tons per day, or 387 cwt.
per 100 hours of fishing. A new oil-fired trawler ‘Braconglen’
bought by the Department recently has commenced fishing from July
1951. She did 12 trips during the year and spent 91 days at sea and
landed 4,7784 cwt. of fish, thus giving an average catch of 389 cwt.
per trip. There are, however, no detailed records of the nature of
the bottom or the extent of the fishing grounds of this region.
PROBLEMS OF FISHERY DEVELOPMENT AND THEIR SOLUTION
An analysis of the data contained in the reports, indicates that
the outstanding problems of fishery development in Ceylon are the
following :—
1. How can an immediate improvement be effected in the price
level and availability of fish in Ceylon?
2. How can freshwater fish be made. popular among the urban
populations?
3. Can brackish water fish farming be developed in the country?
4
814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 51
4. Can freshwater fish culture be developed on a large scale?
3. Is diversion of the inshore fishermen to inland and offshore
fisheries advisable?
6. Will it be advisable to start large-scale deep-sea fishing in
Ceylon at present?
7. Is mechanisation of fishing desirable at this stage? :
8. What type of Governmental aid should be given to the opera-
tives to improve the industry?
9. What is the nature of research that should be undertaken by
the Fisheries Department immediately ?
The solutions to these problems that suggest themselves as prac-
ticable under the conditions described in the reports are discussed
briefly below.
I. Dr. Peterson has found that the Colombo fish market dominates.
the fish trade and prices of fish, and a balance wheel put on the
market here will adjust the fluctuations all over the island. This
control may have to be exercised in two ways. One is by increasing
the supplies of fish to Colombo markets and by the introduction of pro-
per preservation (freezing, icing and curing), transport and hygienic
handling of fish so that the product will reach the consumer in a
wholesome condition. The other is by fixing the ceiling price of fish
and fish products for sale and organising a machinery to exercise
that control.
The total annual consumption of fish in Ceylon is estimated by
Dr. John to be approximately 64,600 tons including local production
and imports and if her requirements, estimated at a per capita con-
sumption of 35 lb. of fish per head for its population of about
7,000,000 people, should be met without depending on imports from
foreign countries, her production will have to be increased approxi-
mately by 71,000 tons. The major problem is, which source can
effectively meet this requirement. The inshore fishery is reported to
show signs of depletion and only restricted quantities can be expected
from the offshore fishing grounds. So an appreciable increase in
fish supplies may not be possible from these regions immediately.
The solution therefore appears to be the development of the inland
fishery resources. |
2. Freshwater fish is believed to have a muddy flavour and _ is
therefore not favoured by at least the urban population. Such pre-.
judices have existed in almost every country in respect of certain
articles of diet, but in times of emergency it has been possible to overcome
these to a considerable extent by propaganda. As Dr. A. W.C. T. Herre
has commented on this point, ‘in no country are there enough first
class fish to feed all the people’. It is therefore very important that
the less favoured types of fishes also should be properly utilized to.
meet the fish shortage. The U.S. Fish and Wild Life Service is
reported to have popularised the use of several types of fishes by
evolving special recipes for cooking them and demonstrating these
improved methods of cooking to the public. The Chinese practice
of hospitalising fish before sale may help in removing any objection—
able flavour from fish flesh. Another possible means of approach is
the brine-curing of freshwater fish, which may render it acceptable
to the consumers. The Madras Fisheries Department has popularized.
PROBLEMS OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN CEYLON 815.
the Mettur Reservoir fish in this way and have thereby been able
to develop the fishery of the reservoir considerably. The lines fol-
lowed by the Coffee Houses, the Wheat Houses and more recently
the Non-cereal Cafetarias in India to popularise unfamiliar food pro-
ducts, may be worthy of emulation in Ceylon.
3. Dr. Hickling and Dr. Kesteven have in their reports recom-
mended the opening of brackish water fish farms in Ceylon. Mr.
Schuster, who has made a special study of the inland fishery con-
ditions, is of the opinion that developmental work in these waters
should wait till a limnological survey of the backwaters is made to
obtain the necessary basic data. According to him, fertile mud as
required for pond construction. is scarce and the necessary minimum
tidal range of five feet is not to be found in any part of Ceylon.
These facts preclude a large-scale construction of ponds. However,
the economics of pond construction in these areas under the con-
ditions prevailing in the Island will have to be more intensively |
investigated. As his report indicates, there exist several fertile tracts.
where construction of ponds does not entail much expenditure and
which can immediately be converted into farms. Suitable large-
scale experiments in the cultivation of mullets, prawns and milk fish
should be initiated along with an intensive biological investigation
of typical brackish water lagoons. On the basis of the results obtain-
ed from this work, the programme of farming in these areas has to
‘be formulated. i
Mr. Schuster advocates a policy of stocking estuarine waters with
plankton feeding fishes. Tvichogaster pectoralis may be a suitable
species for a low salinity. An appropriate plankton feeder for pro-
pagation in waters of higher salinities has yet to be found. He also
recommends the stocking of the brackish waters with Chanos fry reared
in special nurseries. Though it is rather difficult to forecast from
the experiments already undertaken by the Fisheries Department
whether these operations will be economically worthwhile, proper
provision of connection of these waters with the sea, probably will
equally serve the purpose at a lower cost.
4. It has already been seen that the development of inland fisheries
will go a long way to solve the fish shortage. All available data
tend to show that next to brackish water fish farming, freshwater
pond culture ranks as a very promising source of fish supplies. A
large number of ponds and reservoirs could be found where religious
or. other prejudices will not hamper fish culture operations. To
begin with, the culture of Gourami can be started in the plains and
the European Carp in the upland waters. When propaganda has
succeeded in making freshwater fishes popular or at least acceptable,
the cultivation of other quick growing varieties can be considered.
In Singapore, Chinese fish culturists import fry from China and there
seems no reason why Ceylon cannot get its supply of suitable species
from India or China or from both. The Administration report of the
Department for 1940-50 shows that a start has already been made
in this direction.
5. There does not seem to be sufficient evidence to say conclusively
that the inshore fisheries are on the verge of depletion. Considering
the great efforts the Government will have to make to divert the
fishermen to inland areas, it may be premature to plan this till detailed
816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
investigations are made to assess the position of the fish stocks in
the region. However, if signs of depletion are really found, it will
be essential to decrease the fishing effort, and for that purpose divert
some of the fishermen to inland and offshore waters. In view of
the limitations of the type of deep-sea fishing operations that can
be undertaken by the local fishermen, the brackish water areas seem
to be the proper region to absorb them. More intensive lagoon
fishing, where feasible, and fish farming will engage them and offer
them attractive returns.
6. As already indicated, there is not much reliable data on the
extent and nature of the offshore fishing grounds and very little is
known of the fish stocks. In Dr. John’s opinion Ceylon’s offshore
fishing grounds will not be able to feed more than three trawlers.
It is doubtful whether a regular deep-sea fishing industry could be
built up on the limited information available regarding the fishing
grounds and the fish stocks. So the Ceylon Government should try
to work at present a couple of medium-sized vessels, with the co-
operation of India, if possible, to gather sufficient information in
order to assess the possibility of undertaking commercial deep-sea
fishing in these waters.
Comparatively better fishing returns of the Japanese trawler work-
ing along the Bombay coast suggests that Japanese methods of
fishing may prove more fruitful for Ceylon waters also. The advis-
ability of using Japanese craft and gear needs careful consideration.
7. The mechanisation of fishing craft and tackle mainly aims
at increased production. This has been recommended by experts to
improve fishing in the inshore waters. But if Dr. Kesteven’s
observation that the stocks in this region are on the verge of depletion
is correct, the question of increased production from this region will
not arise. Moreover, some of the crafts like the Outrigger Canoe
and Catamaran do not in the opinion of experts, need any further
improvement and are well suited for the conditions under which they
have to operate. It will, however, be desirable to popularise the
‘moored vessel fishing’ so that the fishermen’s catches can be preserved
properly and brought to the markets in good condition. Very en-
couraging results have already been obtained by the Fisheries Depart-
ment in this direction by employing the seiner ‘Halpha’, the M.F.V.
‘Seer’ and the Patrol launch ‘Kunissa’ for towing boats to fishing grounds
and back!. Even though it may not be advisable to make any great
alterations in the craft and tackle to enhance their efficiency, efforts
to simplify their operation can be made even at this stage.
8. The fishery operatives form the backbone of the industry and
their social advancement is essential to the development of the in-
dustry. As Dr. John points out, administrators have always been
thinking in terms of the fishermen only and the others in the industry
have been left out from Governmental patronage. For a long time
to come, the operatives, other than the fishermen, will also have to
remain at their jobs and so they have also to be given adequate
Governmental assistance. As this section of the operatives are gene-
* Administration Report of the Acting Director of Fisheries for the years 1940
to 1950. Part II 1948 to 1950 and for 1951. Government. Publications Bureau,
Ceylon, 1962.
PROBLEMS OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN CEYLON 817
rally more educated, it might be possible to form co-operatives to
conduct their business in a proper manner, and through such institu-
tions it will be easier for the Government to exercise some control
over the fishing industry. The possibilities of development on these
lines have been well demonstrated by the working of the Bungalow
Delivery Scheme and sale of fish in Departmental Stalls by the Fish
Distribution Union in 10946. |
Though fishermen’s co-operatives will be ideal organisations through
which all socio-economic work among the fishermen could be under-
taken, experience in India shows that in the present social conditions
of the fishermen, co-operative movement alone is not likely to achieve
the desired results. It appears that individuals will have to reach
a certain stage of social development before they can take kindly
to co-operative enterprises. With the ultimate aim of forming co-
operative organisations, deserving individuals should be helped; and
they would serve as examples to their fellow men. Dr. Blevgad has
pronounced himself to be in favour of such a policy. It will be neces-
sary to impart education with a definite fishery bias to the fisher-
children, and the fisher boys should be taught improved methods of
fishing and handling of fish.
9. Some amount of work on the fishes that are found in Ceylon
waters has been done in adjacent countries and much work is now
in progress. Ceylon can benefit by this knowledge without spending
any money or effort for the purpose. The important research pro-
grammes to be undertaken by the fishery department in Ceylon should
be ecological surveys to confirm the biology of the fishes in Ceylon
waters, population studies to determine the extent and nature of the
fish stocks, the effect of fishing on these stocks, and experiments in
fish culture. Mr. Schuster recommends a biological survey of a
typical brackish water area such as the Negumbo Lake to estimate
the productivity of the lagoons. As regards the offshore fisheries
Mr. Munro recommends investigations of the seasonal distribution,
abundance and movements of the Scombroids, Clupeoids and Carangids
and the interpretations of the fundamental biology of the key species.
Exploratory work in offshore waters has already been referred to.
These are the items of research the department should take up im-
mediately with the help of its own staff. Further studies on the
biology of Ceylon fishes can better be done by a team of research
associates or students who could be given facilities to work under
the Director and the Senior Officers of the department for research
degrees of the Ceylon University. A large number of local students
will thus get the necessary training to undertake fishery work in the
country without the Government spending much money for the pur-
pose. At the same time a good lot of basic information on the biology
of the local fishes would have been collected.
To sum up, the immediate means of meeting the fish shortage in
Ceylon appears to be the development of brackish water and fresh-
water resources by more intensive exploitation and starting of fish
farming; and the exercise of control over the preservation and
marketing of fish and fish products. Adequate Governmental help
is necessary for the advancement of the economic condition of the
fishery operatives. The formulation of any definite plan for the im-
provement of the inshore fisheries may have to wait till the necessary
318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
information has been collected regarding the condition and nature of
the fish stocks. Before starting offshore or deep-sea fishing operations
on a commercial scale, preliminary exploratory work will have to be
done with a view to collect sufficient data regarding the fishing grounds
and the fish stocks. Blind following of the western methods of
fishing such as trawling are not likely to benefit the nation much,
except that it will show us again, as it has done in the past, what
should be avoided. Dr. R. Van Cleve, Director of the School of
Fisheries, University of Washington, has rightly pointed out in this
connection, that in the development of the fisheries in any country
the principle to be followed should be that of adopting new develop-
ments to the level at which they can be absorbed into the economy
of the country concerned, permitting such developments to proceed
in a manner that will result in the growth of ~the native fisheries
rather than the development of a foreign fishery at the expense of
the natives.
CURTIS’S BOTANICAL MAGAZINE: ITS ORIGIN,
HISTORY AND MISSION
BY
M. B. Ralzapa, F.N.1.
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun
The Botanical Magazine was founded in 1787 by William Curtis
and has been published continuously since then. It is, indeed, the
oldest current scientific periodical of its kind in the world with coloured
illustrations,. and in the beauty of production and the high standard
of its contributions it has no rival and can claim a unique place.
William Curtis, the founder, whose name is still linked with the
title of The Botanical Magazine, was an interesting personality. An
account of his life and works by J. E. Lousley was published in the
Journal Roy. Hort. Soc., 71: 98-100, 124-129 (1946) in connection with
the bicentenary of his birth.
He was the eldest son of John Curtis, a tanner of Alton in
Hampshire and was born on January 11th, 1746. Young William was
destined for the medical profession, and he was in due time appren- _
ticed to his grandfather, a surgeon-apothecary, whose house adjoined
the Crown Inn at Alton. It so happened that there was an ostler
at ‘The Crown’ named Thomas Legg, who had a good working
knowledge of wild plants, and to him Curtis was indebted for en-
ccouragement in the study of botany.
At the age of twenty, William Curtis left his native town for
London, to practise his profession on which he depended for his
maintenance. He had not set up long as a practitioner when he took
a partner, named William Wavell, so that he might have more
leisure for the pursuit of the studies of insects and plants which he had
at heart. This step, serious as it was for a man of his means,
was soon followed about the end of 1770 by a drastic decision—that
of selling out of the partnership altogether. He was now free to
follow his inclination and threw himself with redoubled enthusiasm
into his study of Natural History, reading, collecting, and seeking
stimulating intercourse with similarly minded men. He assiduously
explored the flora of London and its neighbourhood, but was not
‘satisfied with what he saw in lane and field. He wanted to have
the plants he found there under his eyes, besides many more from
other parts of the country, and no doubt also from the gardens.
Curtis then took a piece of ground near Grange Road, Bermondsey,
for the purpose of growing British plants and so he became not only
a naturalist, but also a gardener. His first publication was ento-
mological, but his competence as a botanist was soon recognised.
On December 15th, 1773, when he was hardly twenty-seven, he was
elected to the honourable office of ‘Demonstrator of Plants and Prae-
fectus Horti’ of the Society of Apothecaries at Chelsea. His duties
were chiefly connected with that little gem of a botanic garden on
820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY INAGUTAE ETS iPS O|GNE My ean V0 Sao
the other side of the Thames, now known as Chelsea Physic Garden,
which has played such a great part in the history of British botany.
The pay was small, but the man who occupied such an important
post was well situated to gain a wide reputation as a botanist, and
by the time he resigned on August 27th, 1777, this object was substan-
tially achieved and the publication of the Flora Londinensis had
commenced. On January 1st, 1779, Curtis started a new venture with
the official opening of the London Botanic Garden in Lambeth Marsh
and gave up his experimental plot in Bermondsey. Here in his own
Botanic Garden he lectured on botany and horticulture. He was
greatly helped in the development of the garden at Lambeth Marsh
by contributions from the Royal Gardens at Kew, from the Earl of
Bute’s garden at Luton, from Dr. Fothergill at Upton, Dr. Pitcairn
at Islington, the Earl of Plymouth, Sir Joseph Banks, and many
others, and from a number of nurserymen, among which may be men-
tioned Loddiges. Admission to these gardens, including, the lectures,
was by subscription. For one guinea a year subscribers had the right
to use the garden and the library and to introduce a friend. For double
the subscription they could claim surplus seeds and plants. He issued
catalogues of plants grown in the garden for the benefit of his sub-
scribers, and the entire catalogue is said to have run to about 6,000
species.
It was here that the conditions were prepared from which the
idea of the Botanical Magazine arose and which at the same time
decided the form it assumed later.
The first part of this new periodical was published on February
rst, 1787. It contained three plates, representing Iris persica, Rudbeckia
purpurea and the winter Aconite (Eranthis hiemalis) then known as
Helloborus hiemalis. After that, monthly parts of three plates were
issued with great regularity upto Curtis’s death, twelve parts making
a volume. The parts were sold at 1s. each. The monthly sale was
3,000 copies from the start, and we are told that this number was
maintained during Curtis’s life-time. The new periodical was such an
outstanding success that its founder was able to finish his days free
from financial worry and when Curtis died of heart trouble on July
7th, 1799, he left his wife and daughter reasonably well provided for.
During his last illness Curtis had wisely provided for a successor
by entrusting his friend Dr. John Sims, with the general management
and editorship of the Botanical Magazine, the property of the latter
remaining in his family; and after a short interval, during which
Curtis’s brother Thomas looked after the Magazine, Sims took over
the duties of editor and as such his name appears on the title page
of Volume 15 (1801). There was at first no change in the style of
the Botanical Magazine, but the number of plates was increased to
four in each part, and the price was raised to 1s. 6d. a part. Later
on the number of plates was doubled, so that eight plates appeared
in each part, the price apparently being for a time 3s., but eventually
38. 6d. The number of plates in the volume was not always strictly
adhered to: it sank as low as thirty-seven in Volume 23 and rose
as high as fifty-four in Volume 22, the average being slightly above
forty-five. The demand for more plates was apparently not satisfied
with this increase, as is evident from the fact that the Magazine
appeared now in half-yearly volumes for the next thirteen years—that
CURTIS’S BOTANICAL MAGAZINE: ITS ORIGIN, ETC. 821
is from 1803 to _1815—offering the public anything between eighty-
one and hundred plates every twelve months, (I say twelve months,
because the annual issues did not start with the calendar year), It
thus happened that the Botanical Magazine, after a run of twenty-
nine years (1787-1885), arrived at Volume 42, whilst the number of
plates published, which at the close of Volume 14—the last prepared
by William Curtis—had been 504, was now, at the end of 1815, not
less than 1,770. The sale of the Botanical Magazine continued to
be satisfactory it seems; but difficulties arose out of the resignation of
the very able artist, Sydenham Edwards, who had so far drawn almost
all the plates, and the appearance of rival publications foremost among
them the Botanical Register which Edwards himself had started in
—78r5. Still the Magazine held its own, although no doubt with
diminishing lustre and sale. The year 1815 marked a turning point,
in so far as after that year the Magazine appeared in single annual
volumes, corresponding in the number of plates for a long time to
the half-yearly volumes of the preceding years and sold at the same
price. They were issued as a “New Series’ with double numbers—
the number of the New Series and the number of the whole work.
Internally and materially there was no essential change except such
aS was conditioned by the temporary collaboration of Dr. Sims’s
‘more learned friends,’ particularly John Bellenden-Gawler, after-
wards known as John Bellenden-Ker, and Dean Herbert, and by the
increased influx of new plants into the gardens, public and private,
of the country.
When Dr. Sims, owing to advanced age, was obliged to resign
the editorship in 1826 the situation became critical. At this moment
the editorship was taken over by William Jackson Hooker, then
Professor of Botany at Glasgow and later (as Sir William Hooker),
Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. He must have been a
man of great energy and character, and under him the Botanical:
Magazine entered a new era. The third series ran from Vol. 54 to
Vol. 71 in 1845, when the firm of Reeve Brothers (later Lovell Reeve
& Co.) took over the proprietorship of the Magazine. Hooker, how-
ever, remained as editor, and the Magazine became closely associated
with Kew. This association has lasted to the present day, always
intimate, but never official. This association was emphasised by the
new wording on the title page which has remained essentially the
same up to the present day and in the adoption on the title page of
vignette of the Palm House at Kew which still appears.
The size of the monthly parts and of the annual volumes, which in
the preceding two series contained on the average, seven and eighty-
four plates respectively, was now slightly reduced, namely to five
or six to the part and to sixty to seventy-two to the volume, the
price remaining 3s. 6d. a part.
Sir William Hooker died in 1865 and was. followed as editor by
his son, Joseph Dalton Hooker (afterwards Sir Joseph Hooker), who
also became Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, at Kew. The
period of editorship of the two Hookers was a time of great activity
in the collection and introduction of plants to England. In 1805 the
Horticultural Society of London had been founded and collectors were
being sent to various parts of the world, among them Don to West
Africa, Douglas to North America, and Fortune to China. Joseph.
822 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Hooker’s own journeys to the Himalayas also belong to this period,
and he himself introduced many of the Himalayan Rhododendron
species and other plants also figured in the Magazine. It is impossible
here to give any kind of a list of the more notable plates. Each
was notable for some reason or other. The first representation of
the Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera speciosum) appeared in 1806 (Plate 903)
and a larger and finer couple of plates appeared in 1842 (Plates 3916-
17): Victoria regia was figured in 1847 (Plate 4275), a magnificent
triple plate. Sir William Hooker wrote of this in probably the
longest text of any in the whole history of the Magazine. ‘It has
always been our endeavour to commence a New Year in this Magazine
with some eminently rare or beautiful plant; but never had we the
good fortune on any occasion to devote a number to a:production of
such pre-eminent beauty, rarity, and we may add celebrity, as that
now presented to our subscribers; worthy as we have no doubt they
will agree with us in thinking, to occupy the entire number’. Magnolia
campbelli appeared in 1885 (Plate 6793) a very beautiful double plate,
and Sir Joseph Hooker was able to write an eulogy of it from first-
hand knowledge of the trees in their native habitat.
Sir Joseph Hooker retired from the editorship in 1904 when it
was taken over by Dr. W. Botting Hemsley, Keeper of the Herbarium
at Kew. Dr. Hemsley has written a most interesting account of
the Botanical Magazine and Botanical Literature in England up to
that time, and it was reprinted as an introduction to the Index to
the Magazine published in 1906. Since Dr. Hemsley, the editors
have been Sir W. T. Thistleton Dyer, Sir David Prain; Dr. O.
Stapf, Sir Arthur Hill and A, D. Cotton. The present editor is Dr.
W. B. Turrill, Keeper of the Herbarium at Kew.
From the very beginning the Botanical Magazine has been a pic-
torial publication. On the original title page it was announced as a
‘Display of the Flower Garden, of ornamental foreign plants culti-
vated in the open ground, the green house, and the stove .. . accurately
represented in their natural colours’.
During the period of Curtis’s editorship and during much of that
of Sims, the plates were drawn by Sydenham Edwards, with the
exception of sixty-seven drawn by James Sowerby and eight by
Sansom. Sydenham Edwards was the son of a Welsh school master.
Curtis saw some samples of his work, called him to London when quite
a young lad and trained him in botanical drawing and painting along
his own lines. It was a happy association and Edwards stayed with
the Magazine till 1815. Many of his original drawings are now in
the Kew collections.
With Edwards’s resignation there began a time of artistic deteriora-
tion. First various artists were employed. Then from 1819 onwards
a certain J. Curtis, who was, however, not a member of William
Curtis’s family, became responsible for the preparation of the draw-
ings for the next seven years, whilst an engraver named Weddeli
looked after their reproduction with indifferent success up to 1824,
when he was succeeded by Swan.
In 1827 William Hooker took over the editorship. During the
early years of his editorship, William ‘Hooker executed the
majority of the plates himself as well as acting as editor and writing
CURTIS’S BOTANICAL MAGAZINE: ITS ORIGIN, ETC. 823
the texts. However, he was lucky enough to find a very accomplished
apprentice artist in W. H. Fitch, who was the son of a book- -keeper
in a firm of Glasgow flax nrorehante and had learnt his drawing in
the form of patterns for calico, muslins, etc. Fitch’s first drawings
appeared in the Botanical Magazine, 1834 and from 1845 he was able
to combine the positions of artist and lithographer, no mean achieve-
ment. The plates undoubtedly benefited from this and his bold
colouring and delicate line has never been surpassed. Fitch worked
for the Magazine till 1878, and executed no fewer than 2,800 plates.
When Fitch left, ieeenn Hooker, who was then responsible for the
Magazine, found himself in a difficult situation. It meant a question
of trying here and there and eventually training a new artist. Ulti-
mately Hooker found a suitable candidate in Miss Matilda Smith
whom he himself trained and instructed and _ finally chose as
illustrator of the Botanical Magazine. Miss Smith was the sole artist
from 1887 to 1920 and contributed no fewer than 2,300 plates. In
the recent period we have the work of Miss Lilian Snelling who has
painted some of the most graceful and beautiful plant drawings ever
made. Now Miss Stella Ross-Craig and Miss Ann Webster are execut-
ing the majority of the plates. Their skill equals in both beauty and
accuracy the best work of their predecessors. &
The earlier plates were copper engravings coloured by hand. Later,
lithography was used, the plates being printed first from the stone
on which the artist had drawn direct; later, zinc blocks were used.
The black and white outlines thus produced were coloured by hand
to match a pattern coloured by the artist. Hand-colouring ceased to be
practical in 1947 and a new series was started with the best mechanical
form of reproduction that could be obtained. So far approximately
10,000 plates have been printed.
At present each part of the Magazine contains one double plate
and ten single plates and the volume of four parts will be published
over a two-year period. The text will be written by an expert on
the genus, and will include a full description of each plant, details
of its discovery, native habitat, natural distribution and suggestions
for its cultivation. Chromosome numbers will be included where
possible. Since the present trend of horticulture is towards the culti-
vation of hardy plants, illustrations of these will form the bulk of
the plates, but the old tradition of including orchids and green-house
plants will still be observed. The newer species of Rhododendron
will continue to be described and figured. -
Curtis in 1787 defined its Aims as ‘a Magazine in which the most
ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-
house and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colour
: a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen and
gardeners as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants
they cultivate’. This aim is still maintained, although with more
emphasis on hardy plants.
From the very beginning there was no geographical limit set te
the inclusion of plants in the Botanical Magazine as long as they
were foreign. The earlier numbers dealt chiefly with European and
South African plants. In later volumes the introductions of Lobb
and Douglas from America were included. Over a thousand plates
824. JOURNAL,’ BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEDY> Wolk 51
alone have been devoted to the flora of North America. In the
present century much of the floral wealth of the Far East has been
introduced into English gardens on a larger scale than any previously
known by a band of famous plant collectors, including Wilson, Farrer,
Forrest and Kingdon-Ward. A great number of these beautiful plants
have been figured for the first time in the Botanical Magazine. The
latest introductions of Ludlow, Sherriff and George Taylor, as well as
Kingdon-Ward, have provided excellent subject and more will follow..
The illustrations of the Magazine may therefore truly be said to
represent a history of the plants introduced in England throughout
the last two centuries.
An interesting character of the Magazine lies in the Dedications.
These were inaugurated by Sir William Hooker in the first volume
of the Third Series in 1827, which he dedicated to Robert Barclay
of Bury Hill, Dorking, one of the original patrons of the Magazine.
Each succeeding volume has carried a dedication to an eminent Bota-
nist or Horticulturist together with a few lines on his work. In 1927,
these were collected together into a Centenary Volume by Mr. William
Cuthbertson and Mr. Ernest Nelmes, which gives a short biography
and a portrait of each subject.
Necessarily, the edition of the Magazine is limited in numbers,
and previous volumes of the Magazine, especially complete sets, are
highly treasured possessions, and now very valuable. Volume 165
began a new series, and in order to simplify reference, the plates of
this series were numbered from No. 1. The volumes of the new
series are available only in a limited quantity, but new subscribers
have an excellent opportunity to obtain now the previous parts published
since April 1948.
The Botanical Magazine plates are quoted in many scientific and
horticultural publications, including the new R.H.S. Dictionary of
Gardening recently published by the Oxford University Press. An index
of the Botanical Magazine is in preparation to facilitate reference,
and this will be of great benefit.
The Magazine is no less than an old and valued tradition, and
in the words of a former editor it ought to be a matter of pride
to support it, remembering that botanists and gardeners throughout
the world have relied for over 165 years on the inspiration and help
they have received from the Botanical Magazine.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the preparation of this account I have freely drawn on Dr.
Stapf’s stimulating account of the Botanical Magazine which appeared
in the R.H.S. Journal (Vol. 51, pp. 29-43, 1926) as well as the one
written by Patrick M. Synge in (Vol. 73, pp. 5-11, 1948) and by
J. Edward Lousley on William Curtis which was published in Journ.
Roy. Hort. Soc., (Vol. 71, pp. 98-100, 124-129, 1946). I have also
made use of Dr. Hemsley’s most interesting account of the Botanical
Magazine which was reprinted as an introduction to the Index to
the Magazine published in 1906.
NARRATIVE OF A TREK AND OF NATURAL HISTORY
OBSERVATIONS IN KASHMIR IN MAY-JUNE, 10942
BY
EK. P. WILTSHIRE, F.R.E.S.
(lVith two plates)
Visiting Bombay with my wife in the early summer of 1942 I
found myself with six weeks’ leave to spare. For various reasons
we decided to spend this time in Kashmir and I applied to the
Bombay Natural History Society, of which I was already a member,
for advice, this being my first visit to India.
I took with me the minimum necessary equipment for collecting
lepidoptera, that is to say I decided to omit setting boards and breed-
ing cages. The lepidoptera I might catch would be papered, a
method economical in luggage-space but. with certain disadvantages,
of which the gravest are the impossibility of comparing what is taken
at intervals of more than a few days and the probability of a long
delay before relaxing and setting. Although constant movement and
the lack of cages made breeding larvae on any scale impossible, in
one or two cases larvae were found and bred through to the imago
on trek, in order to ascertain their identity.
Before leaving Bombay I read through the article ‘Some notes
on butterflies and big game in Kashmir’ by Colonel W. M. Logan
Home (Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xt, No. 1, April 1938). I
noted down from this the names of the butterflies which that author
took and listed, together with the month and height of their occur-
rence; for I had no knowledge at all of Indian or Central Asian
lepidoptera. To help me with other orders of nature, [ also took
with me two books: ‘Birds of Kashmir’ by Samsar Chand Koul and
the finer, more costly, ‘Beautiful flowers of Kashmir’ by Blatter.
Mr. S. H. Prater kindly furnished me with introductions to two
naturalists then resident in Kashmir, viz., Sir Peter Clutterbuck,
Chief Conservator of Forests at Srinagar and Mr. Ludlow. Thus
provided, and also armed with my own paraffin-vapour pressure lamp,
net-frames, and some new _ killing-bottles, pill-boxes and _ papers,
provided by the kindness of Mr. McCann, my wife and I left Bombay
in an air-conditioned coupé on the Frontier Express on May ith,
and arrived at Rawalpindi after a most comfortable two-days’ trip,
which, incidentally inaugurated the second month of our honeymoon.
The trip from Rawalpindi to Srinagar was made in fine weather
on May 14th by road, and we did not stop to catch the numerous
black and green swallowtail butterflies by the road-side beyond
Murree. We saw no more of this kind once we had entered the Vale
of Kashmir. Being quite unacquainted with the tropical fauna
they were to me exotic creatures; and their absence from the Vale
seemed appropriate, for except for the rather numerous paddy fields
one might have thought oneself somewhere in Europe; and the butter-
flies which I eventually took there confirmed the Palaearctic rather
826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
than Indo-Malayan character of the landscape which thus struck me
at once.
During the next six days we were on a house-boat off Gagribal
Point. We found that heavy rains had made the lakes unusually high
for May; our house-boat was moored under some willows whose
bases were deep in water, and the only land close at hand appeared
to be a well-dug potato-patch. In these circumstances nothing much
was to be expected, and sure enough only a very few moths came to
light. In June or July however the same spot might prove more
productive, those being the months when the rush-feeding marsh-
moths begin to hatch in warm climates, and there were rich growths
ot Typha on the opposite bank.
The willows overhanging our boat were crawling with multitudes
of Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) caterpillars, which were constantly
falling off and running about all over our abode. I took a few
of the larger ones into captivity, where they proved themselves to be
nocturnal feeders, like most other Lymantriids. Our house-boat was
also frequently entered by a pair of Whitecheeked Bulbuls (Molpastes
leucogenys), one of which tried to battle with its reflection in our
big mirror. Another conspicuous bird in our neighbourhood was a
Great Reed-Warbler (Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens).
Of the two persons to whom I had introductions, Mr, Ludlow proved
to be absent, but I was able to consult Sir Peter Clutterbuck; in his
view butterflies were comparatively scarce in Kashmir on account of
over-grazing.
Tere of my first six days in Srinagar were spent recovering from
the effects of an improv ident strawberry-tea; and rain and necessary
visits prevented entomological activities on ‘three others. However,
on the afternoon of May 15th I found time to ascend the hill from
Gagribal Point, a prominence which our Moslem boatman called
Takht-i-Suleiman (familiar name to one coming from Persia, as |
did !), and whose alternative Hindu name I failed to master. There
were no cows, sheep or goats on this hill and it was ablaze with
flowers and alive with butterflies and other insects. Wild thyme and
Moorcroft’s Salvia were in abundant bloom, and in _ addition
plantations of Iris, fruit-trees, false acacia and other trees showed
that others in Srinagar, besides myself, appreciated a _ botanical
sanctuary. On mullein (Verbascum) I observed small caterpillars of
the Mullein Shark moth (Cucullia verbasci L.) (new then to India)
but did not take them; darger caterpillars of the same species were
also observed elsewhere in Kashmir a few weeks later.
I was unfortunately unable to revisit this spot before leaving for
Gulmarg, and on May 2oth we arrived at Gulmarg to enjoy the last
day of a ten-days’ spell of continuous cold and rain. On the third
day however the clouds vanished and twelve hours of flawless sun-
shine were enjoyed by all, man, animal and vegetable alike. A
walk in conifer woods on_ this day revealed many Whites (Pieris
brassicae and rapae), Small Tortoiseshells (Aglais Raschmirensis) and
Queen of Spain Fritillaries (Argynnis lathonia issaea) awaking to re-
newed life, and odd specimens were also noted of the Swallowtail
(Papilio machaon) and Comma (Polygonia c-album) ; but the butterflies
were still, on the whole, noticeably fewer than on the hill at Gagribal
Point, and this I attributed partly to the over-grazing mentioned by
\
IN AIRC AVES ILS LOU NG OBSERVAZLIONS IN KASHMIR 827
Le
Sir Peter and partly to the less advanced state of the season at this
greater height; another probable reason was the more monotonous
nature of the biotope, a thick conifer’forest, mostly fir (Picea smithiana
and Abies pindrow), but mixed to a small extent with blue pine (Pinus
excelsa), maple (Acer pictum), chestnut (Aesculus indica) and_bird-
cherry (Prunus cornutus); the undergrowth seemed to consist here
mostly of Viburnum foetens and Skimmia laureola, but here and
there a few barberry (Berberis lycium) and buckthorn (Rhamnus)
bushes were to be seen. The floor of the woods was in places gay
with Primula rosea, Primula denticulata, Caltha palustris var. alba
and Corydalis rutaefolia. At one spot on the circular walk, near
Tilwanmarg, we repeatedly came across a company of birds inciuding
two or three of the lovely Black-and-Yellow Grosbeak. Upon some
fir-trunks an occasional Geometrid moth was to be found, but I
noticed that a species of tree-creeper was also actively searching for
them. At night only a few moths ventured to the hotel lights, but
these included that fine Emperor Moth, Caligula lindia Moore.
On May 24th I climbed to Khelanmarg (10,000 ft.) chiefly in
order to see how far the season was advanced above the conifer
limit. Some flowers, indeed, gladdened the eye up there, including
Gentiana venusta, and a fine view of the Himalayas, culminating
in Nanga-Parbat, was obtained; but sunshine was lacking, and
nothing beyond a female Brimstone butterfly (Gonepteryx rhamni
nepalensis) was to be seen worth running after. The same evening the
rain began again, much to our disgust. Before descending I had
scrambled up to the lowest big birch trees, which are there at about
11,000 ft., but detected no insect activity at that height. These
trees were out in full leaf but the ground at their feet was barely
free from snow, and flowerless as yet, except for Trollius acaulis,
whose admirable yellow here and there brightened the bare earth
between the big boulders. The scrub willow at this height was not
yet in leaf, but the scrub-juniper relieved the landscape here and
there with its deep vivid green.
Two most unpleasant days ensued. Khelanmarg received quite
a sprinkling of snow right down to the fir line. On the third night
the sky cleared and I took my lamp and sheet into the woods at
Gulmarg, but they attracted nothing probably owing to the cold and
perhaps also the bright moonlight. A short walk with the lamp
through. the woods also revealed nothing on the wing.
On May 28th and 209th we visited the Ferozepur Gorge above
Tangmarg (about 7,000 ft.).by day and, at the forest’s lower limit,
we found nature more genial and the flora more varied. On the
steep slopes above the trout-stream’s bridge the characteristic shrub
was Indigofera gerardiana. Wild thyme was especially attracting bees
and also Painted Ladies (Vanessa cardui) and Small Tortoiseshells
(Aglais kaschmirensis). A Clouded Magpie moth (Abraxas virginalis
Butl.) was taken flying among firs near the bridge and on the slopes
the Treble Bar moth (Anaitis plagiata) was as common on the wing
as it had been on the hill at Srinagar, and no less difficult to catch. The
hazel-like bushes of Parrotia were in places quite denuded by thousands
of Lymantriid caterpillars (Euproctis signata Blanch.), very similar in
colouring and form to the English Gold Tail moth’s larva (E. chry-
sorrhoea), but living gregariously in unsightly tents; this caterpillar was
828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NARURAIG TUS s95\O CIE vaun Viola
also seen on sallow (Salix), willow (Salix), and hawthorn (Crataegus
crenulata) bushes.
In a sunny glade just above these slopes, a glade miraculously
inhabited by only two cows, and bright with a carpet of buttercups
(Ranunculus), wild strawberry flowers, wood forget-me-nots and brake-
ferns, a kind of Humming-bird moth (Macroglossum poecilum, small
variety) was caught visiting among other flowers the blue Thyme-
leaved Speedwell; Queen of Spain Fritillaries and Brimstone butter-
flles were flitting hither and thither, and a fresh hatch of Green-
veined Whites (Pieris napi ajaka) was observed in some numbers
both here and in the gorge below. ‘The two commoner kinds of
White already seen were noted again, but in poorer condition. Some
moths were also found sitting on damp shady rock surfaces but
the most exotic and striking creature, to me, was the first specimen
of Heliophorus bakeri Evans, with its gaudy underside and, in the
male, contrasting upperside.
We were told that no permits to fish trout here were being given,
the stream having been over-fished; but we were content to admire
nature’s other orders, and watched the Plumbeous Redstart (Rhya-
cornis fuliginosa) skimming from rock ‘to rock over the dashing
torrent, beneath a cliff where two huge vultures (presumably the
Himalayan Griffon) apparently nested; we also saw jungle crows mob-
bing a kestrel; and while watching a freshly hatched Cicada
struggle from his exuvium we were obliged to rescue him from the
onset of ants to whom his soft vulnerability at this moment was an
opportunity ; the buzz of other cicadas in the pines already filled the
air. In one spot, particularly lush and well-watered, we discovered
a colony of the Marsh Orchis (Orchis latifolia), growing quite a-
thousand feet lower than recorded by Blatter. We were informed that
the game warden took two small trout below the bridge that afternoon.
Next morning, our last at Gulmarg, I visited the forest for a
thousand feet above Gulmarg, but in spite of the beauty of the spring
flowers I found comparatively little insect life. The same Humming-
bird moth was here seen visiting Primula denticulata, which was also
favoured by Tortoiseshell and White butterflies and bumble-bees. The
weather seemed now to have cleared up for this was the third con-
secutive sunny day; but violent brief thunderstorms were still about
in Kashmir. Before descending from about ten thousand feet above
the sea, I spent a happy five-minutes watching the antics and
listening to the single but musical note of a solitary Whitecapped
Redstart (Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus) among rocks in a_ torrent-
bed. The two redstarts mentioned above became familiar sights to
us on our subsequent travels; there was no torrent at which we
did not see one or the other, leucocephalus haunting higher elevations
than fuliginosa.
Next day our real travels started and it seemed fairly fine. We
passed over the Ferozepur stream by the bridge above Tangmarg, and
climbing through pines and firs eventually reached Gogaldor where
we camped. These woods were variegated by a series of clearings
or ‘margs’, whose turf was closely cropped by cattle but none the
less, like some lawns I have known at this season, constellated with
dandelion-flowers (Taraxacum), to which congregated Small Tortoise-
shells, Painted Ladies, Clouded Yellows (Colias croceus) and Small
NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS IN KASHMIR 829
Whites in abundance. In the pine woods (Pinus excelsa) I caught
a Pine Carpet moth dancing in a small sunny glade and, near Gogaldor,
several specimens of the Large Tortoiseshell (Polygonia polychloros) ;
but a three-hour downpour which started at 6 p.m. shattered all hopes
of moths coming to light.
Next day we descended to the cultivated foot-hills, passing through
a zone of deodars (Cedrus) at about 7,000 ft. We looked for breed-
ing Parroquets here but saw none. Amidst the cultivation butterflies
were markedly fewer than in the forest and mostly of the commonest
kinds (A. kaschmirensis, V. cardui, Colias croceus) and the two
commoner Whites. Two, which had not been noticed higher up,
and were taken here were the Snout (Libythea _lepita)
and Bath White (Pontia daplidice). The poplars and willows here
shewed signs of infestation by some Cossid moth but I looked in
vain for traces of the larger Aegeriids or Clearwing moths whose
galleries may often also be found in the trunks and roots of Populus
and Salix, Old Puss Moth cocoons (Dicranura sp.) were observed
on the boles. That night at Drang (c. 7,500 ft.) the weather was
again stormy but the rain was more showery and permitted the use
of a lamp and sheet though not with much success, owing to the
cold which followed the showers.
On June 2nd we again spent the .morning trekking over the
cultivated foothills. I was astonished at the paucity of winged life
on the scrubby slopes of the Sukhnag Nullah which we crossed by
a bridge. At Hakal in the Rayar Forest (c. 7,500 ft.) several Pearl-
bordered Fritillaries (Boloria jerdoni) were taken in a wet glade.
We camped at Mujpather (7,500 ft.) beside a torrent at a point where
it forked, surrounded by the usual firs, pines and cows. The country
here was a picturesque mixture of forest and cultivation, the latter
principally. Indian Corn. Some of the country lanes resembled closely
those of England, and produced several specimens of the Clouded
Magpie Moth (Abraxas virginalis Butl.). No rain fell, and the
evening was warm but no more moths came to light than had come
at Drang, viz. one small Geometrid. A nearly full-grown Agrotid
caterpillar, resembling that of Diarsia festiva was seen at night on
a grass stem, but not taken. Cockchafers and Trichoptera were
fairly common at the light.
Next day, June 3rd, we trekked through Hajjan as far as Pachatar
Bridge over the Dudgangai Gorge and torrent and here I decided
to camp in spite of the clamours of the pony-men who would have
preferred Yus Maidan, a mile further on and 500 ft. higher up. This
wild, wooded and craggy gorge, where we now camped, had_ to
me one great virtue,—an absence of cows; it was visited only by
a few goats and sheep. The rough western slopes somewhat
resembled those of the Ferozepur Gorge, though less varied in flora
and without Parrotia bushes. It proved more productive of lepi-
doptera than the more gently inclined hills, covered with pines and
firs and with clearings like golf-greens, so characteristic of Kashmir.
The Fritillary (jerdon1) was seen again at Hajjan and Pachatar, and
a delightful littke Orange Footman moth (Asura discisigna postica
Moore) was taken flying in the sun on the scrubby slopes of the
gorge. The torrent itself was quite as large as the Ferozepur trout-
stream, and besides a pair of Plumbeous Redstarts (Rhyacornis fuli-
5
830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
ginosa), we also saw a pair of Himalayan Whistling Thrushes
(Myiophoneus temmincku) hopping amidst its spray and_ boulders.
The evening was again fine and warm, but again, for the first half-
hour after night-fall, nothing except cockchafers came to the sheet.
But I could now see that this was because the moths were avoiding the
sheet rather than because there were none on the wing. Taking
the lamp and net therefore I strolled along the track and soon
observed plenty of moths among the undergrowth of the forests and
the clearing; this undergrowth here consisted of Viburnum foetens
and a large umbellifer (Avalia cachemirica). Another show of light
at about 9.45 p.m. only drew a couple of moths to the sheet. It was
clear therefore that in Kashmir, at least at this season, light was
not attractive, and moths must be sought out. The commonest were
Diarsia stictica Pouj. and Stenorumia ablunata Guen.
Our horses had fed since noon on the rather dry grass of the
clearing below Pachatar bridge, and during the afternoon many
began to dribble, but they all continued to graze, though some were
blowing bubbles and salivating profusely. The pony-men attributed
this phenomenon to white clover, but all the other clearings we visited
had their share of white clover. We let them however take the
horses away to a more normal clearing, about a mile back, for the
night. Was the blessed absence of cows at Pachatar perhaps due
to this local peculiarity of the pasture?
Next day we passed over Yus Maidan on our way down to Nilnag
and rejoiced that we had not spent the night there. This long clear-
ing resembled an undeveloped Gulmarg. Only flags were needed to
turn it into a golf-course, thanks to the diligent cattle; lawn-mowers
would have been hardly necessary !
Rising over the ridge on the track to Nilnag we had a fine
panorama of the whole length of the Pir Panjal Range’s snow-peaks.
On the wooded slopes above Nilnag we found the Pearl-bordered
Fritillary (Boloria jerdomi) fairly numerous in glades, and close to
the lake itself (6,900 ft.) the Snout butterfly (Libythea lepita) re-
appeared.
Nilnag itself was the lowest of our camping grounds on the Pir
Panjal Range, the others being all above 7,500 ft. and above the
Parrotia limit. It was a mixture of forest (pine and fir) and cultiva-
tion (wheat and Indian corn); it certainly did not lack cattle. The
undergrowth was Parrotia jacquemontiana, Viburnum and Aralia.
Fruit-trees, willows, and hawthorn (Crataegus) accompanied the
cultivation. We spent two nights here, but the first was quite spoilt
by the rain which began about noon as we arrived and only really
ceased at noon the next day. A few minutes of hot sunshine after
all this rain sufficed to call forth numbers of the little Pearl-bordered
Fritillary butterfly (Boloria jerdoni) in their favourite glades.
The second evening was fine, but once again only by walking
with lamp and net along the forest-edge, or penetrating into it, could
one obtain moths; indeed they seemed rather to try and avoid the
light. The Viburnum bushes seemed to attract many species of moth,
which rose reluctantly as one approached and could be netted if one
was quick.
On June 6th we said good-bye to the Pir Panjal middle heights,
and spent the morning walking down to Nagam, where a conveyance
NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS IN KASHMIR 831
for Srinagar met us. Our path took us through corn-fields until
we dropped below 6,000 ft., and we entered the plain proper, with
its poplars, willows and majestic oriental planes. While on the
foot-hills amongst the corn, we saw many butterflies, especially, P.
brassicae, rapae, P. daplidice, V. cardui, and C. croceus; indeed, for
this stretch of the road and whenever one looked up, at least a dozen
white butterflies met one’s gaze. The Pale Clouded Yellow and the
Small Tortoiseshell were more occasional. The grassy bridle-path
was bordered with multitudes of Scotch Thistles, which attracted this
plebeian throng of butterflies; some of the thistles, I noticed, were
covered with pretty Swordgrass Moth caterpillars (Xylena vetusta).
Once amid the paddy-fields and villages of the plain a new sight
met our gaze: swarms of Gypsy Moth caterpillars, (Lymantria dispar),
now full-grown, infesting the willows. The trunks were often black
with huge dark larvae resting or seeking new quarters; one or two
had already pupated; around Baidpur and Nagam the _ species
appeared to have become a serious pest among the numerous large
willows, one in three of which were completely stripped of every
leaf, with the bark bitten off the tenderer branches. Taking a chry-
salis or two from the trunk of a willow, I discarded the caterpillars
which I had been carrying around with me, and, when possible, feed-
ing, ever since leaving the house-boat.
From Nagam we returned to Srinagar by bus. After consulting
Sir Peter Clutterbuck I decided that our next trek should be to
Gurais (Kishenganga Valley), a part of Kashmir where grazing was
less intense. and flowers more plentiful.
Discussing the deforestation of the plain of Kashmir, Sir Peter
informed me that until only two thousand years ago the level of the
lakes was much higher; in fact the whole Vale of Kashmir was one
vast lake until a break-through at Baramulla occurred, which exposed
a great deal of the present plain. Probably the new dry land was
invaded by forest, and not cleared till centuries later, as the popu-
lation increased.
Leaving Srinagar by boat on June roth, we reached Bandipur on
the morning of the rith, and Tragbal the same evening. On the
steep slopes below Tragbal there were plenty of butterflies and moths
to catch, including a Ringlet (Callerebia nirmala daksha Moore) at
8,ooo ft.; other Satyrids were also out now; I had seen none earlier
on the Pir Panjal Range. However, I missed many good things on
these rugged slopes, since I chose, for once, to ride most of the way
up (a climb from 5,000 to 9,000 ft.).
Above Tragbal there was noticeably less on the wing. Except for
a couple of swallow-tails, the ridge (10,000-11,685 ft.) only produced
the common ubiquitous sorts though the wild flowers were a joy to
see. We had to cross several extensive snow-banks before dropping
down into the forest again. At its top limit the Humming-bird moth
(Haemorrhagia rubra Hamps.) was taken coming to flowers of Bergema
stracheyi. As we came down into the tree-zone, we found that, on
the precipitous sides of deep gorges, the birch-trees were more
intermingled with the conifers and reached lower limits than I had
previously noticed; in fact at Taobat they came down to 7,400 ft.
on the banks of the Kishenganga. Thunder and rain marred the
evening of June 12th. Close to our camping place we saw a whole
832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
treeless hillside overgrown with the showy and fragrant Evremurus
himalayicus. |
Next day we dropped down, past Koragbal, to Kanzalwan (7,645
ft.), overlooking the wide. and turbid Kishenganga with its dark
sands. A mew feature.in the landscape was now provided by Artemisia
maritima, whose silvery leaves made whole mountain-sides pale. At
noon rain again set in, and the thunder rolled, so that we were glad
not to have a longer march that day. It rained all night. Heavy
showers fell on the following day, too, but we were able to ascertain
that the treeless, wormwood-covered, southward-facing slopes were
a good place, especially for small moths of a sort not found in the
forest that densely clothed the valley’s northward-facing slopes. This
forest, predominantly fir and pine, sheltered a greater variety of deci-
duous shrubs and small trees than I had noticed on the Pir Panjal
Range.
We stayed three consecutive nights at Kanzalwan; it rained on
all of them, and only on June 15th was there any sunshine worthy
of the name. On that day we spent the morning on the treeless
slopes opposite the village or on the flowery shelf behind Upper
Kanzalwan. The treeless slopes provided a very pleasant walk and
also produced some good Blues, Polyommatus stoliczana being
common. The exposed convexities here were mostly overgrown with
Artemisia maritima and vulgaris (though these were not yet in flower)
but the more sheltered and moister concavities were more shrubby,
and not quite treeless; one found there walnut, and various bushes
including rose, honeysuckle and buckthorn and also brake-ferns,
Geranium rectum, Dictamnus albus and forget-me-not.
A curious feature of the Kishenganga Valley at Kanzalwan was
the high shelf some hundreds of feet above the river-level; this shelf
was highest above Kanzalwan, and what I call ‘Upper Kanzalwan’
was perched upon its edge here, separated by steep wooded slopes
from our camp and the lower village. One could trace this shelf,
continuing down the main river-valley on the same descending plane
towards Bagtor. I supposed it to represent the former floor of the
valley before the Kishenganga cut out its present gorge-like course.
The shelf had been cleared and, in places, crudely drained and slightly
terraced for agriculture; there was however far less intense cultivation
and grazing around Kanzalwan and Bagtor than at Gurais, several
miles higher up the river.
In the afternoon, then, we mounted onto this shelf at Upper
Kanzalwan and pursued a stream up to its source (c. 8,000 ft.)
which was at the foot of what seemed to have been an avalanche of
some years ago. It was also a perfect camping site. On either
side of the copious limpid stream were meadows of flowers whose
terrace formation indicated that formerly cultivation had been higher
and more extensive than now. The most attractive, to insects. of
these blooms was undoubtedly a purple Nepeta at which we took
some specimens of the Bee-hawkmoth, Haemorrhagia saundersii
Walk., the same Humming-bird Hawkmoth taken a few days earlier
at 10,000 ft. (H. rubra), Papilio machaon, and others. In these
meadows, for the first time on my trek, it could be said that Colias
erate was as numerous as C. croceus. Above the spring, amid
shambles of snapped-off pine trunks and huge prostrate birch-trunks,
Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE I
Kishenganga near Bagtor
er
Author
Inclined sheet of snow on right bank of Kishenganga, showing the bridge,
“too mobile for comfort” in the background
Journ. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLaTE II
BS es
2 oe a
Author
On the pass to Tragbal from Koragbal; old birches growing at the upper
tree-limit
NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS IN KASHMIR 833
whose descent from the slopes above it was not pleasant to imagine,
a- few young pines were reasserting themselves. Far above, the
course of the avalanche, descending from a 12,o00 ft. mountain,
was indicated by a wide swathe-like clearing in the conifer forest,
now green with densely growing young birch trees.
On June 16th we trekked down the left bank of the Kishenganga
in fine weather; between Bagtor and Taobat, especially, the scenery
was of striking grandeur, and in places the road, steep, narrow and
muddy, after three or four days’ intermittent rain, was quite difficult.
We also had to cross a wide inclined sheet of snow covering a gully
on the right bank of the river; the steep sloping snow tilted straight
down into the turbid river. But this place was on the right bank
which we reached by a bridge, too mobile for comfort, a few miles
upstream from Taobat. Odd Cryphia (or Bryophila) moths, one of
which proved new to science, were found sitting on rocks along this
sector of the trek. Some of the Himalayan members of this pretty
genus, whose larvae feed on rock algae and lichens, are larger and
more strikingly coloured than their European or Middle Eastern
counterparts, and this seemed appropriate in such wonderful scenery,
so rich in crags, mosses and lichens. In the forest before Taobat,
where we camped on the very banks of the big river, we saw Boloria
jerdom again. The glades of the forest here sheltered by ‘dizzy
precipices, were stifling in the afternoon sun, but close to the river
a cool breeze refreshed us. In the early morning it was uncom-
fortably cold. The usual conifer forest was here plentifully mixed
with tall walnuts (Juglans) and Acer pictum, and more occasional
elms, bird-cherry and another tree. Along the river banks were giant
poplars (Populus alba) here and there. The characteristic undershrub
was still Viburnum foetens. Among the flowers, Anemone tetrasepala
was abundant at Taobat. No more sea-wormwood however was to
be seen here on the treeless slopes, though we were only 250 ft. lower
than Kanzalwan but its almost equally aromatic congener, Artemisia
vulgaris, grew under steep cliffs, and from it a second specimen of
a handsome Emerald moth was flushed, the first having been taken
at Kanzalwan. Both sides of the valley were steep and_ thickly
wooded except where cleared to some extent just around
Taobat. The river flowed here almost due _ north. Our
cook’s boy insisted on calling the Kishenganga the ‘male Jhelum’,
and would have nothing to do with its name as given on the map. We
did not however quite know how much credit to give him, since
he invariably said ‘Good morning’ to us last thing at night. In-
cidentally a similar good-night greeting is in use among Arabs in
Iraq; it is a forward-looking expression of good wishes; so perhaps
the lad was translating a similar Kashmiri greeting into English
as well as he knew how.
Work on a new bridge was in progress just above our camp.
When completed it would obviate the difficult stretch on the right
bank of the Kishenganga above Taobat which we had just nego-
tiated after crossing the ‘mobile’ bridge.
That evening a drizzle began at sun-down and we feared that
for the fifth night running rain would spoil our moth-hunting; but
fortunately these fears were vain, and we had some success. A
few moths came to light but most were distinctly shy of it and had
834. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST; SOCIETY, Vol. 51
to be taken with the net. One of these included the unique type of
the new species Busseola hirsuta Boursin. But, not unexpectedly
in a forest, most of our catch consisted of Geometridae, of which Scopula
moore achrosta Prout was the commonest. We decided to spend
two nights at Taobat before returning upstream.
Next morning,--June 17th,--we walked down to Taobat and then
turned right up the wide torrent which there enters the Kishenganga
from the right. Not only was this walk the furthest point from
Srinagar to which we penetrated on our trek but it was, to me at
least, the climax. Coming from Persia, of which country the pretty
and puzzling butterflies of the genus Melitaea are the crowning glory,
I had kept a special look-out for them in Kashmir; arcesia was
the only species recorded from here, but that was only known from
the Himalayas and Central Asia and was a great prize! The only
clue I had to its habitat was Col. Home’s laconic record from (I think)
Sonamarg :—‘one only, 8000 ft., May.’ It was now mid-June and
my hopes of finding M. arcesia were very low, especially since I
fancied I was at too low an altitude for it. But to my surprise and
joy, as we followed the torrent up to a place where it divided, or rather
where two torrents met to form one, I netted a perfect male arcesia
as it flitted by on the narrow path. A little further on, another male
was spied by my wife settled on a buttercup under some giant poplars.
A few steps further on we discovered their breeding-place, and took
a small series of both sexes in absolutely fresh condition. The rich
colouring of the females, with their dark suffusion, was particularly
admirable, and the males, with their lighter, fiery red, were also
fairly variable, the variations consisting in the completeness of the
inner chevron; a minority had it reduced to a series of dots. Doubt-
less this was subspecies balbita which Home recorded from Sonamarg.
Since the habitat of arcesia has never, to my knowledge, been
described and differs strikingly from that of its congeners in the Middle
East, I here describe it in greater detail. Its breeding place was
a swampy meadow, hardly half an acre in size, protected from cattle
by a stout wooden fencing, and full of grass and flowers growing
shin-high (a rare sight in Kashmir!). The little field was full
of Marsh Orchis (Orchis latifolia), Geranium rectum, buttercups,
plantain, and, in places, yellow violets (Viola biflora). 1 did not
ascertain the foodplant as an approaching thunderstorm drove us
from the spot, and the hatch seemed so fresh that I doubt whether
egg-laying had begun yet. Besides buttercup, the males visited the
beautiful Geranium rectum so common in Kashmir. I could not help
wondering what would happen to this colony if the owner should
choose to take down his fence and permit herds of cattle to munch
and trample all over his half-acre!
On our way back, we were suddenly startled by hows and screams
from the opposite side of the torrent which was precipitous and
wooded. The cries were taken up and echoed by men and women
working in the fields we were passing, and all started running towards
the torrent, or down-stream. A man appeared on the further bank,
having slid down a most head-long piece of ground from the path,
hidden in the fir-trees above; he beat his head and his breast, and
bellowed. Those on our side did likewise. We thought that at
least his son or old father, had slipped down and been killed; but
NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS IN KASHMIR 835
it transpired that the lamentations were on account of a pony that
had fallen off the path into the torrent. So rapid was the stream
that the unfortunate animal was carried down and out into the big
river without any chance of rescue or salvage. The men and
women of Taobat continued wailing and beating the breast for some
time, only interrupting their laments to inform us briefly but with a
smile that it was only a pony that had been lost!
We decided to spend a third night at Taobat, partly in order to
ascertain whether arcesia was really as stenoecous as had appeared
from a first visit. Subsequent search shewed it to breed in one or
two other similar places, but to be very local. We discovered it
in two other swampy spots close to the original locality, and, on the
way back on June 19th, a third locality a mile or two below Bagtor
(7,500 ft.). Besides the flowers already mentioned, it was seen sip-
ping also at Caltha palustris alba and white clover. All the females
seen were indulging in this pastime instead of performing their
domestic duties. The foodplant may be plantain, but this is no more
than a guess. It was accompanied in its haunts at Taobat by an
uncommon Green Copper butterfly, Lycaena kasyapa Moore.
Our last two evening's in the woods at Taobat were both fine and
clear, but were far less productive in moths than had been our first,
which had started with a drizzle. Perhaps this was because clear
nights are colder than cloudy nights. On the 16th thirty-three indivi-
duals had been taken, mostly with the net; on the 17th, ten were
taken, of which eight came to the sheet; and on the 18th, when
I only illumined the sheet for an hour, eight came, among them
Habrosyne fraterna Moore.
We returned to Kanzalwan on June toth and camped this time
on the flowery shelf behind Upper Kanzalwan, at about 8,000 ft.
It is not often, I think, that meadowsweet, edelweiss, and Myosotis
arvensis (Forget-me-not) may be found growing together, but there
they were, at our tent’s front door, the latter making a blue carpet
all around us, variegated by the bright yellow of buttercups. We
took a couple more Bee-hawks at Nepeta just before tea; after tea we
strolled over some rough ground below the spring, or rather several
springs, and there, amid the white Marsh-marigolds and purple Marsh
Orchises was. our friend arcesia again! I think it was not out yet
on our previous visit here.
A cloudless evening and a quiet night; this time, the moths were
abundant: in fact, for the first time since our trek began, we saw
more than we could catch and the evening compared with my best
evenings in the Middle East or England. Many were taken with
the net approaching or avoiding the lamp; others were boxed in
a drugged condition on the sticky yellow flowers of an umbellifer
with pinnate leaves. Agvotis duosigna Hampson, a Kashmir endemic
species, was especially common.
On June 20th we trekked upstream as far as the lowest point
of the little plain of Gurais (Gurez). Most of this plain has been
cleared and is either tilled land or pasture, and is a tiresome stretch;
but camping at Badwan we were situated between the steep mountains,
wooded with fir and pine, and a park-like wood of tall poplars (Populus
alba and ciliata). This wood degenerated, close to the river, into
what one might describe as river-island scrub, consisting of sea-
836 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST? SOCIETY Voln 61
buckthorn (Hippophthoe rhamnoides) which grew into graceful little
trees, tamarisk and willow. At the village of Gurais itself the only
new feature I observed was the pencil juniper tree (Juniperus macro-
poda) growing in a torrent bed. The wet pastures of Gurais were
too much grazed for arcesia.
At Badwan, under the tall poplars and pines on the edge of the
swift river, we found that strange flower, the Lady’s Slipper (Cypri-
pedium cordigerum) at a height of only 7,900 ft.; in view of Blatter’s
record, ‘Tosh Maidan, 11,000-12,000 ft., rare’, this occurrence may be
worth mentioning here.
Our tent was pitched on the grassy verge of a gentle trout stream
whose crystal clear waters allowed one to see distinctly every stone
on the bottom and every spot on the sides of the trout which hunted
there, head upstream and motionless until a fly settled, when one
would often strike and leap into the air. For the first time on my
trek I wished I had brought a rod and permit with me—not because
I could bear to devote several weeks’ attention to but one species
of animal, but because trout are so good to eat, and it was tantali-
sing to glance down from our dining-table, on which reposed the
eternal and none too tender chicken, and see such good fare, so
plentiful and so inaccessible, but five yards away. In a creek a little
downstream we saw a small shoal of large plump blue fish and won-
dered what they might be.
Our camping-site produced the Pearl-bordered Fritillary, Boloria
jerdoni, the Green Copper, Lycaena kasyapa, and one or two other
welcome little butterflies who settled on the undergrowth in the sunny
glade at the foot of the cliff; it also produced at night a good assort-
ment of moths, mostly geometrids. Every night now saw new and
striking species appearing, and this was a contrast with the day’s
butterflies.
After two nights at Badwan we trekked back past Kanzalwan to
Koragbal (c. 8,750 ft.) where we camped above the Rest House by
a torrent, whose sunny side, where not cleared, was pleasantly over-
grown with walnut, birch and bird-cherry, and whose shadier bank
with birch and conifers, On a craggy slope behind Koragbal, covered
with thyme and with the yellow-flowered umbellifer mentioned at
Kanzalwan, and only traversed by a trickle of water, several Melitaea
arcesia, including one female were taken. In this situation they were
more lively and hard to catch than on their earlier-observed breeding-
grounds. In the torrent, which issued. from under colossal snow-
beds just above Koragbal, we observed a brown bird completely
submerging itself in the rushing waters and presumed this to be
the White-breasted Dipper (Cinclus cinclus cashmeriensis). Koragbal
was now besieged by huge flocks of cattle and sheep, which had recently
crossed over the pass; according to our information, many of the
steers that we saw were proceeding to Gilgit.
On June 24th we crossed back over the pass to Tragbal. The
extensive snow-drifts on our path had now disappeared. Hundreds
of sheep were pouring over the ridge and running across the remaining
snow-strips towards the green shooting herbage. The path was
frequently blocked with oxen. The gentler mountain-slopes above the
tree-line were wickedly grazed; only among crags and_ cliffs
(c. 11,000 ft.) was there still a fine show of alpine flowers. Upon
NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS IN KASHMIR 837
these crags we observed a tantalising red and black butterfly. Its
habit was to sit or walk on almost vertical cliff faces, some twelve feet
above the road. Occasionally it spread its wings and fluttered up,
or down, according to its whim. Clouds, hanging over the mountain,
perhaps made it more reluctant to move from. its perch. At any
rate only two were seen, and of these one was at last caught after
a wait of twenty minutes and several misses! (It proved to be
Erebia kalinda Moore ssp. kasuriana Tytl.).
Dropping down to Tragbal (9,000 ft.) we caught a small day-flying
Tiger-moth (which later proved most difficult to identify, there being
nothing like it in the British Museum) and observed again the now
familiar Pearl-bordered Fritillary (B. jerdoni) at the top limit of the
forest (c. 10,000 ft.).
I could not help reflecting on the lamentable state of the Kashmir
mountains above the tree-limit compared with the Persian mountains.
Persia has about a third of Kashmir’s rainfall, and a considerable
pastoral population, but none of its high mountains present the
cruelly cropped appearance so common in Kashmir. The explanation,
of course, is that the more desertic climate of Persia makes - the
country incapable of supporting so dense a population as in Kashmir,
hence the less spoilt state of the mountain pastures, as regards wild
flowers, etc. On the other hand, Kashmir protects its forests well,
and the forest zone of Kashmir is a fine sanctuary for wild life.
That night at Tragbal, our last night on trek in Kashmir, (June
24th) two examples of a Geometrid moth came to light which had also
been the first species of Heterocera seen at the beginning of our
collecting in the forest zone (on May z2oth at Gulmarg, 8,900 ft.).
This led me to conclude that little significance could be given to
the date on which any of our catches were taken, and that all might
well be recorded as flying ‘in May-June’. True, most of them were
taken in June, but in view of the abnormal rain and lateness of the
1942 season I should think that most could be taken also late in
May in normal years, if not earlier, in the forest zone. :
_ The ‘marg’ or clearing at Tragbal, grazed down to quarter of an
inch from the turfy soil, positively swarmed with Agrotis segetum
and Nomophila noctuella after sunset. The special catch of this last
night, however, was when my wife netted a peculiarly beautiful Swallow-
tail moth, the only one of its kind which we saw.
Next morning, in warm, hazy weather, we descended to Bandipur,
and thence proceeded by jorry to Srinagar. On the way down from
Tragbal two more examples of the Ringlet, Callerebia nirmala shakra
were secured in good condition at 8000-gooo ft.; the steep slopes were
overgrown with Indigofera and grass tufts in the open spaces
between the pine trees. Below 8000 ft., Parrotia bushes reappeared.
I had seen neither of these two kinds of bush north of the Tragbal
Pass. The most numerous butterfly on the way down was no longer
the Painted Lady (V. cardui) but Pararge shakra Moore especially
between 8,000 and 6,000 ft. At the mountain’s lowest slopes, before
reaching the plain with its paddy-fields, the Tailed Blue (Lampides
baeticus) and another species of Blue were active among the beautiful
blooms of Indigofera. On the undersides of overhanging rocks by the
track-side, odd specimens of two kinds of Gnophos moth, a female
838 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Dysauxes hyalina kashmirensis Roths., and Bryophila modesta Moore
were picked up, in passing. , .
Thus ended our trek; its early part had been rather spoilt by
rain, but in compensation its last week had been almost too hot and
cloudless. We left Srinagar on June 28th. Our one regret was that
our holiday could not continue a little longer. The moths were only
just emerging in their full numbers; and might be expected to con-
tinue in full force and to be reinforced by the arrival of the midsummer
species throughout the next month or two; and as for the autumnal
species (always the least known and the most likely to contain new
species, in an insufficiently explored region)—but it was better not
to think of what there might not still be among these to discover!
If the butterflies were disappointing on the whole (it had really been
too early to try for the peak-species) the moths had provided excellent
compensation. |
On the car-trip between Srinagar and Murree the scarlet Phauda
flammans Walker flew into the car and was taken. The specimen
was compared later with Walker’s type and appeared to be a remark-
able record for Kashmir, and to be the westernmost capture. The
conclusion of our trek coincided with the emergence of the earliest
Gypsy moths (Lymantria dispar) from the pupae taken off the willow-
trees at Nagam.
Duplicates of the specimens taken were deposited with the Bombay
Natural History Society. The identification of the material, for
various reasons, could not be undertaken until years later. The
above narrative, however, written at the time of the trek, will I
hope give a general picture of the wild life, and in particular the
lepidoptera, of Kashmir at the forest zone—5,o00-10,000 ft. in
early summer; the only alterations in the original narrative have
been the insertion of the corrected names of various species mentioned
as examples of the fauna. The narrative makes no attempt to mention
all species seen by name. For these, those interested must refer to
separate articles by the author or his collaborators,
COUNT OF BIRD NESTS IN A SMALL TOWN:
DORANDA, SUBURB OF RANCHI, BIHAR STATE
BY
JAMAL ARA
Doranda is a town spreading over 3600 acres—a typical small civil
station consisting mostly of bungalows in spacious compounds and three
or four double-storeyed houses. The population is about 25,000. It is
situated almost on the Tropic of Cancer and about 180 miles away from
the sea. It is 2,000 feet above sea-level and has an average annual rainfall
of 53:9 inches. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures are
84°F and 65°F, but the absolute maximum and minimum temperatures
recorded are 110°3°F (May) and 37:9°F (January).
About two-thirds of the area of the town is rough close grass of play-
grounds and compounds. ‘Trees and hedges are either along roads or on
the perimeter of compounds. There is only one mango orchard and
soft fruit in the gardens are rare, as are vegetable patches. Most of the
trees in the gardens are ornamental and the sole source of food for birds
are the various fig trees, Augenza jambolana, Artocarpus integrifolia,
- Anthocephalus kadamba, and Bonibax malabaricum. There is abundant
water because two streams skirt the town and there is a large tank.
Methods of counting: In 1951 all the nests were counted and
observed so as to identify the birds responsible for them. Other birds”
whose nests were found to be too few were also counted on trees on which
they used to roost at evening but the result or those counts are not inclu-
ded here. The work was begun on December Ist, 1950, and concluded on
November 30th, 1951. The nest count was applied only to resident birds
and one species, the Baya Weaver Bird (Ploceus philippinus) which is a
summer visitor to Doranda. The nests were all counted by the author
personally assisted by a friend, and a team of observers was not used.
Each tree on which nests had been counted was marked to avoid a
recount, and every effort was made to ensure that the same nest was not
counted twice over. The overall count was made only once, and repeat
observations over the whole area were not carried out. The probable error
is estimated at 15 percent. It is expected that the count will be repeated
in 1953-54, when it will be possible to estimate whether any variations
have taken place.
A list of birds is also given. ‘This list is divided into four sub-heads,
namely : birds seen throughout the year, birds seen only in summer, birds
seen only in winter, and birds seen only in the rains. For this purpose
winter has been taken as from September 15th to March 15th, summer
from March 16th to June 15th, and the rains from June 16th to September
14th. This classification is admittedly arbitrary, but was adopted for
lack of any alternative. This list has been given to exemplify the vari-
ations in the bird population that occur at various times of the year;
840 fOURNAL, BOMBAY SNATURCATC WEES die ss O] CLE Myerson
as also to show that not all resident birds breed in Doranda, whereas
one bird comes into the area only to breed.
The following birds were seen only once in 1951:
1 PittTA (Pitta brachyura), on May 11th, 1951.
2. FAIRY BLUE BIRD (/rena puella), male, on May 9th,
1951. According to Stuart Baker the occurrence of this bird in Bihar is
unlikely, as this State falls in the gap between the two zones of distribution
which he has given for this bird. This example was observed early in
the morning and stayed in the compound for about an hour. The short-
est distance from which it was observed was about 10 feet, and at this
distance it was impossible to mistake the bird. It was extremely shy and
resented observation. It departed after an hour and was never seen again,
though I remained on the lookout for it always. My servant who first
saw and reported the arrival of a new bird in the compound Gescribed a
female, but when I went to see I could see only a single male. My con-
clusion is that a straggling pair arrived during the night on a passage to
their breeding grounds [ ?] and spent the night in my compound. That
may account for the fact that none have been seen after that solitary
occasion
3. WHITEBREASTED WATERHEN (Amaurornis phoent-
CurUus),
4. REDSTART (Phoentcurus ochrurus),
5. SHOVELLER (Sfatila clypeata),
6. MALLARD (dAzas platyrhyncha),
7, ASHYCROWNED FINCH-LARK (Lvremopterix grisea),
and
8. RuBYTHROAT (E£rithacus calliope), on November 15th.
195:
Apart from the Waterhen and the Ashycrowned Finch-Lark which are
resident in the State, the other birds would appear to be passage migrants
through Doranda.
BREEDING BIRDS
The following nest counts of the permanent residents were obtained.
The trees are given in the order of their popularity with the species as sites
for nests.
1. House Crow: 100 nests, mostly on Ficus religiosa, Mangt-
tera indica, Cedrela toona, and DLuiospyros sp.; other trees used were
Eugenia jambolana, Bombax malabaricum Ficus glomerata, Erythrina
indica, Schleichera trijuga, Tamarindus indicus, Artocarpus integrttolia,
Sterculia alata, Swietenia sp., Dalbergia stssoo, Adina cordtfolia, Albizzta
procera, Ficus intectoria, Spondias mangitera, Albizzia lebbek, Melia azadt-
vach, and Ficus bengalensts. Only one case of fostering was noticed. In
one nest all the young, three in number, were of the Koel.
2. YELLOWCHEEKED Tit: 3 nests on Mangifera indica and Tama-
vindus tnaicus. :
3. Biack Dronco: 12 nests on Mangifera indica, Cedrela toona,
Ficus religiosa, Swietenia sp., Millingtonia hortensis and Cassta stamea,
COUNK OF BIRD NESTS IN A SMALL TOWN 841
4. Common Myna: 69 nests on Cedrela toona, Mangifera indica,
Ficus veligtosa, Phoenix sp., Ficus intectoria, Ficus bengalensis, Erythrina
indica, Schleichera trijuga and Albizzia procera. 35 nests were in holes in
trees, 20 in holes in walls or buildings, the rest on trees.
5. Prep Myna: 131 nests on Mangtfera indica, Cedrela toona,
Eugenia jambolana, Ficus religiosa, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus infectoria,
Sterculia alata, Tamarindus indicus, Ficus glomerata, Millingtonta horten-
sts, Dalbergia sissoo, Bombax malabaricum, bamboo and a dead tiee.
6. HousE SPARROW: 43 nests, mostly in buildings, though all build-
ings were not inspected from the inside ; but 6 in Beauwmontia sp., 4 in
Bougainvillea sp., and 1 in a bamboo clump.
7. CRIMSONBREASTED BarRBgT: 12 nests, all in holes in Fzcus veligz-
osa, Mangitera indica, Ficus infectovia, Cedrela toona and Grevillea
robusta.
8. LARGE INDIAN PARAKEET: 3 nests, all in holes in Ficus. religiosa,
Ficus tntectorta and Mangitera indica.
9. ROSERINGED PARAKEET: 8 nests, all in holes in Mangttera
indica, Cedrela toona, Anthocephalus kadamba, Ficus religiosa and F. in-
tectoria.
10. BLOSSOMHEADED PARAKEET: 2 nests in holes in Ficus religtosa
and a dead tree.
11. REDHEADED MERLIN: 1 nest ona Willingtonia hortensis.
12. PaArRtAH Kits: 16 nests on Willingtonia hortensts, Ailanthus
excelsa, Ficus religiosa, Cedrela toona, Mangitera indica, Bombax mala-
baricum, Eugenta jambolana and Cassia siamea.
13. SpoTreD DOvE: 1 nest in a hedge of Duvanta sp.
14. LirrLe EGREtT: 20 nests in two heronries on I/angifera indica
and Bombax malabaricum.
15. CATTLE EGRET: 10 nests in the same heronry as the Little
Egret. |
16. Ponp HERON: 12 nests, all in one heronry.
17. Nicut H#ron: 10 nests, allin one heronry, but a different one
from that favoured by the Pond Herons.
18. THe BAyA: (Summer visitor for breeding) 3 nests, all on
Phoentx sp.
Total number of nests : 456; out of 38 resident species only 18 breed
in the area.
BIRDS BREEDING OUTSIDE THE AREA SURVEYED
Several species were found nesting in large numbers just outside
Doranda town. For example, 35 nests of the Baya were situated across a
stream. ‘The Yellowcheeked Tit is numerous in Doranda, but mostly
breeds outside the town. The White-eye is equally numerous; flocks of
30 were counted, but no nests were found in Doranda. 6 Mahratta
Woodpeckers were also counted but no nests were found. 28 Spotted
Doves were seen in the area but only one nest was found. The popula-
tion of Spotted Owlets in Doranda is 21, but none of them bred in the
area in 1951, though one pair was observed breeding in 1950.
849 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
From the nest-count it would appear there was one breeding pair to
every 9 acres, approximately, a figure not too low for an area like Doranda,
where two-thirds is rough grass.
List oF BIRDS
rene REE AL A 4
Seen
through- | Seen only |Seen only
out the |in summer) in winter
year
seen
only in
Species
tains
. The Jungle Crow |
(Corvus anacrorhynchos ) Aare | x
_ The House Crow
(Corvus splendens)
. The Tree-Pie
(Cry psirina vagabunda) | ah Xx
_ The Yellowcheeked Tit
(Parus xanthogenys ) ah
. The Striated Babbler | |
( Turdoides earlit) ee | | 5
. The Rufousbellied Babbler | pret
(Dumetia hy perythra) Sl x
_ The Redvented Bulbul |
(Pycnonotus cafer ) ee XK | |
. The Pied Bushchat | | |
(Saxicola caprata) £2 | x |
_ The Collared Bushchat | | |
(Saxicola torguata) saa Pha |
10. Hodgson’s Redstart
(Phoenicurus hodgsoni) Endl x |
11. The Indian Redstart | |
(Phoenicurus ochruros) aor x |
12. he Whitespotted Bluethroat | |
(Luscinia svecica) of | =
13. The Ruby-Throat
( Erithacus calliope) | | | a
14. he Magpie-Robin | | |
(Copsychus saularis) mel x |
15. The Redbreasted Flycatcher | | |
(Muscicapa parva) Pye | | - |
16. The Paradise Flycatcher le | |
(Terpsiphone paradised) sal | x
17. The Grey Shrike | |
(Lanius excubitor) ae || xe |
18. The Rufousbacked Shrike |
(Lanius schach) es | x
19. The Wood-Shrike | |
(Tephrodornis pondiceriana) ... | =
20. The Small Minivet |
(Pericrocotus peregrinus) een =
21. ‘The Black Drongo |
(Dicrurus macrocercus) we) x
2?. The Grey Drongo |
(Dicrurus longicaudatus) ta x
23. The Bronzed Drongo x
(Dicrurus aeneus ) aa
24, Ihe Tailor Bird
(Orthotomus sutorius) aes x
25. Sykes’s Tree-Warbler
( Hippolais rama) a x
wa
4
oo RO 4 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
a
tn
(doy Soe) Jp)
COUNT OF BIRD NESTS IN A SMALL TOWN ~ - 843
Seen S
through- | Seen only | Seen only en
species out the jin summer| in winter | 0®/y in
year rains
26. The Lesser Whitethroat |
(Sylvia curruca) wp x |
27. Tickell’s Willow-Warbler | |
(Phylloscopus at tinis) is | x |
28. The Brown Willow-Warbler ar
(Phylloscopus collybita) a | x
29. The Green Willow-Warbler |
(Phylloscopus trochiloides) wat | x
30. The Large Crowned Willow-
Warbler
(Phylloscopus occipitalis) x
31. The Ashy Wren-Warbler | |
(Prinia socials) a | x
32. The Fairy Bluebird | |
(/rena puella) aCe x
33, The Blackheaded Oriole | |
(Oriolus xanthornus ) aes x |
34, ‘The Greyheaded Myna
(Sturnus malabaricus) ae x
35. The Common Myna
(Sturnus tristis) bof x
36. The Pied Myna
(Sturnus contra) oak x
37. The Baya |
(Ploceus philip pinus) ape xX
38. The House Sparrow
(Passer domesticus) ane XK
39. The Common Swallow | |
(Hirundo rustica) 400 x
40. The White Wagtail | |
~ {Motacilla alba) 6s x
4], The Whitefaced Wagtail
(Motacilla alba leucopsis) ee x |
42. lhe Eastern Grey Wagtail | ite
(Motacilla cinerea) 500 X
43. The Blueheaded Wagtail
(Motacilla flava) os x
44, The Forest Wagtail
(Dendronanthus indicus) ae x
45, The Indian Tree Pipit
(Anthus hodgsonit) Ae. ae x
46. The Indian Pipit
( Anthus richard) | x
47. The Ashycrowned Finck-Lark
(Hremopterix grisea) os x
48, ‘The White-eye
(Zosterops palpebrosa) wes x
49. Tickell’s Flowerpecker |
(Dicaeum erythrorhynchum) x
90. ‘The Indian Pitta
(Pitta brachyura) oe x
51. The Mahratta Woodpecker
(Dendrocopus mahrattensis) x
52. The Crimsonbreasted Barbet
(Megalaima haemaecephala) ... X
53. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo
(Cuculus varius) seed (tt x
a
B44. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Seen
: through- |Seen only jSeen only |
Phecies out the in summer] in winter
Seen
only in
year rains
|
54. The Pied Crested Cuckoo |
(Clamator jacobinus)
55. The Koel |
(Eudynamis scolopacea) se x
56. ‘he Crow-Pheasant
(Centropus sinensis) Me. x
57. The Large Indian Parakeet |
( Psittacula eupatria) ses x
58. The Roseringed Parakeet | |
(Psittacula kramer) Be x |
59. The Blossomheaded Parakeet
(Psittacula cyanocephala) a x
60. The Indian Roller
(Coracias benghalensis) AOE x
61. The Green Bee-eater |
(Merops orientalis) sae | | x
62. ‘he Common Kingfisher | |
(Alcedo atthis) aes | x
63. The Whitebreasted Kingfisher |
(Halcyon smyrnensis ) in x
64. ‘I'he Hoopoe | |
(Upupa epops) me's | x
65. ‘Lhe House Swift
( Apus af finis) aon x
66. The Spotted Owlet |
(Athene brama) saa x
67. ‘Che Pondicherry Vulture
(Sarcogyps calvus) abs x
68. The Longbilled Vulture |
(Gy ps tndicus) ack | x
69. The Bengal Vulture |
(Pseudogyps bengalensis) o55 x
70. ‘he Scavenger Vulture |
(Neophron percnoplerus) a5 x
71. ‘The Peregrine Falcon | |
(Falco peregrinus) sae x
72. ‘The Laggar Falcon ae
( Falco jugger) eas. x
73. The Redheaded Merlin
(Falco chiquera) wee x
74. ‘The Kestrel
(Falco tinnunculus) BOC x
75. ‘he Great Spotted Kagle
(Aguila clanga) os x
76. ‘Che Small Spotted Eagle
(Aguila pomarina) sae x
77. Bonelli’s Eagle
(AMieraétus fasciatus) 50x | x
78. Pallas’s Fishing kagle |
(Haliaétus leucoryphus) nee x
72. The Greyheaded Fishing-Eagle |
(Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus) Peealis x
80. The Brahminy Kite
(Haliastur indus) ee xs
81. ‘he Pariah Kite
(Milvus migrans) ae x
COUNT OF BIRD NESTS IN A SMALL TOWN 845
| Seen |
: | through- | Seen only | Seen only
Species | outthe jin summer) in winter
year
|
in rains
|
82. The Blackwinged Kite | |
(Alanus caeruleus) see | | X |
83. The Marsh Harrier | |
(Circus aérvuginosus) a | |
81. The Sparrow-Hawk | |
(Accipiter nisus) 00 | | x
85. The Green Pigeon | | | |
(Treron phoenicoptera) oe | | x
86. The Blue Rock Pigeon | |
(Columba livia) ee | | | x
87. The Spotted Dove | | |
(Streptopelia chinensis) tsa Xx | |
88. ‘The Red Turtle Dove | |
(Oenopopelia tranguebarica) bee | | x
89. The Whitebreasted Waterhen | |
(Amaurornis phoenicurus) a | |
90. ‘The Coot | | | |
( Fulica atra) om | i og |
91. The River Tern
(Sterna aurantia) col | | nN
92. The Spurwinged Plover | | |
(Hoplopterus duvaucelt) all | | | | x
93. ‘fhe Redwattled Lapwing | | |
(Lobivanellus indicus) | “| | | x
94. The Fantail Snipe | |
(Capella gallinago) veer | x
95. The Large Cormorant | |
(Phalacrocorax car6o) Pa | xX
95. The Shag | |
(Phalacrocorax fuscicollis) se | | Pe
as
97. The Little Cormorant |
(Phalacrocorax niger) 07 | x |
98. The Snake-Bird | |
(Anhinga rufa) we | | X
99, The Whitenecked Stork | | |
. (Ciconia episcopis) | x
100. The Little Kgret |
(Egretta garzetta) sae x
101. The Cattle Egret |
~(Bubulcus 161s) | Xx
102. The Pond Heron |
(Ardeola grayit) Area Xx
103. ‘The Little Green Heron |
(Butorides striatus)
104. The Night Heron
(Nycticorax nycticorax) Bacal x |
105. The Bittern | |
(Botaurus stellaris) — | x
106. The Cotton Teal |
(Nettapus coromandelianus) at | X
107. The Mallard
(Anas platyrhyncha) Ack | x
108. The Shoveller |
(Spatula clypeata) | xX
109. The Little Grebe
(Podiceps ruticollis) i | | x
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA
I. FROM THE BEGINNING TO THE MIDDLE OF
WALLICH’S SERVICE
BY
I. H. BURKILL
(With a map)
This is the first chapter of an attempt to put on record the names
of all who have earned recognition by playing a part in the introduction
into India of the Natural Science commonly spoken of as Botany.
The science is exotic to India as a system of knowledge; and on that
account I shall not attain clarity without indicating where and when
it originated. The possibility of rival systems is not denied: the
fact is this—that a system emerged out of the Technology of Healing
in a particular part of Europe, was accepted and clad there with a
vocabulary of precision, as Sciences must be, and that this system
has been spread over the World, India included, without meeting
a rival. Its origin was, as it were, by a sublimation in which ‘Man’
was displaced from the focus of thought that ‘the plant’ might be placed
there.
I have prepared a map of Europe wherein the area of its origin
is delimited by a broken line. The time was the 16th century;
and I endeavour next to connect the event with the contemporaneous
state of the parental technology. The invention of printing in the
15th century was not without great influence; for the diffusion of
information by print bound the literati into a thinking community
when a great deal of agreement was needed to lead up to a corporate
method of expression. Printing was developed at Maintz, near
Frankfurt (rather central on the map), and was not long in spreading
over the Alps to Venice. My map is a map of all the places at
which botanical books were printed from about 1500, the beginning,
to the date of Kaspar Bauhin’s Pinax (1623). The place-names on
the map are of two ranks, the important in full, the places at which
only 1-2 books were printed as numbers. All the works referred
to by Bauhin are accounted for, and the reader will readily agree
with me that the printing of a book is reasonable evidence of writing
such in the neighbourhood; the map, as it is based on all the botanical
books printed to Bauhin’s time, represents the whole area of producing
botanical work to 1623. Salerno and Naples are taken together on
the map where Salerno is the name entered: one small book is credited
to Salamanca which is outside the broken line. The delimited
area covers land occupied by Italians, French, Flemish, Germans,
Dutch and English, and they in intercommunication used Latin; Latin
consequently provided the vocabulary of precision.
All the first work was Classification and Morphelogy. The time
for Phytotomy was not to come until the microscope had been made
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CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 847
more serviceable, and the time for Vegetable Physiology awaited the
establishment of laboratories. In a way it eases my task that the
botanists named in this first chapter were neither phytotomists nor
physiologists.
I come now to the question of the spontaneity in this movement
which drew Botany out of its first technology. It was autochthonous,
not immediately Greek. The classical Greeks had been conspicuous
in the healing art in their time. They monopolized the profession of
physician wherever they spread in the Mediterranean; Cato grumbled
that they filled all the places in republican Rome. Dioscorides was
a Greek in military employment with Roman armies. Clever Greeks
travelled far; they made Alexandria famous as a medical school and
its teachers filled the Alexandrine libraries with their writings. Then
came the Arabs, taking Alexandria in 641 A.p. They were destruc-
tive; yet also they preserved. An Arab in power, greedy to find
out how an alchemist could make gold, summoned the literati,
expecting the secret to be in their manuscripts, and bade them translate
these into a language that he could read. The work of impoverished
literati being cheap, the work went forward and soon extended from
the hunt for riches to a hunt for health. Baghdad followed the
example of Alexandria and so too did other centres of Arab rule.
From Baghdad the Arabs reached out to the Indus, and in the reign
of the Khalif Al-mansur (754-775) they caused the Charaka Samhita
and the Susruta Samhita to be translated from. Sanskrit. I do not
know of any return of the compliment by which a work on medicine
passed from Arabic or Persian to Sanskrit; but adoption of medica-
ments demonstrates contact.
_ Europe meanwhile, threatened with uncompromising conquest,
was sinking to the darkest days of its Dark Ages. These came
towards 1000 A.D. Then a dim dawn followed. In 1016 the Tunis-
born Constantinus Africanus attached himself to the medical school
of Salerno; and after that physicians of the school would quote from
Arabic. Between 1148 and 1187 the greatest product of the Arabs, the
Kanun of Avicenna, based on the Greek of Galen, was translated in
Sicily into Latin. So southern Italy came to renew northwards various
of the Greek ideas of therapy that had once ruled, and refreshed a little
the lands whose medical ideas had become despicable. But the written
word did not bring with it the healing herb; what it did was to
stimulate enquiry regarding the healing herb, and set moving an inquisi-
tiveness which so put the herb into the front as to create Botany.
As the Renaissance developed in northern Italy, universities appear-
ed in a group near trading Venice. At first they taught Law, then
they went on to Medicine; and to teach the latter they developed
teaching gardens and also the preparing of ‘books’ of mounted dried
plants, which they called Horti Sicci-or Dry Gardens. Padua had
a live garden in 1545, Pisa in 1547, and Bologna in 1567. It is
very easy in a garden to allot places to small plants so that like is
with like and easy too to arrange Horti Sicci with like following
like so that affinities are respected. From this botanical classification
resulted. The teaching method at once spread northwards; Leiden
had a garden in 1577, and Heidelberg in 1597. Montpellier had a
garden from 1593. The origin of botanical systematy is obvious.
848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 61
[ have one observation to add. The invasion of eastern Europe
and the destruction of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks under
their Sultan Mohammed II in 1453, though it drove the learned in
Greek into Italy, came after Europe had taken the more ‘technological
work via Arabic; where after Theophrastos’s Historia plantarum for
instance was translated into Latin in 1483.
GARCIA DA ORTA AND OTHERS OF THE 16TH CENTURY
There was born about 1490 at Elvas in Portugal near the Spanish
border a great pharmacist—Garcia da Orta. He was sent to study
medicine in Spanish Universities, first to Salamanca and (then to
Alcala de Henares which is a little to the east of Madrid. A few
years after qualifying he was appointed lecturer at Lisbon (1532);
but after two years there, an offer reached him to go to Goa in the
train of Martin Affonso de Sousa, a future Viceroy of the Poriuguese
Indies; and this offer he took, spending the rest of his life from
the age of about 44 to his death when near 80 (about 1570) in practice
in India. He saw military service from Diu to Ceylon, and once was
invited inland to the court of the ruler of Ahmednagar; but he never
left the western part of India. He had a garden in Goa where he
grew plants that interested him. He studied the native drug shops,
knew the ways of the local physicians and discussed treatments
with the Persian physicians who were maintained at native
courts. He could read Arabic and tells us that he would set the
Arabic text against a translation by way of testing the latter. He
had an. active enquiring mind. When he was advanced in years a
brother physician of Goa, Dimas Bosque, suggested to him that he
should record his knowledge in writing and so it was that he wrote
his Colloquies. They are between himself as the young student fresh
from the schools, and himself the experienced physician, and so
constructed that he tells us what he did not exactly know when he
arrived in Goa. The book is entitled Coloquios dos simples e drogas
he cousas medicineis da India compostos pelle Doutor Garcia da Orta
and appeared as the third work that issued (1565) from a press that
had been set up in Goa. The poet, Camoens, then an exile in Goa,
wrote_an ode which I quote from Markham’s translation (Markham’s
edition of the Colloquies, p. xi; 1913) for the sake of the evidence in it»
of the lovable nature of the old man. ‘The lore which Achilles once
valued I studied with thee; you opened my eyes to its charm. In
your garden of herbs each flower, each tree, were seen in your time
by your friend. The fruits of that. garden collected from far, were
unknown to the learned of old. See how in thine age thy wisdom
and care brought many new simples to light. Unknown to the
ancients but revealed to our sage are the plants in this garden of
herbs. You have opened to us an inspiring page. To the neighbours
like magic it seems. Taught of yore by the Muses of Ganges and Ind,
full of learning, as of years, in all that is known of the true healing
Art, old Chiron must bow before thee.’
The information that Garcia had to give turns (i) on the eastern
drugs that the Arabs sent westwards in trade, and (ii) on simples
used in India that were new to the man from the West. Beyond
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 849
this Garcia enlivens his book (iii) by information on local fruits, on
borax, the betel quid, the narcotics from hemp and Datura, etc. The
‘author he quotes most frequently is Avicenna whose work had been
available in Latin from the r2th century and known through the
mediaeval schools of Europe. It had been rendered into Portuguese
just before the time of Garcia. Second to Avicenna he quotes
Dioscorides whose work, available in Latin, had been translated into
Spanish during Garcia’s life. Thirdly Serapio, whose ‘Liber aggre-
gatus in medicinis had also been rendered into Spanish (1497). He
quotes other writers in Arabic less frequently, and only once quotes
the Charaka Samhita, and that at second hand. Simples that Garcia
adopted from local sources included the bel fruit (Aegle marmelos
Corr.), the nirgundi (Vitex negundo L.), the nim (Melia azadirachia
L.), the harsingher (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.) and the conessi bark
tree (Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.).
Garcia’s work had not been out of the press for long when Clusius
(Charles de L’Escluse, 1526-1609) travelling in Spain, met with a
copy, and from it compiled a digest, too extensive to be called a
summary, which was printed at Antwerp under the title Aromatum et
simplicium historia. Eleven years later a well travelled priest,
Christobal Acosta, produced a much shorter summary with the
innovation of illustrations. Garcia’s results became well known from
Clusius’s work, for there were many editions of the digest.
The 16th century called out a few travel books with incidental
mention of plants in them. Ludovico Varthema’s Itinerario (1510)
was a very early one, the work of an adventurer who resided for a
short time at Cochin and Cannanore. A better work than Varthema’s
was that of Jan Hughes van Linschoten (1596). Linschoten as a young
man had gone to Lisbon and there he obtained permission to go to
Goa in the train of an Archbishop; next he resided in Goa from 1583
to 1589. Having repatriated himself and written an account of life
in Goa, he got Bernard Paludanus, a physician of Enckhuysen who had
travelled in the Levant, to add botanical notes.
THE Dutcu TAKE A HANpD
Linschoten was a cog in the wheel that transferred possession of
the coastal waters of Malabar from the Portuguese who had overshot
their bolt, to the Dutch. Wet get’a change with this; for Garcia had
in a large measure severed himself from his country, living from his
44th year in India, publishing there and owing his recognition in
Europe to Clusius who by birth was a Flamand; but with the coming
of the Dutch the work was carried to Europe for a finishing. The
Dutch had discovered very considerable interest in Botany ; their Univer-
sities were equipped with Botanic Gardens; and at Leiden, which
is close to Amsterdam, there was a heated house from the year
1600 for the cultivation of tender plants. Their interest in Botany
was so nation-wide as to reach a high administrator, Heinrich van
Rheede tot Draakenstein (1637-1692) who had been made Governor
of the Dutch possessions in Malabar in 1667.
The Professor at Leiden of this time was a man little known to
Science, Arnoldus Seyn (1640-1678). Perhaps ‘his early death was
850 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
a cause of the forgetting of his name. But to him came a student
of Halle in Saxony who had been to Padua in Italy to obtain a medical
degree; this student was Paul Hermann (1646-1695); and Seyn re-
commended him to Rheede with the result that a post was found for
him in Ceylon whither he went in 1670, and where he remained until
1677. He collected and dried plants, making for himself a Hortus
Siccus in four volumes and sending: duplicates to Jan Commelin, who
was in charge of the Amsterdam Medical Garden. As Hermann pasted
down into his own collection the plants as they came to hand, the
collection roughly records his journeyings. He was at Colombo for
a long time and later contrived to make the journey down the coast
to Galle, but was unable to go inland. He collected drawings to
the number of about 450. Seyn died and Hermann, returning to
Holland, succeeded him and was too occupied thereafter with the
Garden and presumably with teaching to complete a study of the
collections that he had made.
Just after Hermann’s departure from Ceylon another surgeon was
there, Hermann Nikolaus Grimm who between 1678 and 1681 collected
a little. Rheede certainly was responsible for Hermann’s opportunities
and probably also for Grimm’s; but he operated in a larger way on
the mainland of India, obviously because he inherited there an orga-
nized administration. Natives of the country about Cochin, chiefly
a Malabar medical practitioner, were engaged to bring in living plants
that they might be drawn; and with the plants they submitted
whatever information they could give. An artist-missionary
named Matthaeus drew the plants, and a Portuguese interpreter
translated the accounts into Portuguese whence they were rendered
into Latin by another, Hermann van Done, who held the post of
Secretary to the local, government. Next drawings and descriptions
were assembled in the hands of the missionary Johannes Casearius
and were sent to Holland. Seyn then added a determination, or
Commelin, chiefly Commelin on account of the early death of Seyn.
The printing press got to work and the first part appeared in 1678
(not 1686 as the title page suggests); the last of the twelve volumes
appeared in 1703. The figures are commendable; the descriptions
indifferent: the annotations of Seyn and Commelin introduce Botany
in a way that will be appreciated best if I give a few illustrations :—
(i) against a figure of Ficus religiosa ‘this may not inappropriately
be called Ficus malabarica folio cuspidato fructu rotundo parvo
gemino’ (the Ficus of Malabar with cuspidate leaf and small round
fruits in pairs); (ii) against a figure of Emilia sonchifolia ‘this is not
matched and may be called Planta indica Erucae folio, caule ambiente,
flore piloso’ (the Indian plant with a leaf as Eruca, embracing the
stem and with pappose flower); (iii, a very bad shot) against a
figure of Euphorbia pilosa ‘this appears as if a Veronica and one may
name it Veronicae similis indica albicante flore’; (iv) against a figure
of Portulaca oleracea ‘this is sylvestral Portulaca, though it seems to
differ from ours’.
Hermann’s drawings were in number almost as many as the
species in his collections, showing that he aimed at figuring all; for
the value set on a drawing was then so much above that of a specimen
as to make collectors endeavour to get drawings. William Sherard
played a part in Leiden affairs on the death of Hermann, collecting
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 851
some of the manuscript that he had left and using some of his draw-
ings in the Paradisus batavus, for the printing of which he paid.
Linnaeus, when later he obtained the use of Hermann’s own Hortus
Siccus made 429 species out of the specimens. Trimen (in Journ.
Linn, Soc. Lond., Bot. 24, pp. 129-155) critically reviewed the
nomenclature.
Sherard about this time financed a collector, J. Hartog, to collect
in Ceylon; and Jan Burman in time had the use of some of his
specimens. Engelbert Kaempfer (1651-1715), a German serving as a
surgeon on a Dutch ship, touched in Malabar, at Colombo and on the
Ganges deltaic coast in the journey to Japan that resulted in his
Amoemtates exoticae, but left nothing on record regarding these
visits. His reputation was made by his work in Persia and Japan.
LONDON TAKES A Hanp
While Rheede was stimulating the study of the plants of the Malabar
Coast, certain British were doing a little preliminary collecting on
the Madras Coast under a stimulus coming from two men of the
city of London. These were James Petiver and Charles Du Bois,
neighbours, for the one had a business in Aldersgate and the other
worked about half a mile away in Leadenhall Street in the offices of
the East India Company. As relations between Britain and Holland
were intimate, it is apparent that Petiver and Du Bois got some
inspiration from what the Dutch were doing. William of Orange was
on the British throne in association with Mary; and Mary promoted
cultivation of exotics at Hampton Court, certainly obtaining some of
them through the Dutch gardens which had been receiving plants and
seeds from Rheede and from the botanically minded who worked under
Rheede. The British effort was much smaller than the Dutch,
involving little expenditure in the East; it consisted of requests to ships’
captains and surgeons at sea or on land in the East that they would
bring home curiosities. Du Bois had a half-brother in the East who
sent dried plants to him. Petiver was very diligent in making requests
and very. prompt in acknowledging favours. Surgeons were in
particular qualified to help him. The earliest of them seems to have
been Richard Sambach, whose period of service on the Madras
coast is not exactly recorded but we know that he returned from
India and was living in Worcester in 1698. Petiver calls him
‘humanissimus’ or may we say most kindly. Another surgeon of
his time who did more was Samuel Browne; he died in 1698 and appears
to have gone to Madras about 1688. Over some years as the season
of voyaging approached he prepared a packet of dried plants, a Hortus
Siccus, and sent it to London. It would come from one village in
one year, and from another village in another year, even to
70 miles from Madras, but most of the packets were from
nearer Fort St. George. A _ little information regarding the
specimens was added but no study of them made. Samuel Browne
was indeed no student, and was a source of trouble to Authority from
being quarrelsome, arbitrary and a dueller. Once he found himself
in jail from which he got early release because he was needed to look
852 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
after his patients. Once he had the misfortune to poison a patient
with arsenic because his apparatus for preparing his medicines was
not kept as it should have been—and the patient was of high stand-
ing. Crawford (Hist. Ind. Med. Service 1, pp. 88-93; 1914) records
these and other facts about him. Samuel Browne was relieved of
his post by a better man than he who had been on leave; this was
Edward Bulkley (c. 1651-1714) who rose in the Company’s service
to the post of a Member of Council at Fort St. George. He, like
Sam Browne, sent packages of dried plants to London; and he caused
to be attached information regarding uses and names, using bamboo
slips onto the surface of which the information was scratched in Tamil.
Doubtless he used native agents for the preparing of his specimens.
There was another Brown, a collector, Alexander Brown, a ship’s
surgeon; and a few more names could be added. None were more
than collectors; and the botanical value of their specimens was an
attribute given by Petiver or Du Bois, printed in reports by Petiver
but written up only by Du Bois.
James Petiver (c. 1658-1718) was an apothecary in business in
central. London, a leader in his Technology and from 1709 a teacher
of it at Chelsea. He maintained a museum on his premises, open to
the curious, the Museum Petiverianum, for which he accepted all manner
of objects that excited interest. Charles Du Bois (1656-1740) was
a servant of the East India Company and their Treasurer from 1702.
He had a house and garden at Mitcham, about 1o miles from his office,
to enjoy in the freedom of his week-ends and for the growing of
plants that interested him. In that house he accumulated a Hortus
Siccus of 74 volumes. He corresponded with the best botanists and
as a friend of Sherard ultimately bequeathed his collection to Sherard’s
institution at Oxford. There is a pleasant chapter on him in William
Forester’s “The India House’ (pp. 113-124, 1912).
Petiver who had exchanged specimens with Hermann, undoubtedly
missed no opportunities of getting more. Some came to him through
the India House, and would do so with Du Bois’s knowledge. It is
impossible to disentangle his official receipts from those he got through
correspondents. The India House received seeds and distributed them
to such as could grow tropical plants and separated the consignments
of dried plants which were sent to Petiver for report; and this Petiver
made with promptitude.
Living when Petiver and Du Bois lived there was in Westminster
a physician, Leonard Plukenet (1641-1707), a friend of both. He began
to publish in 1697 small copper-plate illustrations of plants under the
title Phytographia. This was 1o years after Rheede’s first illustra-
tions and 7 years before his last; and the idea of illustration might
have been borrowed but the scale was much reduced and the accom-
panying letter-press meagre. It has been suggested that Plukenet
had not the means for more. Petiver supplied materials to Plukenet
which Plukenet used while Petiver, having reported on the same. to
the Royal Society, was awaiting the Society’s ability to print the report.
This the Society did in 1699 (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 20, No. 236,
PP. 313-353). Plukenet printed no acknowledgments to Petiver. Petiver
and Plukenet quarrelled; and it may be that this was the cause. Later
Plukenet publicly acknowledged indebtedness, but to Du Bois. When
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 853
Petiver reported on the largest of the consignments that Sam Browne
sent him, as he says, ‘embodied the whole and entire observations
of Mr. Browne without any abridgement’. Plukenet and Petiver
continued their irregular reporting; then Plukenet died and Petiver
bought his collection. Petiver grew old and the labour of curating
his Museum against normal corrupting forces outweighed his ability
so that there was some deterioration; but he kept on until his death
when Sir Hans Sloane bought the whole and added it to the accu-
mulation that he bequeathed to the British Museum. Between Oxford
and this Museum it remains possible to see what London could learn
of the vegetation of Madras.
With Petiver’s death the brief days of this early enquiry into the
flora of India came to an end. :
The Dutch having much more material to encourage research,
proceeded from Hermann’s Paradisus batavus (1698) to Johan Burman’s
Thesaurus zeylanicus (1737) and Nicolaus Laurentius Burman’s
Flora indica (1768); while Jan Commelin’s Horti medici Amsteloda-
mensis rariorum plantarum descriptio et icones (1697) provided an
opportunity for dealing with a number of eastern plants.
Another collector may be conveniently mentioned here—Laurent
Garcin (1682-1752) who as the result of three voyages to the East,
supplied specimens from Ceylon to Herman Boerhaave, the successor
to Paul Hermann in the professorship at Leiden.
BENEFACTORS, BOTANISTS AND COLLECTORS
Those who advanced Botany may be classified under the above
three names. Linnaeus with his passion for classification called the
first and last botanophils. Sloane as a young physician showed
himself a brilliant botanist; later in life when rich, he became
a benefactor, spending his income in curating collections that he
added to his own. Petiver was benefactor and botanist on a smaller
scale. Samuel Browne and Bulkley were not more than collectors.
When the first British essay in exploring the flora of India came to
an end, it was from lack of botanists; the collectors could have been
procured and Sloane would have given his aid. There was some-
thing wrong in the attraction of Botany as a discipline.
THE STUDENT’S DISSUASION BY AN ATROCIOUS UNINSPIRED
NOMENCLATURE
When Johan Burman had finished with Hermann’s Hortus Siccus
and published his Thesaurus szeylanicus, the Hortus disappeared.
It was discovered in Copenhagen and sent to the illustrious Linnaeus
who, recognizing what he had, worked through it and published his
Flora zeylanica (1748) using the nomenclature of the time which
consisted of a generic name with a descriptive phrase added. In
1753 Linnaeus put forward the enormous betterment of a fixed adjective
in the place of the phrase. I will illustrate the change that this
brought about in the nomenclature by quoting the displaced names
854. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
for the first eight species of the Flora zeylanica against the same
species in the Species plantarum of 1753:—
Names as they appear
Names as they are in the Flora zeylanica in the Species
plantarum
Cannoacorus latifolius vulgaris (adopted from Canna indica
Tournefort)
Zingiber latifollum sylvestre (adopted from Amomum zerumbet
Hermann)
Zingiber angustiore folio, femma utriusque Amomum zingiber
Indiae alumna (adopted from Plukenet)
Cardamomum ensal dictum (adopted from Amomum_ carda-
Burman) momum
Costus indicus, violae martis odore (adopted Costus arabicus
from Hermann)
Curcuma radice rotunda (adopted from Her- Curcuma rotunda
mann)
Curcuma radice longa (adopted from Her- Curcuma longa
mann)
Aro-orchis tuberosa_ platyphyllos (adopted Kaempferia rotunda
from Burman)
As many of the phrases were much longer than these, the reader
will appreciate the benefit to a student in particular and to every
one in general of the binomial nomenclature. I would have the reader
agree that botanical study must have been discouraged by the clum-
siness of the old names. I would have him be aware also that with
the new nomenclature a new era in teaching came in and an apparent
increase in the number of those inclined towards the discipline of
Botany. The investigation of the flora of India was recommenced
under the better conditions that came with the reform.
A NEw APPROACH IN MADRAS
Of course the East India Company continued to engage for service
surgeons who had been taught to recognise a certain number of useful
plants and could be relied on to collect plants if they were asked,
but the new approach came from outside the Company altogether ;
though from surgeons. The first of them was the missionary-surgeon
Johan Gerhard Koenig (1728-1789). He had been born in the little
dutchy of Courland, which at the time was a bone of contention between
Poland and Russia. He had gone to Uppsala in Sweden to learn
medicine, then travelled in Iceland, and had brought back to Linnaeus
a collection of Icelandic plants which were described in the Mantissa
(1767). At the age of 44 he joined the Tranquebar Mission (1768)
with the title of surgeon and naturalist; and ‘more covetous of fame
than fortune’ (Patrick Russell), he threw himself with great energy
into a study of the flora of the Madras coast that Sam Browne and
Bulkley had sampled. It happened that the librarian to Sir Joseph
Banks was a student from Uppsala, Carl Solander (1736-1782), and
it was natural for a correspondence to spring up between Koenig
and him. Then followed the sending of dried plants by Koenig to
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 855
Banks, but not to Banks alone, for Koenig loyally sent specimens
to his master Linnaeus, and he sent also to Anders Johan Retzius
(1742-1821), then professor at the Swedish University of Lund. I do
not know of any list of what Banks received, but what Koenig sent
to Linnaeus is recorded in Savage’s Catalogue of the Linnaean, Her-
barium (1948) and what he sent to Retzius in C, E. C. Fischer’s list
in the Kew Bulletin (1932, pp. 49-76). The lists show the charac-
teristic flora of the coastal plain of Coromandel.
Koenig, after to years with the Mission, transferred his services
to the Nawab of Arcot, and after 4 years transferred them again,
this time from the mismanaged affairs of that ruler to the East India
Company which gave him the title of Botanist or alternatively
Naturalist, not absorbing him into their service.of surgeons though
it seems that he was paid from military funds (Crawford, Hist. Ind.
Med. Service, 2, p. 42; 1914). The purpose of engaging him is
evident from his immediate departure for Siam and the Malay
Peninsula in order to trace to their origin Siamese cardamoms,
gamboge, and such like useful materials. The Madras Government
did at that time make great efforts to ascertain if the plants yielding
these could be grown in the extreme south of India. Koenig’s diary
of this trip has been translated and printed by the Straits branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society (Journ. R. As. Soc., Straits Br. 26, p. 58
and 27, p. 57; 1894). Conditions went against him; he became ill;
and he was disappointed in his quest; but the Company must have
felt that the appointment was a proper one, for they retained it for
Koenig’s life-time and during the service of several successors; the
holder might be more a zoologist than a botanist, but all botanists
were expected to understand zoology and inversely zoologists to
understand botany. Those who held the post were: Koenig to 1785 ;
Patrick Russell to 1789; William Roxburgh to 1793; Benjamin Heyne
to 1819 (though unconfirmed until 1799); James Shuter to 1826; and
after that for two years Robert Wight. Then the post was done away
with. All the holders were surgeons and all except Koenig and Russell
of the regular service. Koenig’s introduction to the post has been
given, Patrick Russell. had retired from a post at Aleppo where he
had won golden opinions, when a younger brother was appointed to
the charge of the district of Vizagapatam, and Patrick resolved to
go thither with him. It so happened that Koenig’s death opened
a way for his appointment and while collecting plants without as far
as one knows any deep interest in them, he threw himself with real
success into a study of the poisonous snakes of India both terrestrial
and marine. Zeal prompted him to ask the Government to circu-
larize their officers with advice on the useful employment of their
leisure, meaning by research. Roxburgh, who followed Russell as
Botanist, had arrived in Madras in 1776 whence his first printed
communication recorded weather observations, and had shortly been sent
to Samalcottah (Samalkot) on the north side of the delta of the
Godavari. There he explored, discovering wild pepper, was enabled
to establish an experimental plantation, studied the local flora and,
employing artists, had the plants figured. The Government watched
his work with an approval so real that when he lost his books in
a flood they replaced the loss. Heyne had reached India as one of
the Mission at Tranquebar and like Koenig had passed into the
856 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
service of the Company to take over Roxburgh’s work and to travel
considerably. Shuter collected, but, as far as one sees, with little
discernment of its purpose, whife the absence of localities on his
specimens leaves no room for guessing whither he went. Wight, the
last holder of the post, manifestly accepted it as a means of travel-
ling; he had made one very extensive collecting trip and had planned
a second, even longer, when the Governor of Madras, apparently
looking on collecting trips as a luxury, did away with the post and
sent Wight back to duty as an army surgeon. Wight seems to have
received this kick with rather unexpected philosophy.
I would have the reader note that the post was a Madras post
and that the earlier holders held it as economic botanists. When they
collected, and all of them did, their activities met with no interference
and the disposal of their collections was their own affair. Koenig,
we know, sent dried plants to at least three correspondents; and
he must have sent plants to Retzius on at least two occasions separated
by his visit to Siam.
It happened that Koenig had cause in 1785 to visit Calcutta; and
when returning southwards down the coast he was taken ill at a place
not remote from Samalcottah whence Roxburgh hurried to his bedside.
Koenig feeling death approaching and not having published anything
regarding his collections, then willed them to Banks as the best means
he could devise of preserving them for others to use; and Roxburgh
saw that they reached Banks. Russell divided his collections into
two parts, one he sent to Banks and the other he retained in his own
possession for about 20 years. Wight placed his collections where
he thought that they would be used. Each endeavoured according to
his way of thinking to act in regard to them, for, as Griffith wrote
later, the Company was not interested-in the means but in the results,
and dried plants counted as means.
BENEFACTORS
While Banks’s collections were growing with a wisdom that was
his particular property, the Company was employing as their Historio-
grapher Robert Orme (1728-1801). Orme urged the Company to
become a benefactor in regard to manuscripts, by providing a place
of safe keeping for them, and to join with it a library that students
could use. Orme died with his proposal unaccepted, but acceptance
so nearly in sight that he left his own collection of manuscripts to
a friend with a proviso that when the depository had been formed
they should be passed over to it. Soon afterwards Charles Wilkins
(later Sir Charles, 1749-1836), a Sanskrit scholar invalided from
India, begged permission to arrange the Company’s manuscripts,
the end of which was the creation of the depository with Wilkins
in charge. By a natural development this store for manuscripts
became also a store for other things from India, and was used by
collectors of plants for material of no decided destination and by the
Company for whatever it received. Russell, for instance, having kept
half of his collections for a time, decided that the best thing he could
do was to send it to the Company; and others might send their dried
plants to the Company as a matter of loyalty; but the Company did
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 857
not require dried plants from those who, serving it, collected the same.
Broadly it was a mistake to send bundles of them to the India House
for it made sure that no one would bother with them; there were
better courses possible. Heyne when he came on leave with
considerable collections was so fortunate as to find the German
botanist Albrecht Wilhelm Roth very anxious to work on them.
The story is well-known of Banks entertaining Sir James Edward
Smith (not then knighted, nor indeed with his doctorate in medicine)
and handing over to him a letter which offered for sale the herbarium
and library of Linnaeus, and of Smith’s purchase of these. Thus he
became a benefactor, the greatest benefactor after Banks at the time
in Britain and in that position recognized. The times and conditions
gradually brought forward other benefactors whom it is convenient
to list here as their names will recur: Aylmer Bourke Lambert (1761-
1842); Sir William Jackson Hooker (1785-1865); John Lindley (1790-
1865); George Bentham (1800-1884); and Charles Morgan Lemaun
(1806-1852). But making global collections as these did, was a costly
hobby and it grew in time too costly for private benefaction. Every
one of these was a botanist first. Smith having founded the Linnean
Society, by selling the Linnean collections to the Society, passed the
latter into the band of benefactors; but after a time the costs outgrew
the Linnean Society’s ability, and finally became too great for any
private effort, whereon they fell to Governments in general. |
On THE ACTIVITY OF THE MApRAS BOTANISTS
{t is erroneous, I believe, to state that a Society of Botanists
was formed in Madras under the title of the United Brethren or The
United Brothers. This name is a name that the Moravians give to
themselves. Collectively the Moravian Brothers of Tranquebar ccn-
tracted to sell dried plants to Banks and carried out their promise,
sending 500 between 1775 and 1778. Out of this transaction arose
the idea of a Learned Society. It seems that there was none, but
there was good companionship into which others might be admitted.
Any one of the Brothers helped another or any other of similar
interests. Early in Koenig’s years in India, a surgeon, George
Campbell, was his companion in a botanising trip northwards to
Pulicat. When Roxburgh arrived in India, Koenig piloted him
through his first lessons in the flora. When Heyne arrived (1777),
Koenig taught him to be a botanist. Koenig seems to have been a
very lovable man, and his knowledge was at every one’s service. An
illustration of mutual help can be drawn from the naming of Diascov2a
tomentosa. Patrick Russell had found it when collecting in the Circars
and misnamed it Dioscorea triphylla. Soon afterwards Roxburgh found
it and brought it into his garden in Samalcottah. It flowered—a male
plant—and Roxburgh made a description. Then Koenig came and
seeing it, agreed that it was new, suggesting as a name that which
we use, namely Dioscorea, tomentosa. Roxburgh agreed; amd as
Dioscorea tomentosa it was drawn in duplicate that one copy might
go to the India House along with a dried specimen. Banks after
seeing the drawing, would send it back, as was the custom, keeping
the specimen. In time Heyne came to Britain with his collections
858 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
and matching his specimens—he had both sexes—with the male from
Roxburgh, he wrote it up. Then he handed over his -plants to Roth,
who finding the name but no author’s name with it, assumed that
Heyne had devised D. tomentosa and attributed it to him. Thus it
came about that Koenig’s name became ascribed to Heyne.
Two more missionaries that I have not yet named joined the others
—Johan Godfried Klein and Johan Peter Rottler. The latter (1740-1836)
was the last of the Tranquebar group but not the last of the mission-
aries who in Madras about this time found a pleasure in seeking
plants. Two of the Company’s surgeons associated with the
missionaries were James Anderson ( -1809) and his nephew
Andrew Berry ( -1819). Each of these laid out a garden and in
particular experimentally grew Opuntias for nourishing cochenille.
Maria Graham (née Dundas, and by a second marriage Lady Callcott,
1785-1842) described Anderson’s garden as she saw it in ruin shortly
after Anderson’s death, and commented on the large sums that had
been spent on it (Journ. of a Residence in Ind. p. 125, 1812). Rottler
described Berry’s garden which was in the quarter of Madras city
called Marmelong.
Rottler had joined the Tranquebar Mission in 1776 while Koenig
was still alive; he did not, however, owe his inspiration to Koenig,
being already a botanist and was soon sending dried plants to Erlangen
in Germany. In 1796 the Government found employment for him,
sending him to Ceylon. He returned to India and remained in
India until his death in 1836, but he had transferred his work to
other fields than those of the Tranquebar Mission, leaving it in
1803. Wallich knew him and stated that he had seen him in 1812
and again in 1813; he calls him ‘a devoted missionary and ardent
botanist’. The contact resulted in Rottler sending dried plants to
Wallich. His personal collection ultimately came to London, where
after serving as a reference collection at King’s College for a con-
siderable time, it was transferred to Kew. Rottler was botanist
enough to be able to find means of publishing his own results; and
moreever there is to his credit an account of the vegetation between
Madras town and Tranquebar. Heyne records his trust in Rottler’s
knowledge for the correct naming of his plants.
A missionary of Madras, also a botanist, but not of the Tran-
quebar Mission, was Bernard Schmid (1787-1857). He had gone to
India in 1817 and laboured in the coastal area of Coromandel] until
1835, when illness drove him to take leave. On his return he resided
in the Nilgiri Hills; but as the date shows, his Nilgiri collecting
belongs to my next chapter.
Heyne deserves a further notice, as he, though not a botanist
when he entered India, became one of the best of the Madras Brethren.
He had joined the Tranquebar Mission in 1777 and had passed into
the service of the East India Company in 1790, following Roxburgh
in directing the experimental station for pepper, sappan, tobacco and
cardamoms at Samalcottah and travelling considerably. In 1813,
having done nearly 20 years of work in India, he took the three
years’ leave that was customarily granted after 10 or more; and being
desirous of adding to his experience he accepted passage on a ship
from Calcutta that did not proceed direct, but was to visit
Bencoolen in Sumatra. He carried with him duplicates of his collected
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 859
plants and in London was granted access to Banks’s collections to
name them. The leave drew towards its close and he would have
liked to submit the worked over collection to Willdenow in Berlin,
but Willdenow had died. As an alternative Heyne sought the help
of Albrect Wilhelm Roth (1737-1834) who while earning his living
as a physician, had made a great reputation in Botany. Heyne found
him not only willing but very glad to publish an account of the
plants. Roth’s biographer says that Roth was singularly fortunate
in obtaining the gift of the plants; on the other hand Heyne was
fortunate in finding so ready a help-mate. Roth published in 1821
his Novae plantarum species, praesertim Indiae Orientalis as a digest
of Heyne’s collection, together with additions from elsewhere. Con-
scientiously he gives all the credit to Heyne that was Heyne’s and on
an analysis one finds that about 200 of the 430 species involved bear
names originating with Heyne. But there is scarcely a single precise
record of locality from back to back of the book. This circumstance
reflects the narrowness of the vision of botanists at the time, for most
of them could look at nothing but nomenclature.
With Roth’s book appeared the first approach to a Flora of any
considerable part of India; but, one adds, 430 species amount to little
more than a sampling.
Robert Wight (1798-1872), the last of the Madras botanists, was
the greatest accumulator of material of all; but like Schmid in his
later years, he belongs in a very large part to my chapter 2, Wight
had arrived in India in 1819, after making a few voyages across
the Atlantic as a ship’s surgeon. The East India Company sent him
to the northern part of the Madras Presidency where almost from
his arrival he began to collect plants vigorously with the aid of native
plant-collectors. After four years he made up a set of dried specimens
and directed it to his former teacher, Robert Graham; but they were
lost at sea. The results of the next years he directed to Sir William
Hooker whose rising reputation justified the change in destination.
The following remark may be intercalated here:—in that very year
Francis Hamilton (formerly Buchanan) had written in a letter ‘Dr.
Hooker of Glasgow I see frequently, . . . he is more active than
Graham.’ Wight’s collecting areas had been from Madras city back
to Vellore, which is 87 miles inland, and about Samalcottah and
Rajamundry, i.e. where all the Madras botanists from Roxburgh
forward had worked.
When Wight succeeded to the post of Botanist he immediately
made the long collecting trip which is traced in the map at the end
of Wallich’s Plantae Asiaticae Rariores. Thereafter the post was
terminated and Wight, stationed on military duty with a regiment at
Negapatam, explored the flora of the Tanjore district. Illness en-
forced leave, and he proceeded homewards taking two tons of packages
of dried plants. Arriving in London with these he endeavoured to
make them useful to Wallich who was also on leave. But Wallich
was scarcely in a position to use them; and Wight betook himself
to Edinburgh with his material; then joining himself to George Arnott
Walker Arnott, a former school-fellow and professor at Glasgow,
the two together wrote their most excellent Prodomus Florae Penin-
sulae Indiae orientalis (1835). Unfortunately Wight’s leave ran out
and the work was arrested at the family Valerianaceae in De Candolle’s
860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL His?. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
sequence of families, though there was collaboration beyond this and
a couple of joint papers. Wight had left his artists and collectors
at work, and resumed the direction of their services. The Company
put a regiment stationed at Bellary into his medical charge, then
ordered the regiment to march from Bellary to the very south of
India. What Wight records of this march is interesting; six bullock
carts were required to move his impedimenta including the 2,000
specimens that he had collected and his library. He indicates that
he would have been happy without the necessity of moving these
and hoped to be without the collection before required to move
again.
CONTEMPORARIES IN PONDICHERRY AND IN CEYLON
It is time to mention various collectors of the southern flora who
were not of the Madras group. One of the earliest of them was
Carl Pehr Thunberg (1743-1828), Linnaeus’s. most famous pupil
and his successor in the Uppsala professorship; he spent the months
from July 1777 to February 1778 in Ceylon when returning from
Japan. From Colombo he journeyed down the coast to Galle and
northwards the short distance to Negombo. What he collected can
be gathered from’ Juel’s Plantae Thunbergianae (1918). |
French collectors went to Pondicherry and enriched the National
Museum in Paris. The first of them was Pierre Sonnerat
(c. 1745-1814); but he was actually a zoologist; he was at Mahe,
Pondicherry, Surat and in Ceylon at various dates after 1781. Next
came Louis Theodore Leschenault de la Tour (1773-1826) who reached
Pondicherry in 1816 as a Research Officer in Natural Objects. He
travelled widely and did excellent work. The third was Frangois
Louis Busseuil who as a surgeon on the ship ‘La Thetis’ reached
Pondicherry in 1824. Like Sonnerat he was at heart a zoologist. The
fourth was Charles Bélanger who arrived in India at the end of 1825
where he collected at Mahe for a few months and whence he crossed
leisurely to Pondicherry. After that he went north to Chandernagore,
then to Pegu and forward to Malaysia in the ship ‘La Chevrette’
which about this time was a coasting vessel in the Bay of Bengal
and was based on Pondicherry. In 1829 he returned to Paris with
most extensive collections and published his ‘Voyage aux Indes
Orientales’ (1834). The fifth was A. A. M. Reynaud, surgeon on
‘La Chevrette’ at the time when Bélanger voyaged about the Bay
and he obtained plants at similar places. The sixth was Georges
Samuel Perrottet (1793-1870). His occupation was acclimatization ;
and collecting was secondary; but over his extended time in India
he made large collections. In 1834 Alphonse Delessert, having
travelled with Perrottet, went to Malaysia, to Calcutta and to Seram-
pore, etc., but was mainly occupied in collecting animals. However
he collected plants in Pondicherry, Gingee and the Nilgiri Hills.
Leschenault wrote a couple of very interesting papers on the
Madras flora and Perrottet various valuable economic papers. Both
had worked back from the coast to the Nilgiri Hills; and Perrottet’s
collections are said to have reached 1500 species. Alphonse De Candolle
profited greatly by French collections which, it may be said, covered
rather effectively a longitudinal slice of India from Mahe on the one
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 861
side to Pondicherry on the other. If the reader will look at a map
of India he will observe that the Nilgiri Hills fall within this slice.»
In 1812 William Kerr ( -1814), a Kew Gardener, was selected
by Banks for the charge of the Government Garden in Ceylon and
proceeded thither; but his life in Ceylon was very brief.
CALCUTTA TO THE FRONT
The reader may remember that there was a time when Madras
took place over Calcutta and sent to Calcutta its orders; then, in the
18th century, the Company decided to promote Calcutta and moving
in that direction made it the place of residence of a Governor-General
supported by four Councillors, a Crown Court, a Chief Justice and
three Puisne judges, all selected in London. When a little later the
ecclesiastical dispositions were organised, Calcutta received a Bishop,
Madras and Bombay Archdeacons. One may express this in the
equation :—
Bishop: Archdeacon: :Calcutta:Madras (or Bombay)
for it illustrates the new relative importance of the three Presidency
cities. By reason of the appointments being made in London a new
leaven was brought into Calcutta, and paths of intellect were created
in its community where the saying had been common that no one
had leisure for the affairs of the mind, or any affair that did not
bring financial benefits. Trade was booming in Calcutta at the time;
the demand for shipping exceeded the bottoms available, and vessels
of many nations found profit in being chartered to take goods in
and out of the Hoogli. The building of new ships was carried on
with Malabar teak which was used in Bombay to build a man-of-war of
74 guns; while it was Burma teak that was used in Calcutta to build
a freight vessel of 1400 tons. In ship-building Calcutta was at a
disadvantage by having to seek its teak at a distance across the Bay
of Bengal. At the same time the East India Company was growing
increasingly apprehensive regarding supplies of oak timber for their
dockyard at Deptford on the Thames. With ships’ timber in this
state Robert Kyd (1746-1793, about to be gazetted Lieutenant-Colonel),
Secretary in Calcutta to the Military Department of Inspection,
suggested (June 1st, 1786) that it would be well to ascertain if the teak-
tree would grow in the vicinity of Calcutta, and he added, being an
ardent gardener, that this might be done in a new Botanic Garden.
Then, as Calcutta was metropolitan, the garden should be commen-
surate with the city’s dignity; and he pointed to an area of some
350 acres on the side of the river below Calcutta, separated from
his own garden by no more than a ditch, which he recommended as
suitable for it. His suggestion found such support that the garden
was impatiently founded without waiting for sanction from London,
and put under Kyd’s charge as an addition to his duties. His
administration must have been vigorous; drainage work was done;
planting was commenced and the area chosen for a trial of teak was
the 40 acres nearest to Kyd’s property. It is possible to p’ck out
by the use of his successor’s Hortus Bengalensis the names of some
300 species of plants that Kyd introduced. Kyd died in 1793 and
Md
862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ‘Vol. 51
William Roxburgh was summoned from Samalcottah to succeed him.
In passing it is of interest to recall that two of Kyd’s sons went into.
ship-building. in Calcutta.
or a moment one may trace in Roxburgh’s achievements the
causes Of his promotion: (i) after a few voyages as a ship’s surgeon
(ii) he entered the service of the East India Company and arrived in
Madras, where (iti) he found Koenig and studied the flora with him;
then (iv) he was sent to Samalcottah on regimental duty and (v).
explored, finding wild pepper and establishing an experimental planta-
tioa Where a trial was made of pepper and cardamoms, sappan wood,
indigo and other possible crops; at the same time (vi) he studied
the wild plants and accumulated a large collection of drawings of
them. The Company appreciated that part of his activity which had
a technological bearing and on it chose him for Calcutta. When
they did this, Banks called the Company’s attention to the drawings
and at his suggestion it was agreed that he should select 300 to be
engraved and published, coloured, with appropriate letterpress. This.
was Roxburgh’s Plants of the Coast of Coromandel in three volumes
which were published in these years—1795, 1798 and 1818. The delay
in printing the last left it unpublished at Roxburgh’s death.
Roxburgh’s collecting extended from the coast back to the hills, and
up them to about 2,000 ft.; but like others of his time he troubled
little about localities. .
~ Roxburgh brought his way of working to Calcutta; he saw to
the cultivation; he continued the study of the wild plants and extended
his collections of drawings. He dried plants, but seems to have
given them away with great freedom as soon as they had served
his immediate purpose. The Company accepted this procedure; and
his influence was high in administrative quarters. He kept touch
with the Madras botanists; and the garden received plants from James
Anderson. But there is little to suggest that he was able to get
plants from Ceylon and Bombay, though he had one correspondent
as far away in the direction of Bombay as Ujjain. But plant ex-
changes on the eastern side of India appear to have been abundant
and Christopher Smith engaged in obtaining useful plants from
Malaysia used Calcutta at various dates; also we find a gardener,
Peter Good, at Calcutta in 1796 for the purpose of conveying living
plants to Britain. We find another, John Potts, at Calcutta for
the same purpose in 1822, but that was after Roxburgh’s departure.
Cultivation of beautiful woody plants, including palms, seems to have
been an early feature; and there were wide borders for smaller plants
and an effort was made to make these borders attractive. Roxburgh’s
successor had to complain of visitors from the city interfering with
the showy plants in them. Nurseries must have played a large part
in the original plan as the garden had to meet a big demand for plants.
to send to correspondents.
Roxburgh’s position was decidedly favourable. Ten years before
his transfer an outlet for publication had been produced in the
founding of the Asiatic Society. This issued out of the establishment
of the Judiciary sent from England, for as the minutes of the meeting
which founded the Society show, the strongest support for it came
from the learned Judges with Sir William Jones, one of the Puisne
judges leading. It was he who called the meeting for January 15,.
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN -INDIA 863:
1784, whereat he proposed the formation of ‘The Asiatic Society’ (the
words ‘of Bengal’ were added much later); and by the time of
Roxburgh’s transfer it was well established. It had then printed
three volumes of its journal, Asiatic Researches, the text being of a
high quality. Roxburgh was able to publish his work through the
Society and moreover membership brought him very desirable contacts.
Contemporaneous enterprise by missionaries of the Serampore Mission
in the field of printing greatly forwarded publication. In 1799 these
missionaries had been joined by William Carey (1761-1834), whose
botanical interest closely attached him to Roxburgh. Carey’s biography
is fully given in Marshman’s Life and Times of Carey, Marshman and
Ward (1850). ms
_ The Government built for Roxburgh in 1795 a house on the bank
of the river—an airy house such as he had asked for with three
storeys that he might live much in the uppermost storey. Methodical
Roxburgh, settled in, kept a Plants-inwards record. In 1814 when
ill-health drove him to leave India, this record was easily trans-
formed into his Hortus Bengalensis which was issued from the
Serampore press under Carey’s care. As a garden catalogue it presents
to us the names of about 60 donors or friends of the Garden who sent
plants or their seeds to Roxburgh either because their showiness or
usefulness made them desirable or as something unfamiliar which might
be studied. We have a pleasant picture of Roxburgh at work:—
enter a messenger with the information that the shrub from so-and-
so had come into flower; Roxburgh puts his work aside and is taken
to see the plant, by palanquin if at the further end of the garden;
and he returns with what material he desires for dissection, deter-
mination, description if necessary and figuring. The descriptions
accumulated in his working rooms on one pile called Flora Indica
and drawings on another, but the drawings were duplicated and one
copy went to the Court of Directors in London. Roxburgh’s friends
could have copies of the Flora Indica on paying the cost of clerical
labour; Buchanan, for instance, obtained a copy (see Prain in Ann.
R. Bot, Gard. Calcutta, Appendix to 10, p. xi; 1905). Roxburgh
had two copies made when about to depart from India; one he put
into Carey’s hands and the other he took with him. When delayed
in Ceylon he found material to add and sent the manuscript to Carey
for insertion. He would have added more had he lived to do so,
for after reaching Edinburgh he requested that some material then
in London should be sent to him for study ; but the additions from Ceylon
seem to have been the last that he made so that the Flora Indica lying’
with Carey, can be defined as descriptions of plants seen by Roxburgh
in his days at Samalcottah and his days at the Calcutta garden. The
illustrations had grown to 2,583 in number, presumed to represent
the same number of species, the artists having orders, as they told
Hare, not to draw a plant a second time. James Hare was a surgeon
of the Company in a relatively high position and later, as wil be
seen, had charge of the Garden for a short time.
Roxburgh’s immediate successor was the very distinguished scholar:
Thomas Henry Colebrooke (1765-1837) who, after a considerable
period of service in the Gangetic plain eastward of the river Kosi,
had been called to Calcutta to preside over the Sudder Courts. By
this he became Roxburgh’s neighbour; and in friendship he offered.
864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
to add to the Flora Indica the vernacular names of the plants described.
The agreement that he should do so was made before 1803, for on
the 5th of October of that year Colebrooke wrote to his father that
he was supplying the names but unable at the moment to work at
them from a pressure of other affairs; but, he added, Roxburgh’s
work ‘is in great forwardness’ (Life of IT. H. Colebrooke by his son,
I, p. 213; 1873). Colebrooke and Roxburgh were also joint authors
of a paper on Melaleuca tardily published by the Medical and Physical
Society of Calcutta in 1828.
Roxburgh did not travel from Calcutta; but he had on his staff
those whom he could send exploring, two of them being his own
sons, William and John. The initials W.R. and J.R. in the Hortus
Bengalensis are theirs. John is recorded to have sent dried plants
to Lambert and he remained in the Garden’s service for some years
after his father’s departure from India.
A very good friend of Roxburgh was the surgeon John Fleming.
He had charge of the Garden during one of the periods of leave
of Roxburgh; and we read that he took Maria Graham to breakfast
with Roxburgh on November zoth, 1810, that she might see the Garden.
She recorded her delight with the order and neatness of every part
and was impressed by the size of the collection of living plants (Journ,
of a Residence in India, p. 145; 1812).
Immediately after Roxburgh’s appointment to Calcutta Francis
Buchanan (1762-1829) arrived in India and was sent to Burma with
Captain Symes’s mission to the Court of Ava. Like Roxburgh he
had been a pupil of John Hope who held the professorship in Edinburgh
from 1761 to 1786. The two, cherishing the memory of that exccllent
teacher, united rejoicing in dedicating the genus Hopea to him, Buchanan
had been a collector of plants from boyhood; and the novelty of the
flora that met his eyes in Burma stimulated him. He dried plants,
secured drawings and gathered seeds. The seeds he sent to Roxburgh,
sO opening a correspondence with him, asking in sending them that
what was not wanted might be redirected to Sir James Edward Smith
who had been a fellow student in Edinburgh. Doubtless Smith would
have distributed the seeds to such as had means of growing them;
but the result of the request seems unrecorded. At the end of the
Burma mission part of Buchanan’s work on the flora went towards
Symes’s report, his dried plants went to Banks (see Prain, op. cit.
p. xxxv) and he himself was stationed at Noakhali in south-eastern
Bengal; and there during the following year he worked up his
Burmese collections and notes. In 1797 he was sent to Chittagong
to report on its vegetable products. Dried plants thence also went
to Banks, In 1800 he was moved to Baruipur, 16 miles south
of Calcutta, and so within a day’s journey of the Calcutta Botanic
Garden and Roxburgh with whom a great friendship had arisen.
Next he received orders to join a mission going to the Nepalese
court at Khatmandu; and he had proceeded as far as the border when
recalled to make an economic survey of the districts of southern India
taken over from the Sultan Tipoo—to report on the agriculture,
vegetable and cattle farms, the natural resources such as cotton, pepper,
sandalwood and cardamoms; mines, quarries and minerals; manu-
factures; climate; seasons and forests; the condition and character
of the people. The catalogue is comprehensive enough; it is a guide
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 865
to what henceforward became the work to which the Government
dedicated him. He was instructed to send seeds and living plants
to the Calcutta Garden, and the Madras Botanist, Benjamin Heyne,
was partly a colleague but specially instructed to see if he could
make Tippoo’s garden at Bangalore into a centre for the spreading
of economic plants. Unfortunately Buchanan was sent on_ his
mission in the height of the dry season of an unusually dry year.
‘I have got absolutely nothing’ he wrote to Roxburgh; ‘Almost every
plant that I have got has been already described by you; and of the
few that appear to be new I have not been able to get the
seeds’. ‘However Buchanan reached the evergreen western coast and
a short experience there gave him a lasting interest in Rheede’s Flora
Malabarica. Roxburgh had been sending to him extracts from that
work such as he desired.
When the Mysore survey was over, the visit to Nepal which had
been called off, came up again and he resided close to Khatmandu
from March 1802 to March 1803. He had, it seems, heavy profes-
sional duties, and restrictions on his movements imposed by the
Nepalese were irksome to him, so that he was very glad when the
Mission was recalled. Next he had leave; and with the dried piants
which he had collected and with the drawings which he had had made
he came to London. He made up a complete set of his dried piants
for Sir James Smith and a second set for Aylmer Bourke Lambert.
When leave was over and he had returned to India he was detailed
to make his great economic survey of northern and western Bengal
which occupied him from 1807 to 1814. <A short period of control
of the Calcutta Garden followed and then retirement. During the
survey his work took him along the Nepalese border and from Nathpur
in the district of Purneah he was able to detach some trusted members
of his staff to seek economic plants in the Nepalese Himalaya. They
procured the plants, but the time was before flowering and Buchanan’s
efforts to bring them into flower in the plains were fruitless. Thus
while Buchanan procured material of the exceedingly poisonous aconite,
the tubers of which are an export from the mountains, he was
defeated in his attempt to complete an identification. Ultimately in
retirement with what he had learned when on duty near Khatmandu
and what he had learned when at Nathpur, he wrote his Account of
the Kingdom of Nepal and of the Territories annexed to this Kingdom
by the House of Gurkha (1810).
The best way in which I can convey to the reader how the Survey
of Bengal proceeded is to list in consecutive order the stations at
which Buchanan spent the rainy season. The time in between each
enforced halt was occupied in moving about the villages between
these stations: 1808 in Gauhati; 1809 in Rungpur; 1810 in Nathpur ;
1811 in Monghyr; 1812 in Patna; 1813 in ascending the Jumna to
Agra and the Gogra to Gorakhpur; 1814, back to Calcutta. He had
with him artists; and they made for him a considerable collection
of drawings. When stationed earlier among the big rivers of the
Gangetic delta he had occupied himself considerably in a study of
the fish; and we may be sure that the trip up the Jumna and Gogra
was taken as an opportunity of extending the study.
Roxburgh had left Calcutta in the hot weather of 1813 and
Colebrooke had taken over charge of the Garden; then Colebrooke
366 JOURNAL, -BOMBAY \NATURAE HIST, SOCIETY, Volv 51
asked leave to retire and Buchanan just down from Shahabad was
told to take over. But Buchanan was ill and indeed he remained
ill for a year or so after reaching Britain; and Buchanan begged
leave to retire. A bit of trouble followed. Buchanan asked leave to take
with him his drawings that he might continue his work on the fishes,
and the permission was given but then withdrawn. The withdrawal
angered and alienated Buchanan because it stopped work on which
he had set his heart; and for the time being he cast aside his im-
mediate interest and allowed all the collected plants that were in
his possession to go into the India House. His earlier collections,
as will be recollected, had been given in the main to Sir James Edward
Smith with a second set to Lambert. The set given to Smith was
said to hold 1,500 specimens and it has been estimated that tbere
were with them 4oo drawings. The set given to Lambert must have
been very much smaller.
Smith expressed the greatest gratitude to Buchanan for the gift
and made scant use of it. He gave places to 13 plants in his Exotic
Botany and buried the rest in his cabinets. Buchanan in 1821 referred
to those collections as ‘in a sort lost’. He was writing to Wallich
who-had suggested to Buchanan a joint study of the Nepalese flora,
and declining to return to his work on Nepalese plants. In the
next year David Don, as Lambert’s curator, commenced work on
specimens of the second set and in 1825 published his Prodroinus
Flovae Nepalensis. Wallich had been giving Nepalese planis to
Lambert, and Don had these also for his work.
For a moment we may ask ourselves how far from utilizing all
the available materials was Don’s Prodromus. Don’s descriptions
amount to almost 700, but 50 of them are not of Nepalese plants.
The sum of 650 is only 1/5 of the number of species credited to
Nepal in Wallich’s Lithographed Catalogue; and Don’s title rightly
hoids the word Prodromus.
Diversity stimulates a collector: it required more of a botanist’s
zeal to lead to collecting in the uniform Gangetic plains than '!n the
diversified mountains; and therefore the more praise to the two
Sordicrs who collected about Lucknow and Kanpur in early days. They
were Claude Martin (1731-1800) and Thomas Hardwicke (1757-1835).
The. first was the generous philanthropist who founded the iwo
Martiniére schools, the one in Lucknow, the other in Calcutta. The
second was a zoologist chiefly but an active botanist also; ae was
the first European to collect in the north-western Himalaya. This
he did on a political mission to the ruler of Garhwal at Senet in
the Alaknanda Valley—a journey which he described in the Asiatic
Researches (6, p- 309; 1799).
-Martin and Hardwicke are the first soldiers that I have had cause
to mention. A soldier’s schooling does not contain, as a surgeon’s
does, an introduction to a knowledge of plants; and when a soldier
becomes a botanist the inner urge is probably more considerable. I
have assembled the names of the men who studied the vegetation
of India in India up to the year 1840 and | find among them 28
surgeons, 7 army officers, 4 missionaries (not being surgeons at the
same time) and 3 administrators of high position. The Edinburgh
medical school was the chief recruiting ground for the Company’s
medical. service and obviously the efficiency of the professor of Botany
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY, IN-INDIAs 867
determined the zeal of the botanists that he produced and his way of
expressing it. Roxburgh and Buchanan were pupils under John Hope;
and Hope offered yearly a gold medal to the student who showed up
the best collections of dried plants. Thus did he prepare for collec-
tion those who might go out to India. Hope’s successor was ineffec-
tive, but the next in the professorship, Robert Graham, poor in the
lecture room, was an enthusiast in the field who organized plant hunt-
ing for students on an extensive scale. We may call Robert Graham
a trainer of collectors. He trained several of the surgeons who have
been named.
Buchanan’s restless life was in great contrast to Roxburgh’s quiet
life in the Calcutta garden. Roxburgh would not have achieved so
much had he been required to travel at the same time; but remain-
ing at his Garden limited his ability to make his Flora Indica represen-
tative of more than a tithe of India excluding the Himalaya which no
one knew in his time; and as Carey pointed out, no little gocd-will
was demanded of Roxburgh’s up-country helpers, for the cost of
sending things to him was high. Some of those helpers, such as M.
R. Smith of Sylhet, obviously spent freely in sending living plants to
Calcutta. Buchanan called him a faithful friend. Holding a magis-
terial post under the Khasia Hills he maintained for 50 years a garden
and sent out collectors to bring plants into it; and of these he would
give to the Calcutta Garden. He died in 1819. A few years earlier
he had been sending plants at the rate of about 50 species a year.
The missionary Klein, who was one of the Madras botanists, likewise
seems to have been generous. Buchanan was a constant donor of
plants. William Carey made a garden in Serampore of 5 acres so
intensely gardened that Jacquemont, who visited it, said that it needed
50 gardeners.
When Buchanan left India the Government was in perplexity how
to replace him, for he had been destined to be Roxburgh’s successor.
The way out was by the selection of Wallich. In 1807 Nathaniel
Wallich (1786-1854) a young Danish surgeon, a pupil of Martin Vahl,
professor at Copenhagen, had gone to Serampore, fourteen miles
up-river from Calcutta, as a surgeon in that Danish settlement. In
that year the new Governor-General arrived in India _ bringing
news that war had broken out between Britain and Denmark; it
was therefore his duty to take over Serampore which was done
without any disturbance. Wallich, for a short time a prisoner of war,
was almost immediately released and taken into Roxburgh’s house
where he lived for a while, his friends hoping that an appoiniment
as assistant to Roxburgh might be obtained for him. But that did
not come about; and Wallich returned to Serampore as a nicdical
practitioner. Then he was taken ill and made a voyage to Mauritius
for the sake of his health. On his return he entered into practice in
Calcutta and at this time made a suggestion to the Asiatic Socicty
that the Society should form a museum, offering materials and saying °
he would curate it. The proposal was accepted but affairs fell
contrary, yet beneficial to Wallich, for while the Council of the
Society was deliberating, Wallich’s friends had induced the Govern-
ment, unknown to Wallich, to accept him for their medical service,
and on appointment Wallich had to tell the Society that he was in
difficulties regarding taking charge of the Museum. However, in the
868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
end he was able to do so for some years. The Council had decided
that Botany should not be accommodated in their Museum as it was
provided for at the Garden. Wallich, recommending that it should,
had presented some volumes on plants to the Society and these they sent
to the Garden. Six months later Wallich got the use of these books
for he was appointed Superintendent. Next the Government, vacillat-
ing, replaced Wallich by James Hare, who at the time was a junior
member of the Calcutta Medical Board; and then again Hare by an-
other surgeon, Thomas Casey ; dispositions which the court of Directors.
in London overruled, so that Wallich returned to the Garden. He
had been ordered to proceed to the Nepalese frontier in the mean-
while, but did not go. There was one botanist who went with the
column advancing on Khatmandu; that was William Jack (1773-
1822) who made some observations in the terai and then by going
to Sumatra with Sir Stanford Raffles when the Nepalese War was
over, passes out of this history.
If the Asiatic Society had decided that Botany should have a place
in its Museum, would a Herbarium have been started? I looks
probable (see Centenary Review, Asiatic Society, 1, p. 343; 1885).
There was no provision made in the Garden’s Service against leave.
During Roxburgh’s service the surgeon James Fleming on one
occasion held charge. When doubting whom to put in after Buchanan’s
departure, the surgeon James Hare was put in. Both of these had
the medical student’s knowledge of plants but this was doubtfully
a qualification for the Superintendent’s botanical work.
On leaving India for Penang in 1822 Wallich suggested that the
Judge William Leycester should act for him; on going on leave in
1828, the administrator Sir Charles Metcalfe took charge. These
changes suggest that Wallich was obliged to let botanical work cease
entirely during his absences. We know that certain aspects of it
did cease.
THE UNSATISFIED ALLURE OF THE HIMALAYA
No active man likes to be debarred from knowledge; and the fact
that the Himalayas were closed, to visitors from Europe had only inten-
sified the desire to explore them. A few intrepid priesis had
penetrated or collected information regarding them, the way closing
again. Towards the end of the 18th century the barriers seemed to
be giving way a little and Thomas Bogle was able to travel in 1774
through Bhutan to Lhasa; William Kirkpatrick in 1793 was received
at Nayakot in Nepal, and Thomas Hardwicke went in 1796 on a
mission to the ruler of Garhwal at Srinagar in the Alaknanda
Valley. These occurrences were far apart in place and time; and
they did not make it clear: which barrier was weakest; but the plains.
depended so enormously on rivers from the hills for irrigating crops
that there was a demand for exploring in particular to the sources.
of ‘the Ganges and Jumna. War ultimately opened some of the
barriers, and opportunity determined which part of the Himalayas
should be botanized.
Buchanan, as already mentioned, was attached to a mission to
Khatmandu in 1802 which was withdrawn in 1803. Next under the
pressing need of knowing whence the Ganges and Jumna came,
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 869
arrangements were made to send surveyors into the mountains of
Garhwal and a permit obtained from the Nepalese who had overrun
that part of the Himalayas. The expedition fell to William Spencer
Webb, an officer of Engineers and a surveyor of the first rank. He
with two companions, Hyder Jung Hearsay and Felix Vincent Raper,
succeeded in reaching Jumnotri where the sources of the Jumna spring
and in fixing the position of Gangotri where the sources of the Ganges
are, but they were hurried out of the mountains by the Nepalese.
The expedition scarcely had direct botanical results; but it showed
William Moorcroft (c, 1765-1825), the Bengal Government’s veterinary
officer, what might be done. Without permission, with Hearsay as
a companion, he passed beyond the sources of the Ganges, over the
Niti Pass and right to the sources of the Sutlej in the Manasoravar
Lakes, and endeavoured to bring back with him a flock of the best shawl-
wool goats. Beyond that he brought back a bundle of dried -lants
which was sent to Robert Brown in London, the first plants obtained
from far back in the mountains. War followed, and when peace
came again (1816), the Nepalese had withdrawn any claim to the
mountains west of the Kali and had consented that a Resident should
live at the Court in Khatmandu, and these were immediate preludes
to plant-collecting.
As soon as peace was declared Webb proceeded with his survey
of the mountains west of the Kali, and Wallich from Calcutta begged
him to receive and take care of his collector Kamrup with a collecting
party; we discover that from this party Wallich had dried specimens
to send to Sir James. Edward Smith as early as May 24th, 1810.
The Government placed a Resident at Khatmandu; and Wallich
sent two collectors to work under him; one was named Bharat Singh ;
the name of the other is not recorded. They seem to have been
those who obtained the first seed of Rhododendron arboreum sent
to Britain (1818). The Residents also employed collectors; three
Residents are named as sending plants to Calcutta, Robert Stuart,
Sir Robert Colquhoun and Colonel Edward Gardner. They must
have followed each other closely, for it was the last of the three who
arranged for Wallich to spend the year 1821 in the Nepal valley
Edward Gardner had won laurels along with a cousin of the same
surname in the fighting to the west of the Nepal Kingdom. Wallich
sent to Khatmandu also his collector Robert Blinkworth, but seems
to have moved him very soon to the north-western Himalaya where
he apparently spent most of his life. Moorcroft visited Nepal
when Wallich was there, but not botanizing. Wallich suffered as
Buchanan had done from severe restrictions on his movements, but
was able to send native collectors deep into the mountains on the pilgrim
route to Gossain Than.
Residents were placed where trade routes emerge from the north-
western Himalaya, one at Dehra Dun, another at Nahan and a th'rd
at Sabathu. The station of Dehra Dun gave birth to the more elevated
station of Mussoorie and the station of Sabathu to the station of
Simla, just a little higher. In 1827 the Governor-General, Lord
Amherst, set his approval on the last named by deciding fo spend
the hot weather there—an act which marked it as delectable beyond
any other. -In 1820 Lord Hastings had visited Saharanpur. There
he had been shown a garden of native foundation but decayed. It
870 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, -Vol. 51
had been founded by the capable son, Zabita Khan, of an eminent
administrator, Najib-ud-Doula, with the revenue of seven villages for
its maintenance. ‘This revenue had been cut by 3/5ths by the Marathas
when: they established a footing in north-western India. The function
of the garden was manifestly encouragement of economic plants
particularly fruit-trees. Lord Hastings restored it. The Survey, this
Garden and the attraction of the hill stations worked together to promote
the knowledge of the flora of the hills.
THE SURVEYORS
Few know anything of the forests of the Himalayas without know-
ing the coniferous trees—Abies webbiana and Pinus gerardiana. The
first commemorates William Spencer Webb (1784-1865) who has been
named; the second commemorates the three brothers (i) Alexander
Gerard (1792-1839) who did much arduous travelling in remote places,
particularly about the watershed of the Sutlej but collected plants
from the front range of the mountains in 18109, (ii) James Gilbert Gerard
(1794-1828) who alike Alexander was an Army Officer; and (iii) Patrick
Gerard (1795-1835) who was a surgeon serving with troops in the
Sutlej Valley. Later came the two Stracheys—Henry Strachey who
surveyed the upper Indus valley and Richard Strachey (afterwards
Sir Richard) (1817-1908), a great collector who carried the accuracy of
his topographical work into his plant labels. An outline of the Survey
may be read in Sir Clements R. Markham’s Memoir on Indian Surveys
(ed. 2, 1878) and a much more detailed account is now in preparation.
The survey began at Saharanpur, that little station which Jacquemont,
writing in 1830, called ‘truly a pleasant place . . . one of the pleasant-
est English stations in India’; there the base-line was measured.
Saharanpur gradually became the depository of many of the
collections of plants that came out of the hills from those who had
business in them.
WALLICH AND ROYLE FROM 1821 TO 1828
It has been recorded that Roxburgh when leaving India for the
last time, put into Carey’s hands a complete copy of his manuscript
Flora Indica. He was to go to the Cape to see if that change
restored his health; if it did not, which happened, he was to try St.
Helena; and failing that to proceed to Britain. There he died in
1815. Carey waited for more than a year and then consulted Wallich
in regard to publication. ‘Publish’, said Wallich, ‘and I will edit
it and bring it up to date’. So printing was commenced. Wallich
little knew then that he could not be Roxburgh and Buchanan in
one—the office man and the field man. Wallich was a competent,
indeed excellent, taxonomist of the Linnean school. Here is a way
of showing this. Take the Flora of British India of Sir Joseph
Hooker and count how many genera are credited to him and to others,
that is to say how many genera created by different workers passed
the test of effectiveness that they got in that work; there are 61 to
Wallich’s credit, 38 to Wight’s or Wight’s and Arnott’s together ; 31 to
Roxburgh’s; 20 to Griffith’s ; 14 to David Don’s and 12 to Buchanan’s.
Wallich was fully competent, but not master of his time. In 1821
CHAPTERS ON THE, HISTORY (OF BOTANY JIN IENDYTA 871
came the lure of the visit to Khatmandu where he stayed nearly a
vear during which the printing was stopped. Wallich came down
from Nepal in November—an unhealthy month, and seems to have
picked up a serious infection on the way. At any rate he attributed a
long illness which followed to an infection got in the terai. His illness
caused him to seek permission for a sea voyage and he decided to go
to Penang and Singapore. He had two works on his hands now,
the editing and bringing up-to-date of Roxburgh’s Flora Indica and
the determining of his Nepalese collections; and moreover he was ill.
He gathered his most attractive Nepalese material together and handed
it to the Calcutta Medical and Physical Society for publication; but
new species to describe were beginning to choke the work of bringing
Roxburgh’s Fiora up to date. He reached Penang in August 1822
and George Porter ( -1834) head overseer of the Calcutta Garden
who had accompanied him, elected to remain in Penang. At Singapore
Wallich procured the use of a house which he called Botany Hall,
on a hillock near the harbour (the hillock has been removed) and
sapparently enjoyed collecting the altogether unfamiliar flora with the
obvious result that he had still more novelties for the Flora Indica.
The printing of the Flora had a second. interruption and then it was
stopped.
Ultimately at the instance of Roxburgh’s sons, James and Bruce,
the original Flora Indica was printed under Carey’s editing in three
volumes (1832) ending for some unexplained reason without the Ferns
that Roxburgh had included. Griffith later caused the Ferns to be
printed.
The Government put the new Botanic Garden at Saharanpur under
their surgeon at the station, George Govan ( -1833). It was
customary to provide a superintending officer in this way. It is said
that Govan greatly improved the Garden, which would be easy as
it was, so to speak, run down. He collected plants, but his leanings
were geological and his only publication is a general one entitled ‘The
Natural History of the Himalayan Mountains’ (Edinb. Journ. Scz.,
3, p- 17; 1824). The Garden had about 4o acres. Meanwhile chance
brought to the Upper Gangetic plains Govan’s successor. This was
John Forbes Royle (1799-1858). He had been destined for the Army
in India and was already at the training college of Addiscombe when
contact with Antony Todd Thomson, the pharmacologist (1778-1849),
gave him so intense an interest in medicinal plants as to make him
resolve on a medical career. Therefore he qualified in medicine and
went out to India where he was sent to Meerut. When Govan retir-
ed, Royle was given Govan’s place. Over his first few years he
found the station work so heavy that he could not travel at all.
We learn what the Garden was like from a paper that he com-
municated to the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Journ. 1, p. 41; 1832).
Govan had cleared away the jungle growth, had levelled, drained and
put down to grass a large part with roads through it and borders
along the roads, had brought water in, planted trees and provided
nurseries, in fact had made that half-way plaisance which is partly
park and partly garden, the ‘jardin anglais’ of the French. Royle
trained collectors and sent them into the hills for seeds and plants
and he created special positions for the raising of hill plants. It is
good to see that he wanted to know the plants alive. Govan had
872 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
constructed a ‘Linnean Garden’, i.e. beds arranged to teach Linnaeus’
classification; Royle maintained them but did not like them. He knew
and knew well that a plant’s affinities are expressible in all its characters,
not in one only. He does not seem to have had difficulties in bringing
into the Garden the plants of the nearer mountains; but when he
asked his collectors to collect further back in Kunawar under an army
officer—Lieutenant Maxwell—they ran away; but Maxwell had the
collecting done and brought to Royle about 100 species that were
novelties to him. Royle successfully sent collectors to Kashmir under
guidance of shawl dealers when these were returning home. As soon
as leave was due Royle took it; and, dividing his accumulation, he
brought duplicates of everything to London with plans for a work
on them, his Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayan Mountains
(1833-1839). As a centre for horticulture the Saharanpur garden was
complementary to the Calcutta garden, serving in a way which Royle
pointed out when writing of his work, for the trial of economic plants
which Calcutta could not raise satisfactorily. As a centre for
botanical exploration both gardens had collectors out in the mounta‘ns
at the same time, but there was room for both. When Wallich’s
were in Kumaon, Royle was sending his to the west.
Royle was clear-minded, very patient and thorough, diligent and
of wide views, with a bent towards the economic side.
In 1825 the Government required of Wallich a report on the sub-
montane forests of Oudh, to make which he travelled up the Gangetic
plains and reached Hardwar, Dehra Dun and Saharanpur, touching
but not covering ground where Royle was at work. In 1826 they
required him to ascend the Irrawaddy, his journey ending on the margin
of the Shan plateau between Mandalay and Maymyo; then (1827) he
ascended the Salween for a short distance and the Ataran River to its—
head waters. And at the end of this there were such great collect-
ions on his hands that he was submerged under them. It was well
that a search for novelties in the north-west had fallen elsewhere.
PENINSULAR INDIA AND CEYLON OVER THE SAME PERIOD
The pursuit of Botany in the south of India was now similarly
detached from the leadership of Calcutta as that in the north-west.
Wight’s intense activities were of Wight’s creation, parallel to but
not of Calcutta; and those who took up the pursuit of Botany in
Bombay looked to Madras and not to Calcutta. Geography deter-
mined this. Roxburgh had not drawn plants from Bombay, nor did
Wallich. Communication was too circuitous and Bombay remained
confined until the power of the Pindarees was broken in 1818, at
which time the Calcutta Garden had its eyes on the Himalaya. Then
began a cleavage which was not without its influence on the botanical
plant-names used in the two halves. The southern consisted of Penin-
sular India with some adherence of Ceylon.
The great monuments that crowd the old cemetery in Surat make
the visitor expect a little early attention to the plants about that
port; but there is none recorded. Olof Toren (1718-1753), chaplain
on a Swedish ship, touched there and, returning home, took seeds
to Linnaeus. More one does not know. In 1787 Banks financed
a Polish surgeon who had travelled in Africa—Anton Pantaleon Hove
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 873
—to proceed to Bombay and up the coast to Ahmedabad, accumulating
living plants for Kew. And a diary which he kept and made over
to Banks, discovered among Banks’s effects long after his death, was
printed in 1855 as Tours made in Guzerat, Kathiawar and the Concans
in 1787-88. It is an account of the travelling. In 1825 Alexander
Gibson (1800-1867) was taken into the medical service of Bombay. A
year later John Sutherland Law (1810-1885) was sent to Bombay in
the administrative service. In 1828 John Graham (1805-1839) arrived
in Bombay seeking employment and was appointed Deputy Post-
master. A fourth botanist, Joseph Nimmo, was a clerk in Surat in
181g and later in a post in Bombay which gave him a connection
with shipping in the Arabian Sea. Graham was given charge of
the Botanic Garden that was controlled by the Agricultural and
Horticultural Society of Bombay and this brought him to a
prominent position. There was a botanically-minded surgeon, Charles
Lush (1797-1845), at the cantonment of Dapuri or Dapoli in the
district of Ratnagiri, with a ‘Botanical Garden’ under his charge,
and a Dr. Heddle in Bombay. All these that I have named corresponded
with John Graham who set himself to compile a Flora of Bombay,
Nimmo being in closest contact. The Flora—not descriptive but an
enumeration—was ready in 1838 and accepted by the Agri-Horticul-
tural Society for printing under the title 4 Catalogue of Plants growing
in Bombay and its vicinity. The setting up had reached p. 200
when Graham died after a few days’ illness, whereafter the rest (to
p. 260) was seen through the press by Nimmo. Wight had written
very appreciatively of Nimmo—his ardour in collecting and his gene-
rosity with his specimens (Madras Journ., 3, p. 3113 1837) and from
other sources we know that he would take plants into a garden that
he had and raise them for the purpose of study. He sent dried plants
to Sir William Hooker and generally with apologies for not collecting
more.
Graham built his Bombay list on Wight and Arnott’s Prodromus
Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis so far as that unfinished work
served him, which was to the Valerianaceae in the sequence of
the families of De Candolle. Though Nimmo added a_ few
descriptions, Graham described nothing, but left the user of the list
with a reference to Wight and Arnott. When these failed him, he
referred the user to that unfinished re-arrangement of Miailler’s
Gardener’s Dictionary which George Don issued as A General System
of Gardening (1831-1838), the whole of which he did not have, and to
De Candolle, Roxburgh or Willdenow. His way of working illustra-
tes what I have said of the dependence of Bombay on Wight. For
a first list Graham’s was creditable.
Of those who contributed to Graham’s catalogue, Law was sta-
tioned then at Thana, and therefore a student of the flora of the
vicinity of Bombay ; later he was sent to Belgaum and explored there
and about Dharwar. Lush was in the low country and more or less
with the same flora to study. Graham was fond of making the
journey to Khandala, where he would gather the hill plants. John
Vaupel, a merchant, I believe, interested in the cotton trade and a
writer on the agriculture of Gujerat, was another helper that Graham
had. - t Pao .
874 JOURNAL,, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Bombay was the first Presidency to make an effort to arrest the
wasteful destruction of forests, and indeed was particularly interested
in the maintenance of a supply of teak timber. The first attempt
was as early as 1806 when powers were given to a seconded police
officer—Captain Watson—to arrest felling in Malabar forests (see
Ribbentrop, Forests of British India, p. 640; 1900), He was success-
ful, but at the cost of such a clamour from those who profited by
the timber that the control was thrown away. The next attempt was
when Gibson, who has just been mentioned as communicating with
Graham towards the Catalogue of the Bombay Flora, was made
Conservator of Forests (1847). This appointment belongs to the
chapter which will follow; but Gibson belongs to both chapters and
therefore it is convenient to insert here that the creation of his post
of Conservator came five years before there was a Superintendent of
Forests in Pegu and nine years before there was.a Conservator ot
Forests in Madras.
I shall leave John Ellerton Stocks, who did the first collecting in
Sind and Baluchistan, to the next chapter.
A zoologist—an army officer—William Henry Sykes (1790-1872),
when stationed at Poona over the years 1826 to 1830, added plant-
collecting to his other interests and made a collection which he gave
to the Linnean Society.
In 1832 the illustrious Victor Jacquemont reached Poona from
Delhi, then came down to Salsette and on to Bombay where he died
in December. This was the end of a great journey and the gather-
ing of the last plants collected on it. All Jacquemont’s collections
were forwarded to Paris as was due; the last plants did not add
to Graham’s list. And again while Graham and his colleagues were
getting together the data for the Catalogue of the flora two other
travellers visited Bombay. One was an officer of the Prussian Army,
Carl Alexander Anselm Freiherr von Huegel (1795-1870), his companion a
zoologist from Marseilles, Polydore Roux. Roux died in Bombay but
not until he had made a collection of local plants. Von Huegel was
liberally supplied by the Bombay botanists with collections which
were purchased from him by the Vienna Museum. Neither wrote
anything regarding the vegetation.
It is time to turn to Ceylon where the first experimental garden
was in Slave Island, a part of Colombo. To Ceylon Banks in 1812
sent William Kerr, as has been recorded, his qualifications—a Kew
training and travel collecting in Malaysia. He died in 1814. His
successor (1817) was Alexander Moon ( -1825), of similar training
but better qualified; and under him the Government Garden was
transferred to Peradeniya, at four miles from Kandy. In 1824 he
published a Catalogue of Ceylon Plants, enumerating 1,127, of which
366 are garden plants. He made a collection of dried plants, pre-
sumably each entry of the Catalogue represented in the collection,
which became the nucleus of the herbarium at Peradeniya today. The
catalogue is as correct as one so isolated as Moon would be able to
make it. Moon was followed by James Macrae of like training. He
had collected in the Pacific for the Horticultural Society and the
obvious reason for selecting him was an anticipation that he would
establish new useful plants in Ceylon; but he lived only three years,
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 875.
dying in 1830. Koenig had collected in Ceylon in 1777, 1780 and
1781.
WALLICH’S GREAT Bip ror HELP IN EUROPE
It is time to return to the affairs of Calcutta to take them up
again from p. 872 where Wallich’s three long journeys to Oudh,
to Ava and to Tenasserim for the purpose of reporting on forests,
were mentioned. Buchanan, undoubtedly a good judge, had told him
as early as 1821 that he had already collected as much material as
he could digest. What Buchanan would have sa'd in 1828 might
well have been that he had what he could not hope to digest. The
way out of the impasse was obvious—others must be found to digest
it; and that being the case Wallich, when granted leave in 1828,
asked to be allowed) to take all his collections with him for the pur-
pose. Wallich, who like other botanists had been sending bundles
of dried plants to those who might work on them, now prepared in
a masterly way to harness a whole team, on the assumption that the
maximum generosity would produce the maximum return; and_ to
attain this he asked that the stored and sterilized collections at the
India House be added. Also he wrote to friends seeking whatever
they might have. The last letter from Buchanan (now Hamilton)
which Prain printed in his Life of Hamilton (Ann. R. Bot. Gard.,
Calcutta, supplement to 10, p. xxxiv) conveyed permission to handle
as he wished whatever Buchanan had had, if he could get it from
others. Wallich hired working space, and having advertised his
intentions well, at once became the centre of an expectant group
anxious to discover the riches of the eastern flora. George Bentham
in particular threw himself into the sorting .and. immediately on
observing that the family Labiatae was ripe for revision proposed to
monograph it. This was exactly what Wallich wanted. Bentham
did not delay; and before Wallich had to return to India Bentham
already had the first part of his Labiatarum Genera et Species in
printing. John Lindley, who had just become Professor at Univer-
sity College, London, was constantly helpful. Wallich was at the top
of his career and Bentham in his diary called him ‘joyous Wallich’.
All who could help were welcome. Lindley brought his pupil William
Griffith who prepared drawings of three very intriguing plants for
Wallich. Hugh Falconer who had been accepted for service in India
and was awaiting the time of sailing was brought to the workrooms.
Royle and Wight, returning to Britain on leave, came to Wallich,
Wight so impressed with the service in hand that he wanted his own
collections to be distributed as Wallich’s were. Meanwhile by the
side of the ordering of the collections, Wallich got together the plates
for his Plantae Asiaticae Rariorves which the grateful Court of
Directors at the India House took upon their hands. The best source
for information on the carrying out of this work is in Daydon Jackson’s
‘George Bentham’ (1906); and the fullest information as to the workers
attracted is in the preface to Volume 3 of the Plantae Asiaticae
Rariores. The time of Wallich’s return drew near. He had attracted
from the Continent of Europe the Professors Karl Friedrich von Martius
of Munich, Karl Friedrich Meissner of Basle, Christian Gottfried
Nees von Essenbeck of Breslau and Johan George Lehmann of
876 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Hamburg, as well as Count Caspar von Sternberg and had provided
them with the material they needed for what they had underiaken to
do. He had promises of aid from six of the most prominent botanists
of Britain.
Then came the closing. The organization had been excellent. The
vast store had been sorted under 7,693 numbers, the larger part sub-
divided again by letters; and Wallich had catalogued them, as work
progressed, by means of his lithographed Catalogue, writing the
entries on the stones himself. Gratitude was general for a great work
well done.
It has been written of Wallich (Dict. Nat. Biogr. 59, p. 135; 1899)
that ‘his zeal as a collector was greater than his patience in working
up existing material’, i.e. his collections. It is an unfair conclusion
from the fact that he had to call in others to help; that need was a
consequence of the vastness of his collections and the vastness a
consequence of the way in which the Company employed him. Doubt-
less his inclinations were ancillary and he showed an _ impulsive
readiness to undertake work. Where, it was asked at the closing,
should Wallich’s working set of specimens be placed—the set that
held all the numbers and therefore the best set. The question was
debated and the Court of Directors decided to make it over to the
Linnean Society and did so at an official luncheon. It was a natural
decision. The Linnean Society had possession of the Linnean Her-
barium, a treasure which has been described (Sir George King in
his Presidential address to the British Association in 1899, p. 11) as
‘not merely a national but a cosmopolitan responsibility’. The placing
of the Wallichian Herbarium, as it may be called, by the side of the
Linnean Herbarium was to do two things, to rank it a great res-
ponsibility and to estimate the Linnean Society’s keeping as the
safest. There was also a profound belief that the climate of Calcutta
would impair it. The decision was the grafting of a living scion
into a living tree. The Linnean Society faithfully carried out the
responsibility put on it until 1913, and since then the same is being
done by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. At leaving Wallich
pointed to material still unassigned and asked for a set for Calcutta
from it. The set was not actually made up, probably as a consequence
of another request which postponed work on it, a request that Royle
might have the loan of the unallotted material; and Royle was a very
slow worker. Thomas Thomson in 1856 (Journ. As. Soc. Bengal,
29, -p. 405) referred to the unfulfilment of Wallich’s request; but it
seems that in one way or another much was done to supply to Calcutta
the desirable material. Wallich on getting back to Calcutta caused
to be made a new herbarium from what was available in the Garden
and he asked other gardens to contribute. While Wallich was on
leave, his artists were at Saharanpur making drawings for Royle. The
name of Vishnu Prasad, the most expert of them, will be found conse-
quently on plates in Royle’ s Illustrations of the Botany of the Hima-
layan Mountains.
THE OPENING OF THE Way TO KASHMIR
During the first half of Wallich’s service, that is to say during
the part ‘with which this chapter is concerned, the leader of French
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY. IN INDIA. \ 877
scientific thought was the illustrious Baron Cuvier, and he was not’
satisfied that France had made a_ sufficient effort. to get scicnt fic’
information from India; he therefore urged the National Museum to’
redouble its collecting ; and Victor Jacquemont (1801-1832), a man
of wonderful vitality and attractiveness, undertook a prolonged period
of travelling. He arrived in Pondicherry’ and’ went forward to
Calcutta in May, 1829, at which time Wallich was in London. It
is from Jacquemont that we discover Sir Charles Metcalfe to have
had the Calcutta Garden under his charge. Jacquemont was g:ven
all possible facilities for learning to recognize plants that he was
likely to meet, by study in the Garden and its library. Meanwhile
he learned Hindustani and Persian, with the intention of being ready
to go to the north-west when the rainy season was over. It has
been written that he avoided the English; nothing could be further
from the truth; he spent his time with them if he was where they
were. The Garden he called ‘a magnificent establishment’ and the
letters that he wrote home (Letters from India) translated by Catherine
Alison Philips 1935, and the Diary printed by the Government of
France (1841) are delightfully full of colour regarding Calcutta life.
There was a European Head Gardener or Overseer at the Garden whom.
he does not name supported by ‘a magnificent Brahmin’, possibly
the “Buxee’ of Griffth’s report on the Garden; and on the latter’s
knowledge of plant-names Jacquemont greatly relied, for there were
no plant-labels. When the rains were over, Jacquemont proceeded
across Chota Nagpur and up-country through Bundelkhand to Agra
and Delhi and then to Saharanpur where Royle was very helpful to
him. The summer was spent in the mountains. He went through
Dehra Dun and Mussoorie to the sources of the Jumna and the Tons;
then to Simla; then to Spiti, and back to Delhi. This was the round
of continuous collecting of his first season.
At this time among the French officers employed by Ranjit Singh
was Jean-Francois Allard, and General Allard, reporting to his
master that he had a fellow-countryman at work on the British side
of the Sutlej, was told to invite him over. Thus it came about that
Jacquemont was able to obtain permission to enter Kashmir, being the
first botanist to do so. He spent the summer of 1831 in the Vale
or in the hills that limit it, and at the end of summer bent his way
back to Delhi with great collections, On through Rajasthan he
proceeded and so to Poona whence he descended to Bombay, there
to d'e from the consequences of his hard life. A personal friend,
Jacques Carabessedes, undertook in Paris the working out of his p!ants,
but was compelled by family affairs to desist; and on his departure
from Paris, Joseph Decaisne took on the work. The collection of letters
that I have mentioned was printed in French in 1835, his diary in
1841, and the descriptions of Cambessédes and of Decaisne in 1838-
1840, Royle’s Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayan Mountains
being in the course of issue at the same t-me. Cambessédes and
Decaisne do not show themselves aware of this.
Jacquemont’s success in opening the road to Kashmir let two
others in. One was Baron von Huegel who has been mentioned as
entering Ind’a by Bombay. The other was the travelier Godfrey
Thomas Vigne (1801-1863). The latter left Britain at the end of 1832
8
878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
and, travelling through Persia, arrived at Bombay in 1833; then
entered the Himalaya from Delhi. He collected plants but was not
a botanist. He and von Huegel met in the Vale of Kashmir at Srinagar.
The effects of this opening up of Kashmir will be made evident in
the next chapter; when the appearing of new centres of work on
Indian plants comes up for notice.
CONCLUSION
Finally it is fitting to mention for the sake of completeness the
names of certain others who collected a little, but escaped the bio-
graphic record, that my list of those who served may be complete.
Captain John Conway brought plants to Petiver. Mr. Dick communi-
cated plants from Sylhet to Roxburgh. John Fox or Foxe brought
plants to Petiver. A collector named Macé entered the Circars early in
the 19th century and collected plants which are probably conserved in
Paris. Nathaniel Maidstone brought plants to Petiver. Benjamin
Meaux brought plants to Petiver. Mrs. or Miss Mariott collected
plants at Trincomalee which reached Benjamin Delessert. Mrs. or
Miss Oltmans collected plants in Ceylon which are conserved at
Leiden.
WHAT ULTIMATELY TERMINATES THE LIFE SPAN
OF THE WHALE SHARK, RHINEODON TYPUS?
BY
E. W. GUDGER
The American Museum of Natural History
(With a plate and two text figures)
After forty years’ study of the natural history of the Whale Shark,
I believe that data are at hand from which to work out at least
a tentative answer to the question suggested in the title of this article.
It should be noted at once that its enemies are few.
THE ONLY ANIMATE ENEMIES OF THE WHALE SHARK—INTESTINAL
PARASITES
Barring intestinal parasites, acquired in its peculiar manner of
feeding—and about which we know little and, because of difficulties
of procuring and dissecting specimens of this great fish, we are not
likely to learn much more—it can be said that Rhineodon has no
other known animate enemies. Only one investigator seems ever to
have attempted a dissection for parasites in Rhineodon. This was
T. Southwell. His notes on the parasites of our fish, made on March
18th, 1910, in Dutch Bay, Ceylon, read as follows: ‘Stomach empty,
but six huge cestodes in gut. ... A number of soft, round, pink
cysts also found on the walls of the stomach. Spiral valve full of
holes [some sharks have a normal central hole (instead of a newel
post) in their spiral valves]. Cestodes numerous, all Tetrarhynch‘ds.’!
The size of the Whale Shark in this instance is not given, nor is
there any statement as to its general condition. One can hardly
think that these parasites would bring a huge Rhineodon to its end.
Other than such parasites, Rhineodon has no successful animate
enemies. It may be noted in passing that this intestinal parasitism
is fostered by Rhineodon’s manner of feeding which will be discussed
later.
IMMUNITY DUE TO TWO FACTORS IN THE PHYSICAL
STRUCTURE OF RHINEODON
The immunity to attacks by other smaller but very ferocious sharks
is due to two factors which will be briefly considered. The way will
then be open for the study of the one lethal factor.
Vine Great Size OF the Winale Slnarlke
The first protective factor is size. The Whale Shark is well named
for it is literally a whale in size, as Photo 1 shows. This is from a
photograph of an unmutilated specimen drawn up on the beach at
+ This very brief isolated account is found on page E 44 of Southwell’s ‘Notes
on the Fauna of the Ceylon Pearl Banks’ in Ceylon, Administrative Reports,
1912-18, Part IV, Marine Biology.
880 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Acapulco, southwest coast of Mexico, in 1935. From it one can get
an idea of Rhineodon’s shape and size.
The smallest Rhineodon on record was six feet long (from Cuban
waters). Small specimens have measured 15, 17, 18 and 20 feet. The
Fire Island specimen (noted below) measured 31.5 ft.. The average
size of an adult of this greatest of the sharks is probably 30-40 ft.
But Dr. H. M. Smith has recorded a specimen from Siamese wat rs
that was slightly over 59 ft. This great fish is truly colossal. One
has no oceanic standards of comparison save the great whales—the
Sperm Whale, about 60 feet long; and the Blue or Sulphur-bottom
Whale from 75 to 100 ft.—and but few readers of this article have
ever seen either of these great whales.
In short, we do not know the size of Rhineodon at birth, at
sexual maturity or when its maximum of life is reached. For deter-
mining the age of bony fishes, we have the help of annual rings in the
body scales and the annual layers in the bony ossicles in the internal
ears. But so far as this cartilaginous fish is concerned, both these th.ngs
are lacking.
I have seen but one Whale Shark in the flesh—the specimen taken
in a fish trap net off Fire Island, Long Island, in 1935. This sp¢ci-
men was truly colossal: length, 31.5 ft.; width of mouth straight
across inside from angle to angle of jaws was 4 in. short of 4 ft.; the
spread of the great lunate tail fin was g ft. It was the most gigantic fish
I had ever seen. I had no standards of comparison. My largest
sharks had been 12-ft. Tigers and a 13-ft. Hammerhead. And as J
viewed this Rhineodon on the floor of a fish-house in Islip, Long
Island, and walked about on its gigantic body, I was in a mental fog.
I could hardly believe my eyes.
The great preponderance of size of a huge Rhineodon over even a
12- to 15-foot Tiger Shark (Galeocerdo) or a 20- or 25-foot maneater
(Carcharodon) would certainly give the Rhineodon a greater degree
of protection from attack than either of the other genera enjoys. But
if attacked, a blow from the great lunate tail of Rhineodon would
crush its attacker, even if the attacker were a shark of one of the
larger species, other than Ihineodon.
We will now consider the second factor ‘deterrent to attacks by
smaller but more ferocious sharks equipped with large cutting teeth.
the Lhaok “Diemis ce) Silken tome se heaeicsorasoun
The second factor promoting the immunity to attack is the 2 to
3- or 4-inch thick shagreen-covered skin of Rhinzodon. No oth2r
shark has such great thickness and density of armour. The thickness
and density of the skin, taken in connexion with the great size of
Rhineodon, are such that even a very large Carcharodon, with its large
triangular serrate teeth, could hardly get a ‘hold’ on the great body
of Rhineodon. Carcharodon (the maneater) might, however, try to
take a bit out of a fin—dorsal, pectoral, pelvic or caudal. But, so
far as all known accounts and figures go, no Whale Shark so mutilated
has ever been seen and recorded. ‘The great length and the enormous
bull are effective deterrents to attack by any ferocious smaller sharks.
I had long had the idea (or better, the bel ef) that the Whale
Shark is not only a whale in size but resembles the whalebone whales
THE TERMINATION OF THE LIFE SPAN OF THE WHALE SHARK 881
in its manner of feeding. This belief was based on many reports of
the great fish swimming continually at the surface of the sea, pre-
sumably taking in the plankton or other small creatures. While
feeding thus, Rhineodon lays itself open to attack by its one enemy.
Before going on to demonstrate what is the one great enemy of
Rhineodon, it will be necessary to show that the feeding habits of our
great shark contribute to its own destruction.
The Whale Shark’s Manner of Feeding
Preparatory to what is to follow, it may be well just here to
explain that our great fish is called Whale Shark not only because
of its great size but because of its (for a shark) remarkable manner
of feeding.
The Whale Shark’s first and greatest business in life is to get
enough food to keep the great engine of its body going. It swims
about slowly in keeping with its bulky body which is not built for
speed. But even so, much energy is needed to move a body whose
weight must be estimated in tons. No one has ever yet weighed
a Khineodon. To do so, the great fish would have to be floated
on a flat car under water, and subsequently rolled on to a railway
track scales used in weighing bulky objects which cannot be handled
otherwise. However, a 38-ft. specimen taken at Knight’s Key, Florida,
in 1912, was estimated to weigh about 13} tons.
But we must inquire with what kind of food and in what quantities
does the Whale Shark stoke its great engine.
Based on what is known of other large sharks, one would expect,
from the great length of IRhineodon, its huge foreparts and exag-
geratedly wide head, that the enormous cavernous mouth would be
filled with huge triangular cutting teeth capable of disposing of a full-
grown swordfish or a tiger shark. But not so; the very small teeth
are in contrast with the 4- or 5-ft. wide jaws. They form in each
jaw a band (of about 3,600 teeth in the 31.5-ft. specimen) extend:ng
from angle to angle of the great jaws (figure 1). The band is com-
Fig. 1.—A dried toothband of the 31.5-ft. Fire Island Rhineodon. Note the smalt
teeth in rows from front to back like teeth of a file.
posed of rows of teeth extending from front to back. Each row has from
1o to 12 or 14 teeth pointing backward. Each tooth has a bulbous
base and the tooth proper is sharply recurved flatly to the rear (the
882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
interior of the mouth). The cusp of the tooth, that is, the
part covered with enamel, is only about three-sixteenths of an inch
long. It does not stand upright, as do other shark’s teeth, but is
bent flatly backward and inward (figure 2).
Fig, 2.—A much enlarged section or row of the toothband of MRhineodon.
The teeth do not stand erect as in other sharks, but are all bent and point backward
toward the gullet—like the teeth of a file.
In appearance and feeling, the teeth in the bands all pointing
backward, are like the teeth on a rasp or file used by horseshoers
in shaping the hoof of a horse for the iron shoe. Hence the generic
name of the fish, Rhineodon (rhine, a file, and odon, a tooth) = file-
toothed. These teeth may be used for holding but not for biting.
Our great shark is not merely a whale in size, but, like the whalcbone
whales, a whale in manner of feeding. It feeds on the small forms
of life that float on or drift on or swim at the surface of the sea—
diatoms and other similar plant forms, small invertebrates (the larvae
of worms, for instance), larval crustaceans and fishes or surface-
living adult small crustaceans. It swims along at the surface with
open mouth collecting this food. The water passes down through
a grid-like sieve in the floor and sides of the mouth (the mod _-fied
gill apparatus) and out through the gill slits, the food being left
behind. To get sufficient of this small food stuff to keep the huge
engine of its body going, Ikhineodon apparently must spend most
of its time swimming at the surface of the sea and feeding after this
manner.
I had long had the belief, as intimated before, that, like the
Blue Whale, Rhineodon was a surface-feeder since it swims along
at the surface with ‘no visible means of support.’ Everything indi-
cated that it was a plankton-feeder. This conclusion was drawn
from the structure of the mouth, teeth and gullet, but more direct
evidence was to come. The U.S. Hydrographic Office in Wash'ng’ on
long years ago began to send me Whale Shark notices. And in 1938
it sent a report from Mr. E. R. Fenimore Johnson of Camden, New
Jersey, which led to correspondence with him. He wrote that on
June 3rd, 1938, off Sugar Cay, Tongue of the Ocean, Bahamas, his
ketch ran into a school of about a dozen Whale Sharks. The sea
was quite calm, and the sharks quite unafraid. They swam around
the vessel and one bumped into it. Mr. Johnson writes that they
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Photo 1.—A freshly caught, medium-sized, whale shark on the beach at Acapulco,
south-west Mexico. Compare its length with the height of the tall man, and note
how the body is wide and heavy in the forward parts.
Photo 2.—A feeding whale shark is sculling along with the broad head and
upper jaw just clear of the surface of the water. Thus he takes in food.
Photo 3.—A whale shark impaled on the bow of a steamboat. The head is on
the left of the bow and the body swings near the right side of the vessel.
THE TERMINATION OF THE LIFE SPAN OF THE WHALE SHARK 883
were plainly engaged in feeding, swimming about for one or two
minutes with their wide mouths partly open, the upper jaw being
about even with the surface of the water. Then each fish would close
its mouth and dive to a shallow depth, for the depth pressure to
help get rid of the water through the gills and then the giant fish
would come to the surface for another swim with mouth open.
Mr. Johnson watched this performance for some time and made
a motion picture film of the sharks moving about. This he has
kindly presented to the American Museum. From one of its sections,
Photo 2 was made and, thanks to Mr. Johnson, it is the first photo-
graph ever made and published showing the feeding of the Whale
Shark.
When we brought back to the Museum in 1935 the floor and sides
of the mouth of the Fire Island specimen, study of this revealed a
marvellous sieve or grid-like structure which would let the water pass
out through to the gill slits, but would retain organisms as
small as a bit of lead from a pencil. This was the structure that
substantiated the belief that Rhineodon is a plankton-feeder.
However, Rhineodon must need and must get bulkier food. This
it undoubtedly finds in sardines and like small surface-feeding fishes,
and their feeding and schooling habits make it easier for the Whale
Shark to get them in great quantities. Like Rhineodon, they are
plankton-feeders on the surface and go in schools. The sardine fisher-
men off Lower California often find Rhineodon competing with them
—indeed, they sometimes get a Whale Shark in their sardine nets.
These sardines are presumably the largest fish on which Rhineodon
normally feeds. However, it probably sometimes feeds on any
somewhat larger fishes that it gathers at the surface and can swallow
through its small gullet. And it is also known that it feeds on small
squids.
~ Reports have come in from the waters north of Cuba of Whale
Sharks feeding in a vertical position. Mr. Stewart Springer reports
having seen this vertical feeding by Whale Sharks in the Gulf of
Mexico. The suggestion has been made to him that he extend
his observations, make photographs and prepare an account of this
variant feeding for publication.
We are now ready to make a short study of the one deadly
enemy of the Whale Shark—an enemy encountered in its feeding.
THE WHALE SHARK’S JNANIMATE ENEMY—A STEAMSHIP
_In this process of surface food-gathering, the Whale Shark sculls
open-mouthed over miles of ocean and ever and anon one of these
great fish unconsciously blunders into the path of an oncom’ng
steamer. If they are close to each other, there is often a collision
and the Rhineodon’s back is broken, as seen in Photo 3. Then the
steamer stops to let the great fish drop off. If it does not drop,
the ship must ‘back water’ to free the leviathan from its bow and
let it sink. Then another steamer-Whale Shark collision was report-
ed to the U.S. Hydrographic Office in Washington. Photo 3 shows
such a broken-backed Rhineodon being held fast to the prow by the
pressure of the water. The partly torn-off head is to the left of the
stem with the body hanging back along the right side of the
vessel.
884 _ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Another broken-backed Whale Shark in the Red Sea was swung
up alongside the ship that killed it and the spinal column was found
to be thoroughly crushed. Three other such collisions have been
reported from the Red Sea.
The latest account in time and space may well be recorded here
briefly. On June 5th, 1951, the steamer Veendam in lat. 42°02'N.,
long. 62°50'W. (some 380 miles east of Cape Cod), found herself
in a small school of Whale Sharks. One of these (about 30 ft. long),
lumbering across the course of the steamer, was struck by it and
had its back broken. The great fish was so firmly held on the bow
that the steamer had to go astern to free herself from the obstacle.
Incidentally, this record is the Whale Shark’s farthest north in any
ocean.
This is no solitary occurrence. I have put on record some ten or
twelve earlier occurrences. They have been reported from all the great
oceans. Unless there is some departure from the normal, or unless
the occurrence is in a new locality, it does not seem weil to multiply
records.
Thus these collisions are accounted for, but the next question is,
‘What becomes of these broken-backed Whale Sharks?’ But two
dead Rhineodons are on record as having drifted on shore—one near
Madras, India, in 1889, and one three miles above Ormond, Florida,
in 1902. In neither case was any cause of death ascertained or alleged.
It would seem that a broken-backed floating Rhineodon might be rolled
along by the waves and eventually carried ashore by the tide or surf.
If any reader of this article knows of such a crumpled-up specimen
coming ashore, it would be a great service to the science of ichthyology
to report it. It would seem that such a huge and heavy specimen
must sink.
The number of Whale Sharks in the sea (e.g. in the Gulf of Mexico
or off Southern California) must be fairly considerable, but their
meeting with steamers with the results of broken backs and consequent
deaths, are relatively few. Also, it should be weighed that the era
of ocean steamers is relatively recent and that, during the long
period preceding, the Whale Sharks were not endangered in the ship-
less sea. These things being true, another and inevitable fate, apart
from being rammed by steamers, must be the usual mode of death
for Rhineodon.,
MANY WHALE SHARKS DIE OF OLp AGE
In relation to the vast areas of our three tropical and sub-tropical
oceans (the home of the Whale Shark), the number of Whale Sharks
and steamers are comparatively few. Furthermore, the chances of
a collision between steamer and shark must be almost infinitesimally
small when the time element is considered.
Tue FInaL END OF THE WHALE SHARK
—DEATH FROM OLD AGE
From a consideration of the facts set out above, one must in-
evitably come to the conclusion that, when Rhineodon escapes a
collision with a steamer, one end awaits him—Death from Old
Age—from the degenerative metabolic changes and processes conse-
quent on old age.
BIONOMICS OF MONANTHIA GLOBULIFERA WALK.
(HEMIPTERA—HETEROPTERA; TINGIDAE)
BY
U. S. SHARGA, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Edin.)
(Professor of Agricultural Zoology,
Government Agricultural College, Kanpur)
(With five figures)
LW PR OD WG ©WULO Ww
Very little work has been done on the bionomics of Tingid bug's
in India. The bionomics of Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal (=lantanae
Distant has been described by Khan (1945) and by Roonwal (1952).
Monanthia globulifera Walk. and Urentius echinus Dist. are Tingid
bugs commonly distributed throughout Uttar Pradesh. M. globulifera
attracted attention in 1950 when serious damage was caused by it to
the leaves of Ocimum kilimandscharicum Guerke which was grown
experimentally for the production of camphor in Kanpur. It was
previously recorded as a pest of Mentha leaves all over India. Some
aspects of its bionomics are described here.
DISTRIBUTION
Distant (1903, 1910) reported M. globulifera from Madras, Calcutta,
Trivandrum and Travancore. Fletcher (1914) stated that it was
distributed throughout the plains of South India, while Lefroy (1909)
recorded it from Madras, Ceylon and Bihar. In U.P. it has been
observed and collected from various localities.
Foop PLANTS
Monanthia globulifera Walk. has been recorded from Carthamus
tinctorius L. ‘safflower’ (Fletcher 1914); Ocimum sanctum L. ‘tulsi’ ;
Salvia officinalis, ‘English sage’; Ocimum basilicum L.; heliotrope
and garden coleus (Distant 1903, 1910). In Kanpur, it has been
reared and collected from Ocimum basilicum L., O. canum L., O.
kilimandscharicum Guerke and Mentha plants.
DAMAGE
Damage is caused by the nymphs and adults which suck the sap
from the lower side of the leaves. The leaves of Ocimum spp. turn
yellow and fall down. In the case of Mentha plants, the leaves first
turn yellow and ultimately become black; they dry up and give the
appearance as if the plants have been affected by severe drought. In
cases of heavy infestation the entire plantation of Mentha and Ocimum
may be wiped out, leaving only bare shoots.
886 VOC AVE TOMI NE INAIL OR AVL, JULI, SOXGIIB ION, Wall, Bil
DESCRIPTION OF STAGES |
E g g.—o.5 mm. long, 0.2 mm. broad (mean of 10 observations) ;
oblong oval posteriorly with the posterior pole rounded, correspond-
ing to the posterior end of embryo. Anterior or cephalic end broad
i
O77 mm
os mm fomm
h 5.
Stages of Monanthia globulifera Walk.
Fig. 1. Twig of Ocimum sanctum L. showing eggs glued in the pit
Fig. 2 One egg showing operculum
Fg. 3. Fi-st stage nymph
Fig. 4. Third s:age nymph
Fig. 5. Adult
with a cup-shaped operculum having a circular rim. Operculum fits
into mouth of the egg-body. Anterior end fringed with about 12
small, pointed processes corresponding to the micropylar canals in
Teleonemia scrupulosa St&l (Roonwal, 1952). The ‘micropylar canal
fringed mouth’ of egg-body visible even when operculum is closed;
BIONOMICS OF MONANTHIA GLOBULIFERA WALK. 887
also clearly seen in egg-shell when operculum has been removed or
raised up after hatching. Chorion smooth. Egg of light colour when
freshly laid becoming dark yellowish later on. Anterior one-third of
egg-body darker than posterior area which is lightly dark ochraceous.
Nymphal Stages.—tThere are five instars. The length in-
creases from 0.5 mm, in the first stage nymph to 2.3 mm. in the
adult.
First stage.—Length 0.5 mm.; breadth (11 and m1 abdominal seg-
ments) 0.3 mm. General body colour ochraceous somewhat darkish
yellow on the head and thorax; compound eyes reddish. Antennae
ochraceous, 4-jointed; first segment short and stout, 0.02 mm. long;
second 0.04 mm. long; third 0.08 mm, long with about 4 sensory
hairs; fourth longest, o.1 mm. long, sub-globose with several sensory
hairs; situated anteriorly and is somewhat darker than the rest. Head
and abdominal segments carrying stout hair-like processes which are
smooth on the sides; those on the dorsum are somewhat funnel-like
at the terminal end. Labium reaching upto the hind coxae, darkish
terminally. Thorax with some dark granular spots on the dorsal side.
Legs ochraceous, coxae broad and dark ochraceous, trochanter short,
femur and tibia fairly long. Tarsus one-jointed, about 0.08 mm. long
with a pair of prominent claws at the terminal end.
Second stage.—Length 0.9 mm.; breadth 0.4 mm. General col!o-
ration slightly darker than the first stage. Joints of antennae longer
and similar to the first stage.
Third stage.—Length 1.4 mm.; breadth 0.7 mm. (m and ui abdo-
minal segments). General colour of the body black. Compound eyes
reddish. Antennae 4-segmented and blackish yellow; first segment
0.05 mm. long; second 0.06 mm. long; third longest, 0.2 mm. with
about six hairs; fourth o.1 mm. long, sub-globose and with several
hairs situated anteriorly. Head, thorax and abdomen carry stout
black processes [called ‘lobular prominences’ by Roonwal (1952)],
dorsally and laterally; maximum length of the lobular prominences
0.I mm.; with finely serrated sides ending in four small terminal
processes. Legs yellowish black with one-jointed tarsus ending in
a pair of well defined claws. Rudiments. of wing-pads visible.
Fourth and fifth stages.—Body jet black, with reddish eyes.
Antennae 4-segmented and dark, similar to the third stage but larger.
Wing-pads greatly developed over abdomen.
Adult.—Length 2.3 mm. (without antennae); breadth 1.1 mm.
Antennae ochraceous, 4-segmented; first segment o.08 mm. long;
second of same size as first; third longest, 0.5 mm. long; fourth 0.2
mm. long with several hairs, darker ochraceous than the rest; total
length of antennae 0.g mm. Vertex o.2 mm. broad; thorax 1.2 mm.
broad. Legs ochraceous, femur dark; tibia with short spines; tarsi
and claws dark ochraceous. Hemelytra raised, forming discal eleva-
tions at two places; divided into costal, subcostal, discoidal and
sutural areas; length of hemelytra 2.0 mm., breadth 0.7 mm. Hind-
wings hyaline with somewhat indistinct costal vein and a cell below
with two veins radiating to the anterior part of margin. Hind cubitus
with a bifurcated vein. Anal areas of hind-wing having marked anal
888 JOURNAL, ROMBAY) NATURAL HIST: SOCIBMY, Volbt
veins. Length of hind-wing 1.7 mm.; breadth 0.6 mm. Rest of the
description is similar to that given by Distant (1903).
LIFE-HISTORY AND SEASONAL-HISTORY
Mating occurs throughout the year, but is seen common from
March to June and less frequent from July to February. Eggs are
laid inside the tender stems or shcots and are partially inserted
into the tissues; the latter, on drying, appear as a scar. The eggs
are glued to the place of insertion by a small quantity of viscous fluid
which is given out by the female after egg-laying. Eggs are generally
laid in groups and seldom singly. They are inserted obliquely and
the opercular portion protrudes outside. A single female laid 28 eggs
(April, 1951) and 10 eggs (January, 1952). There is considerable
variation in the duration of egg-laying and in the number of eggs
laid by a single female in different seasons of the year. The duration
of egg-laying was 4 days in April 1951, 6 days in May 1951 and
13 days in January, 1952. The number of eggs laid was from 12
to 28 in April, 1951, 20 in May, 1951 and 8-10 in January, 1952.
Hatching takes place by the opening of the operculum which after
hatching generally remains attached to one side of the egg-opening.
At the time of hatching some wriggling movement and some expansion
and contraction of the head of the embryo is observed inside the egg.
This seemingly causes pressure on the operculum which is forced
open. The hatching period appears largely to depend upon atmo-
spheric temperature. Observations in different months indicate that
the eggs hatched in 7-8 days in March, 1951, in 8 days in May, 1951,
in 7 days in June, 1951 and in 12-20 days in January, 1952.
There are 5 nymphal instars. The total nymphal period was 15
days in March, 1951, 14 days in April to June, 1951, and in January,
1952. The shortest life-cycle took 21 days in May, 1951 and 45 days
in December, 1951 and January, 1952. Owing to shorter life-cycles
from March to June, a heavy population of the bugs is built up.
Monanthia globulifera Walk. is found all the year round on the
perennial Ocimum sanctum L. and other species of Ocimum occurring
in the locality. If there is a plot of mint cultivation nearby, migration
occurs by flight which is partly assisted by wind. Mint plantations
get the first infestation in this way and subsequently breeding on mint
begins. Breeding occurs throughout the year on food-plants.
FLIGHT AND DISPERSAL
The adult is capable of short flights. The distance which it can
fly at any one time in the calm air of the laboratory varied from 4
to 18 inches. In May and June, 1950, an experiment was made by
releasing 50 adults which were marked with a drop of red oxide
of mercury and varnish in the proportion of 1:3. The nearest plan-
tation of Ocimum and Mentha was at a distance of about 85 ft. The
passage lay through rows of crotons and grassland. After liberation,
the adults were observed to disperse in all directions and appeared
to have been lost in the grassy patch. After 56 hours only four
adults were observed on Mentha leaves. The adults are light and
BIONOMICS OF MONANTHIA GLOBULIFERA WALK. 889
they can be drifted by wind to long distances from sources of in-
festation. Generally new patches of .Mentha cultivation get the
infestation from infested Ocimum plants in the vicinity.
PREDATORS
Grubs of Brumus saturalis F., Chilomenes sexmaculatus F. and
Coccinella septempunctata L. have been observed to feed on the
nymphal stages of Monanthia. The adults and grubs of these Cocci-
nellid beetles have been commonly seen on Ocimum plants. Coccinella
septempunctata L. adults have been observed on Mentha. The grubs,
however, are not as common on Mentha as on Ocimum possibly
because Mentha shoots run close to the ground and the grubs have
no easy access to the nymphal stages for feeding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am thankful to Sri K. N. Kaul, Director, National Botanical
Garden, Lucknow, for identifying the different species of Ocimum,
and to Dr. K. B. Lal, Entomlogist to Government, U.P. for lending
the help of his sectional artist. I am thankful to Sri C. P. Pant,
Research Assistant, Agricultural Zoology Section, Government Agri-
cultural College, Kanpur for help in the preparation of slides.
REFERENCES
Distant, W. L. (1903): Fauna Brit. India, Rhynchota, 2 (1): 144.
— — — (1910): Fauna Brit. India, Rhynchota, 5, Heteroptera. Appendix, pp.
123-124.
Fletcher, T. B. (1914): Some South Indian Insects, Madras, pp. 485-486.
— — — (1917): Proc. Second Ent. Meeting, Pusa, Calcutta, pp. 97; 267.
— — — (1919): Proc. Third Ent. Meeting, Pusa, Calcutta, 1: p. 264.
Khan, A. H. (1945): On the Lantana Bug (Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal).—Indian
J. Ent., New Delhi, 6 (1-2) [1944], pp. 149-161.
Lefroy, H. M. (1909): Indian Insect Life, Calcutta, p. 693.
Roonwal, M. L. (1952): The natural establishment and dispersal of an imported
insect in India—The Lantana Bug, Teleonemia scrupulosa Stai (=lantanae Distant)
(Hemiptera—Tingidae), with a description of its eggs, nymphs and adult.—J. Zool.
_ Soc., India, Calcutta, 4 (1); 1-16.
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG.
IN INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON
BY
N. L. Bor
Part [
Anyone who takes up the study of Cymbopogon in India and its neigh-
bouring countries, must read with feelings of deep gratitude the masterly
paper which the late Dr. Stapf wrote in the Kew Sudletin for 1906. That
paper, in which much learning and research are displayed, summarised our
knowledge up to 1906, but it is characterisiic of a dynamic subject like
taxonomy that the paper was out of date shortly after publication, for
Jowitt in Ceylon described an additional species only two years afterwards.
In the intervening years other new species have been discovered, and even
Stapf himself altered his views to some extent. Much research has also
been done in the meantime on the essential oils which can be obtained from
these grasses. It is considered, therefore, that the time has come for a
further assessment of the position, and this is the justification for the
present paper.
The name Cymbopogon is derived from two Greek words, xc¥.,8y a
hollow vessel, cup or boat, and 7#Yw,, beard—the first of which refers no
doubt to the boat-shaped spatheoles which are such a conspicuous feature
of the inflorescence, while the second one, 7wwYw1, appears in the names
of many genera of the Andropogoneae and is generally supposed to be de-
scriptive of a many-awned inflorescence.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENUS
The main claim to Cistinction possessed by this genus is that all of its
members are aromatic grasses, and some of them have become of such
importance for their oil-content, that they are cultivated on a large scale
in many parts of the world. ‘The majority of the oils, which are obtained
by steam distillation, are pleasantly scented and are largely used in the
perfumery trade, while some also have a reputation in native medicine.
The cils produced by the various species, in so far as they have keen tested
are briefly described under the taxonomic description of each species.
Incidentally the aromatic cil remains for many years in the leaves of a
dried specimen, and can easily be detected by chewing up a fragment in
the mouth. Indeed, Stapf recalled that when the tombs of certain Egyp‘ian
kings of the 20th or 21st Dynasty (about 3,000 years old) were opened in
1881, the odour of the grasses, among them COTES schoenanthus, Was
still perceptible.
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 891
One would like to be able to record that each species of Cymbopogon
is the source of an oil which is different from that derived from any other
species, and that a key to the species could be drawn up from the charac-
teristics of the oils alone. Alas, such simplification, although it would
make the task of the taxonomist much easier, is seldom found in Nature
and Cymbopogon is no exception to this rule.
It is exasperating to find that two easily separable species, C. flexwosis
and C. citvatus, yield oils which are almost identical. Again, C. zavdus var.
maraus and C. winterianus, which are quite cistinct both in the field and in
the herbarium, yield oils which resemble one another closely. At the other
extreme is a Cymlopogon, C. martiniz, which yields two oils which are
totally different from one another. ‘This species exists in two forms which
can be separated in the field by their habit, but not in the herbarium where
such distinctions are lost in the dried specimen. Each form yields an oil
which is quite different from the other—one is valuable, the other is not.
One form grows in a dry hatitat, the other in a moister and lower hatitat,
but if they are grown together in the same habitat, each maintains its dis-
tinciive hakit and produces the same kind of cil as before.
The majority of the species comprising this genus are tall, often very
tall, grasses. ‘Vhe ultimate unit of the inflorescence is a characteristic pair
of racemes divergent from one another and finally epinastic at the tip of a
peduncle supported by a spatheole. All inflorescences, whether simple or
of the utmost complexity, are made up of units like that just described.
Each branching takes place from the axil of a spathe-like scale. These
scales, spathes or spatheoles, or whatever name may be applied to them,
are a conspicuous part of the inflorescence and become more conspicuous
as the panicle matures, as in fading, they change their green colour to
various shades of brown, orange, gold, purple or 1ed.
The raceme-pairs are all on the sam=2 plan and consist of a fragile
rhachis with a sessile and a pedicelled spikelet at each articulation. One
raceme is sessile or subsessile, the other possesses a short stalk. They are
articulated to the tip of the peduncle where there is a conspicuous
gland in the fork. ‘The subsessile or sessile raceme is different from
the other, in that the lowest pair of spikelets, a sessile and a pedicelled,
are homogamous, male or neuter. ‘There is a further distinction which
is displayed by a few species, namely, that the pedicel of the pedicelled
spikelet of this pair becomes grossly swollen, hard and sometimes polished.
In all other pairs of both racemes the spikelets are heterogamous and the
pedicels are more or less similar to the joints. Naturally such a character
as the swollen pedicel is of very great importance for separating species,
but the epinastic Lchaviour of the racemes scems to run right through the
genus with few exceptions.
In one section of the genus there is a very narrow slit-like depression
in the lower half of the lower glume which appears as a rib on the inner
surface. In other species, the glume may be flat, concave, puckered,
wrinkled or depressed, glabrous or puberulous, and finally in another sec-
tion there is a slot-like groove running the whole or part of the length of
the lower glume. All these characters are extremely useful for separat-
ing species, and on the whole are quite satisfactory for this purpose. ‘The
glumes quite often contain obvious oil-bearing tissue. For example, on
the lower glume of the sessile spikelet of C. merzatus there are two brown
stripes, one on each side of the central groove, which are quite characteris-
892 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
tic. The lower glumes of the pedicelled spikelets of several species also
possess oil-secreting or storing tissue between the nerves.
The hermaphrodite spikelets of some of the cultivated species have no
visible awns. At the must a minute awn is present in the cleft of the up-
per lemma of the sessile spikelet, and in some instances at least, the upper
lemma is quite entire. ‘This statement is true of C. cztvatus, C. nardus and
C. winterianus, all cultivated grasses, but it cannot be asserted that there
is some connection between cultivation and the awnless condition. For
example, C. flexaosus, which is very widely cultivated, has a well develop-
edawn. Again, C osmastonizz, which is not cultivated, is awnless.
There is one further feature about the genus which appears to have
escaped notice. On the lower surface of the leaves there is a triangular
glandular patch on each side of the midrib at the base, which is usually
covered with short white hairs.
FORMER WORK ON THE GENUS
Prior to 1906, in which year Stapf published his paper on the oil grasses
of India and Ceylon, a year which may be designated as the date from
which the modern conception of the genus begins, both Hackel and
J. D. Hooker had dealt with the species as recognised by them.
Hackel, in his monograph on the Andropogoneae in DC., Monogr.
Phan. 6 : 592-614 (1889) considered Cymlopogon to be a subgenus of Lis
very large and unwieldy genus Andropogon. In the area under considera-
tion he recognised six species only, namely, A. laniger Desf., A. jwaran-
cusa Jones, A. nardus Linn, A. schoenanthus Linn., A. gidarba Ham. and
A. hookervt Munro. Under A. nardus and A. schoenanthus he recognised a
large number cf subspecies and varieties, formulating a system so com-
plicated, that anyone engaged in the modest business of attaching names
to species, was quite unable to follow him.
In order to contrast Hackel’s treatment with modern conceptions, the
table below shows Hackel’s six species on the left and the modern species
on the right.
Hackel’s species Corresponding modern species
Andropogon laniger Desf. Cymbopogon scheenanthus (Linn.) Spreng.
A. jwarancusa Jones C. 7wararcusa (Jones) Schult.
C. xardus (Linn.) Rendle.
C. (lexicsus (Nees) Wats.
C. naraus var. contertiflorus (Steud.)
A. nardus acctt. non Linn, ost ttapf
. exsertus (Hack.) A. Camus
. Gistans (Nees) Wats.
. cilretus (_C.) Stapf
- martint (Roxb.) Wats.
. polyeuros (steud.) Stapf
. zervatus Chiov.
. Clancestinus (Nees) Stapf
. Caésius (Nees) Stapf
A. gidarba Ham, . gidarba (Ham.) Haines
A. hvokert Munro C. hookeri (Munro) Stapf
A. schoenanthus acctt. non Linn. subsp. |
and varictics,
aanqgqqaan
Hooker followed Hackel in his conception of Cymbopogon as a subgenus
of Androfogon, and his treatment of the subgenus is more or less similar to
that of Hacxel; there are, however, some minor dicerences. As in the
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 893
table above, Hooker’s accepted species are on the left, while the cor-
responding sravalasin species are on the right.
Hooker’s species Corresponding modern species
, | Cymbopogon C
Andropogon jrvarancusa Jones a | ins (Lak) Sore nt
martint (Roxb.) Wats.
caesius (Nees) Stapf
clandestinus (Nees) Stapf
polyneuros (Steud.) Stapf
navdus (Linn.) Rendle.
nardus var. contertiflorus (Steud.)
Stapf
khastanus (Hack.) Stapf
pendulus (Nees) Wats.
coloratus (Nees) Stapf
flexuosus (Nees) Wats.
exsertus (Hack.) A. Camus
distans (Nees) Wats.
microtheca (Hook. f.) A. Camus
gidarba (Ham.) Haines
[
A. schoenanthus auctt. non Linn. )
and varieties
\
/
|
|
A. navdus auctt. non Linn. and
varieties
distans Nees
microtheca Hook. f. oa
gidarba Ham. a0
DAQ GHG OM OHAwae
ms AS BS
A perusal of the above lists seems to justify a charge of excessive
splitting by modern botanists. Actually it does nothing of the kind, for
each of the modern species could be maintained on morphological grounds
alone. If any further grounds are considered necessary, it will be found
in the nature of the oils which are produced by the species, at least in those
species in which they have been analysed. Species which can be separated
on a morphological basis and which, moreover, are the sources of oils which ’
differ from one another, are considered to have a double claim to specific
rank.
Such was the position when early in this century the late Dr. Stapf
took up the study of such of these grasses which were then known to yield
an aromatic oil, He recognised at once, of course, that the farce of main-
taining the huge genus Azdvopogon, swollen out of all proportion and made
up of a very large number of totally distinct homogeneous taxa, called
subgenera, could not be maintained any longer. He took the courageous
step of raising the subgenus Cymbopogon to its original rank of genus, a
decision for which all succeeding botanists interested in the study of grasses
must be for ever grateful.
He went minutely into the history of 10 species of Cymbopogon and finally
cleared up the very complicated history of Linnaeus’ Andropogon schoenan
thus. He showed conclusively that it certainly was not the plant that
Hackel assumed it to be, and therefore that Hooker’s treatment in the
Flora of British India was also wrong in this respect. In fact, Stapf proved
that what Hackel called Andropogon laniger Desf. and Hooker A. jwaran-
cusa var. laniger, were the same plant, namely, A. schoenanthus Linn.
Since Stapf’s paper was written, new species have been found and de-
‘scribed, and some of them have been investigated for their oil content. The
numbers of species in the area under consideration has therefore increased
to 26, but the only modification in Stapf’s treatment of the genus, as he
knew it, apart from the recognition of C. wznterianus Jowitt, is one which
he had made himself in manuscript, but apparently never published. He
considered that C. confertiflorus could not be maintained as a species, and
reduced it to the status of a variety of C. zardus.
9
894. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
In the Bulletin de Botanique Appliquée for 1921, Mlle. Camus publish-
ed a paper on the genus Cymbopogon, and provided it with a useful key:
She made a few new combinations.
SUPERFICIALLY SIMILAR SPECIES
In the following paragraphs the taxonomic treatment of certain pairs
of species which resemble one another closely, will be considered.
The first two species which come into this category are C. schoenanthus
(Linn.) Spreng, and C. jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. These two species
have at times in the past been considered to be one species, and at other
times one has been deemed to be a variety of the other. Dr. Stapf
recorded his views in 1921 as follows :—
‘In my paper on the oil grasses of India (Kew Bulletin, 1906, pp. 314
and 353), I have pointed out that the affinity of C. jwarancusa and C.
schoenanthus is very great, that the two grasses are not always distin-
guishable and that transition states of the former towards the latter occur
at high levels or in dry situations. With more experience gained from the
African Cymbopogons and additional material from the Orient, I would
to-day state the facts concerning the distribution of C. schoenanthus and
C. jwarancusa thus :—C. schoenanthus extends from Morocco to Sind. All
over North Africa and Arabia itis very uniform and no difficulty as to
the identification of the specimens has arisen. From Syria eastwards the
grass frequently assumes a slightly different facies. Typical specimens
have been collected as far as Afghanistan, but others from the same area
although resembling in habit and stature C. schoenanthus, have leaves with
wider and flatter blades approaching those of C. jwarancusa, yet rather
with the anatomical structure of C. schoenanthus. In the Indian Basin
from Sind to Chitral and Baltistan and the western tributaries of the
Sutlej, this transition form becomes dominant, frequently with a more
pronounced leaning towards C. jwarancusa. All the Indian specimens
referred by me to C. schoenanthus in my paper on the oil grasses of India
belong to it. In parts of the Punjab, however, from Rawalpindi to Lahore
and to Baltistan—almost typical C. jwarvancusa has been collected, whilst
east of the Sutlej the latter, that is the C. jwavancusa as Blane knew it,
occurs exclusively as far as I know. What the exact meaning of those
transition forms is, we cannot say with any certainty. In some cases they
may be due to the crossing of typical individuals of both species, but on
the whole they represent to my mind a phase in the evolution of the
species and might in so far be termed genetic links between them. They
are a characteristic instance of ‘gliding’ species, each perfectly well
defined over large mutually exclusive areas, but linked by intermediate
states in an intervening area. Phytogenetically C. jwavancusa is probably
the older species, taxonomically C. schoenanthus has priority. The
presence of transition forms may suggest to some the advisability of
reducing both to one species. To me, however, there seems to be no gain
in that, whilst the danger of obscuring the facts and of consequent fusion
is evident ’.
Dr. Stapf’s considered views can now be reinforced by the knowledge,
which was not available to him at that time, that the oil derived from
C. scthoenanthus is quite different from that obtained from C. jwarancusa.
In the area of overlap of the two species there is no doubt that hybrids do
occur, but the two species are as a rule readily separable.
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 895
C. nardus (Linn.) Rendle and C. confertéflorus (Steud.) Stapf.
The only material difference between these two species is that the
former is awnless, while the latter is awned. ‘The oil derived from each is
identical. There can, therefore, be no logical reasons for keeping them
apart, and although C. confertiflorus is correctly considered to be the
ancestor of C. zardus and therefore much older, by our modern rules of
nomenclature it must be subordinated to its junior. Hence the species is
the junior C. nxardus (Linn.). Rendle, while the ancestor becomes the
variety, namely, C. zavdus var. contertiflorus (Steud. ) Stapf.
C. caesius (Nees) Stapf and C. clandestinus (Nees) Stapf.
The main differences between these two are that the former is very
glaucous, while the latter is green, and also the pedicelled spikelets of the
latter are hairy, while those of the former are glabrous. The oils obtained
from each of these two grasses are somewhat similar, but that obtained
from the latter has a higher proportion of carvone. I have treated these
as separate species, mainly on account of their different geographical
distributions, reinforced by the morphological differences mentioned
above.
C. flexuosus (Nees) Wats. and C. travancorensts Bor.
These two species are extremely like one another in general appear-
ance, so much so that both have been referred to C. flexuosus. It was
thought that C. flexiosus existed in two forms, one with red, the other with
white culms. Even after the oil of the white form had been demonstrat-
ed to be entirely different from that derived from the red form, they were
still considered to be the same species. There is, however, a strictly
morphological difference between the two, namely, in the so-called white
form, the lowest pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet in the subsessile raceme
is grossly swollen, hard and shining. This has led to the establishment
of the species C. fravancorensis Bor.
C. martinii (Roxb.) Wats. and C. caestus (Nees) Stapf.
As far as morphological characters go these two species can be
separated easily from one another. The latter is a very glaucous plant,
while the former is green ; the leaves of the latter are narrowly linear, and
rounded at the base, while those of the former are cordate at the base, and
broadly lanceolate in shape. That is, however, not the whole story. It
has already been stated that C. martinzz exists in two forms, indistin-
guishable in the herbarium, each of which secretes an oil which is differ-
ent from that of the other. One variety, mofia, is the source of palma-
rosa oil, while ginger-grass oil is derived from the variety sofza. It may
be that there is a morphological difference which has yet to be discover-
ed, but up to the present it has eluded every taxonomist. The varieties
can be separated by their odours, and the native collectors are said never
to err in this respect. There are also certain vegetative differences which
are characteristic. The habitat of each is different, one flourishing on
elevated, sunny, dry places, while the other prefers a lower and moister
home. Still, when both are cultivated in the same habitat they retain
their special vegetative characteristics, and each produces its own peculiar
kind of oil.
896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Although C. caestus and C. martinii can be separated on morpholo-
gical grounds, the oil which is produced by C. caeszus is very similar to
that derived from the variety sofza of C. martiniz.
HYBRIDS
There can be little doubt that the species of Cymbopogon do hybridise
in nature, and it is suspected that some of them do so rather freely.
Reference has already been made to C. schoenanthus and C. jwaran-
cusa Which, although very distinct from one another over their separate
ranges, do begin to merge and are with difficulty separable where their
areas of distribution overlap.
C. stracheyt (Hook. f.) Raiz. et Jain is a species which is a putative
hybrid whose parents are C. distans and C. gidarba. This hybridity
shows itself in a mingling of characters, and the hybrid apparently occurs
only in a. small area of the Himalaya where both species are common.
From C. gidarba it inherits the deep slot in the lower glume of the
sessile spikelet, but the prominent boss at the base of the slot which is
such a conspicuous feature in the parent, is missing and there are only
the indications of such a boss. In the parent, too, the keels of the lcewer
glume tend to meet across the slot—this is absent in the offspring. From
C. distans the putative hybrid receives its characteristic habit and length
of spikelet.
C. flexuosus (Nees) Wats. and C. xardus var. contertiflorus are two
species which are joined by a number of intermediate forms which are
suspected of being hybrids. . The two occupy, in India at least, areas
which overlap, and there should be every opportunity for hybridisation.
C. flexuosus is a large panicled grass with very lax drooping branches,
and rather small spikelets. C. mardus var. contert¢tlorus, on the other
hand, has a rather stiff, erect panicle with more or less interrupted con-
gested masses of raceme-pairs, and rather larger spikelets. These puta-
tive hybrids are plants which combine these characteristics in varying
degrees, covering a wide range of differentiation between the two species.
Old Citronella-grass, C. wintertanus, and C.nardus are the two grasses
cultivated in Ceylon for the valuable citronella oil. Although these culti-
vated grasses are prevented from flowering as far as possible, hybrids
between these are known. ‘There is one sheet at Kew in which the char-
acteristics of panicle and spikelet are intermediate between the two species.
The local name, too, lenabatu-pangiri, is a combination of the two local
names, a circumstance which, of course, is not put forward as a proof of
hybridity, but merely to record an interesting fact, indicative of the powers
of keen observation often possessed by those who live closest to Nature.
Sulpiz Kurz collected a Cymbopogon in the southern Yomah (no. 1202),
Which has the panicle and spikelets of C. zervatus but the leaves of C.
martiniz, andis suspected of being a hybrid between these two species,
particularly as the anthers seem to be incapable of dehiscence and to con-
tain little if any pollen.
A specimen which was sent to the Imperial Institute as the white
variety— (Malabar) of Lemon-grass, ‘ chukhunaripillu’, may represent a
hybrid between C. caeszus and C. flexuosus. As has been pointed out else-
where, the white variety of Lemon-grass was called C. flexwosus forma
albescens by Stapf, but it actually is a distinct species (C. tvavancorensis).
The sheet under consideration bears three panicles only, without a base and
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 897
without typical culm leaves. Two of the panicles are very dense, while
the third shows the typical form assumed by C. flexuosus: all three are
very different from the panicle of C. caeszus, to which species the specimens
would certainly be referred on account of the glaucous upper leaves, the
thickened lowest pedicel in the subsessile raceme and the lower glume of the
sessile spikelet with a slit-like groove. ‘The anthers of the specimen seem
to contain pollen, and it may be that the hybrid, if it really is one, is fertile.
There is one final sheet at Kew which may represent a hybrid between
C. flexuosus and C. pendulus. This is a specimen collected by Sulpiz Kurz
at Punkabarce in Sikkim. The sessile spikelets are those of C. pendulus,
but the habit of the panicle is that of C. flexwosus. It may be mentioned
that the anthers dehisce and seem to contain pollen.
CHROMOSOME NUMBERS
It is surprising how little work has been done upon this group of
grasses which is economically so important. The chromosomes of a half-
dozen species have been counted, and apparently nothing has been done to
breed or select types with the object of improving the quality and increa-
sing the yield of oil. The following six species have been investigated
and the counts are as follows :— |
2n 2n
C. caesius VF, 1420 C. coloratus doo KY)
C. nardus 6) AU C. martinit ae et)
C. flexuosus .. 20, 40 C. citratus ... 40, 60
Tor ESSENTIAL OILS
Most of the information concerning the essential oils derived from the
various species has been obtained from Guenther’s excellent book* on the
subject, where references to the literature are to be found.
GENERIC DESCRIPTION
Ultimate unit of the inflorescence is a pair of racemes, one sessile or
subsessile, the other pedicelled, seated at, and articulate with, the tip of a
peduncle which is subtended and enclosed by a boat-shaped sheath, rarely
the peduncle longer than the subtending sheath, terminating the culms
and the branches forming together from more or less simple to extremely
complicated compound or decompound spatheate panicles ; spikelets 2-
nate, a sessile and a pedicelled at the articulations of fragile rhachides,
each pair consisting of a sessile hermaphrodite and a pedicelled # or
neuter spikelet, except the lower pair of the subsessile raceme which are
homogamous, 6‘ or neuter ; sessile spikelets deciduous with the contiguous
joint and pedicel ; joints and pedicels linear, somewhat compressed, more
or less densely ciliate along the margins, with the hairs increasing in
length upwards, more or less expanded at the tip and 1—2-toothed, the
lowest pedicel in the subsessile raceme occasionally grotesquely swollen,
barrel-shaped, highly polished. //orets 2, in the sessile spikelets of the
heterogamous pairs the lower reduced to a hyaline scale, the upper
subtended by a very narrow lemma, awned or unawned ; in the pedicelled
spikelets and in the lower homogamous pair, both florets reduced to a
vr
* The Essential Oils by E. Guenther, vol. IV. Van Nostrand & Coy., New York,
898 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
single hyaline scale and three stamens. Hermaphrodite spikelets with a
shortly bearded callus, dorsiventrally compressed. Glumes equal or sub-
equal, more or less chartaceous or occasionally firmer, the lower flat,
shallowly concave, deeply slotted, puckered, wrinkled or with a deep
slit-like grove in the lower half or third, keeled on the marginsin the
upper half or third, and narrowly to broadly winged on the keels, with
inflexed margins, glabrous to hairy on the dorsal surface, with no, faint
or definite nervation, the upper boat-shaped, 3-nerved, glabrous or hairy,
keeled upwards. Lemma of the lower floret hyaline, oblong-acute, ciliate on
the margins ; dalea absent. Lemma of the upper floret very narrow, cleft to
the middle into 2 ciliate very narrow lobes, awned or unawned in the cleft;
palea absent or if present very small ; awz perfect, with a twisted glabrous
column and a scabrid bristle ; stamens 3, linear, usually yellow, sometimes
purple ; styles 2, terminal, often long ; s¢¢gmas plumose, laterally exserted ;
lodicules 2, minute, glabrous, truncate-cuneate ; gvazz fusiform or obovoid
in shape, slightly compressed; embryo half as long as the grain or even
longer ; Azlum a circular basal dot. Pedicelled spikelets lanceolate or ellip-
tical, acute or acuminate in outline, glabrous, scabrid or hairy. The lower
glume many-nerved, sometimes with translucent oil spaces between the
nerves, the whfer glume 3-nerved, convex, not carinate on the dorsal
surface. €lovets reduced to a single hyaline 2-nerved scale ; stamens 3 ;
anthers linear.
Perennial or annual, most often (always?) aromatic, often coarsely
tufted grasses. Leaves filiform to very long and broad, green or glaucous,
rounded, cordate or even petioled at the base, with two triangular hairy
patches, one on each side of the mid-rib at the base on the under surface,
aromatic if bruised.
Ky TO THE SPECIES OF Cymbopogon
Sessile spikelets without an awn or the awn reduced
to a bristle not visible outside the spikelet :—
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet flat, slightly con-
vex or shallowly concave :—
Sessile spikelets linear or linear-lanceolate in
outline, 5-6 mm. long, 0°7 mm. wide, lower
glume usually shallowly concave in the lower
half; no intracarinal nerves _ 3. C. citratus
Sessile spikelets oblong-oblanceolate, oblong, Lec
ceolate-oblong, acute, 3°5-5:5 mm. long; lower
glume flat on the back or at the most very
shallowly concave in the lowest quarter :—
Panicie large, decompound, spreading, loose,
nodding; lower glumes with three definite
intracarinal nerves, convex or flat on the back, ~
3°5-5°5 mm. long, 1-1°2 mm. wide .. 2. C. winterianus
Panicle much congested, often interrupted, not
loose or spreading, finally drooping ; lower
glumes without obvious intracarinal nerves,
flat in the upper half, 445 mm. long,
1-1-1 mm. wide son. dl Cs EIDE FR
naraus
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 899
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet with a slit-like
groove in the lower half .. 7. C. osmastonit
Sessile spikelets awned :—
Panicles narrow, of short dense fascicles of raceme
pairs ; joints and pedicels villous all over; hairs
long, more or less concealing the sessile spikelets :—
Lower glume of the sessile spikelets pubescent in
the groove ; pedicel of lowest pedicelled spikelet
in the subsessile raceme swollen, hard, shining
or hairy; basal sheaths woolly ; pedicelled
spikelets hairy on the nerves ... 26. C. parkeri
Lower glume of the sessile spikelets smooth and
glabrous ; pedicel of the lowest pedicelled
spikelet not enlarged ; basal sheaths not woolly ;
pedicelled spikelets glabrous :—
Leaf-blades more or less filiform and flexuous ;
sheaths widened and thickened below, the
old ones never curled in a spiral ... 25. C. schoenan-
. thus
Leaf-blades flat ; basal sheaths when old slipping
from the culm and becoming curled in a
characteristic spiral .. 24 C. jwavancusa
Panicles often very large decompound or compound,
drooping, sometimes narrow but then with hairs
not covering the joints and pedicels but confined
to the edges and increasing in length from below
upwards and not concealing the sessile spikelets: —
Lower glume of the sessile spikelets with a deep
slot-like depression occupying most of its
length :—
Pedicel of the lowest pedicelled spikelet in the
subsessile raceme much swollen :—
Spikelets 2°5-3°5 mm. long; spatheoles
10-12 mm. long ; racemes 46 mm. long... 13. C. microtheca
Spikelets 4-4-5 mm. long ; spatheoles 16-20
mm. long ; racemes 15-20 mm. long :—
Lower glume of the sessile spikelets with
a conspicuous boss at the lower end :—
Branches at the nodes of the axis usually
more than two, panicle short, congest-
ed ; branches and peduncle short ... 12. C. gidarba
var. gzdarba
Branches at the nodes of the panicle
usually two; peduncles and branches
very long .. 12. C. gidarba
var. burmanicus
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet without
a pronounced boss vee 14, C. stracheyi
900 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Pedicel of -the lowest pedicelled spikelet not
swollen or not conspicuously so, spikelets
over 4mm. long :—
Lower glumes of the sessile spikelets puberul-
ent in the slot; spikelets 4°5-6-5 mm.
long :—
Spikelets 5.5-6.5 mm. long
Spikelets 4.5-5 mm. long :—
Lower glumes with a boss at the lower
end of the slot
Lower glumes with only an indication of
a boss or without one
Lower glumes quite glabrous :—
No trace of a boss at the lower end of the
slot
A definite boss or at least a swelling
present :
Boss present —
Boss reduced to a slight swelling
Lower glume without a slot, either flat, convex,
shallowly concave or with a deep narrow slit in
the lower half :—
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet witha nar-
row slit-like groove in the lower half which
appears as a rib on the inner surface :—
_ Pedicel of the lowest pedicelled spikelet in the
sessile raceme not swollen :—
Sessile spikelets 2.5-3 mm. long ; racemes
7-10mm. long ; joints and pedicels very
shortly ciliate
Sessile spikelets 4°4—5 mm. long ; racemes
15-20 mm. long ; joints and pedicels long
ciliate is
Pedicel of the lowest pedicelled spikelet swol-
len; sessile spikelets 3.5 mm. or more
long :—
Pedicelled spikelets hairy SA
Pedicelled spikelets glabrous :—
Leaves cordate and amplexicaul at the base,
linear-lanceolate to lanceolate, tapering.
Leaves linear-acuminate, not cordate,
narrow, rounded at the base :—
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet
grooved from the base to apex as
well as having a slit-like groove, the
groove bordered on each side by a
brown streak 500
. 10. C. hookert
. 12. C. gidarba
wv. 14. C. strvacheyi
. 11. C. tébeticus
.. 12: C. gzdarba
. 14. C. stracheyt
7. C. osmastonti
6. C. polyneuros
8. C. clandes-
1Z2NUS
4. C. martinit
9, C. nervatus
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 901
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet
without a groove in addition to a slit,
not decorated with brown streaks ;
whole plant rather glaucous S00) Ob (Co GHATS
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet flat, slightly
convex, shallowly concave, wrinkled or with
1-3 very shallow depressions : —
Pedicel of the lowest pedicelled spikelet in the
sessile raceme not swollen :—
Inflorescence very congested ; racemes 1.5-
2 cm. long; sessile spikelets 4.5-5(6) mm.
long, 1 mm. broad, with 1-3 intracarinal
nerves on the lower glume ; spatheoles
brown; spikelets usually tinged with
purple a ll. C.nardus vat.
contertitlovus
Inflorescence lax and loose or if congested,
then the racemes very short not more
than 1°2 cm. long :—
Sessile spikelets 6-8 mm. long :—
Sessile spikelets oblong-acuminate or
oblong - elliptic - acuminate, some-
times oblique, 1-1°5 mm. broad;
lower glume flat on the back or very
shallowly depressed in the lower
half; inflorescence a simple panicle
with few raceme-pairs, erect ;
racemes 2.5-3.5 cm. long :—
Leaves filiform, flexuous son 05 Co CESBRS
Leaves flat ; petioled at base .. 21. C. thwattesit
Sessile spikelets oblong-obtuse or
-acute, 1 mm. broad; lower glume
definitely grooved on the dorsal
surface in the lower half; inflores-
cence narrow, drooping, with
sheaths at the nodes 2°5-7°5 cm.
long; raceme-pairs numerous ; ra-
cemes 2 cm. long; no median nerve
in lower glume of sessile spikelet. 16. C. pendulus
Sessile spikelets not more than 6 mm.
long, or if as long with shorter sheaths
and broad panicles: —
Peduncle longer than, as long as or
only slightly shorter than the
spatheole ; lower glume of sessile
spikelet 1-nerved or nerveless ... 17. C. exsertus
Peduncles very much shorter than the
spatheoles :—
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet
with'a concave groove from base
to near apex ». 16. C. pendulus
$02
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Lower glume of the sessile spikelet
flat, puckered or wrinkled with-
out a concave groove :—
Racemes very short about 1-2 cm.
long ; panicle erect not droop-
ing, usually with very sparse
pairs of spikelets; sessile spi-
kelets 4 mm. long, 0.8-0.9 mm.
wide; intracarinal nerves defi-
nite; flat on the back or more
often wrinkled with one or two
depressions
Racemes longer, or if about 1:2
cm. long, the panicle very large,
drooping of exceedingly many
pairs of racemes :—
Panicle very lax, greyish or
ereyish-green, rarely with a
tinge of purple, with nume-
rous, slender, long flexuous
branches ; lower glumes of
the sessile spikelets 3-4,
rarely 4°5 mm. long, 1 mm.
wide, with 1-3 detinite or
obscure intracarinal nerves,
shallowly concave, or wrink-
led with one or two depres-
sions :
Panicle decompound with
the raceme-pairs in dense
masses
Panicle not at all dense, rather
the reverse :—
Panicle very large with
long drooping branches,
at each node of which
arise 1-3 branchlets end-
ing in the spatheole sub-
tending the raceme-pair...
Panicle long, slender, erect,
bearing a very few dist-
. 18. C. virgatus
. 15. C. flexuosus
var. flexuosus
15. C. fexuosus
var. szkkimensts
ant solitary, subsolitary, ©
erect filiform branches
with one or two very
small epinastically de-
flexed racemes oe
15. C. flexuosus
var. microstachy
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 903
Panicle not at all lax, often
somewhat congested, most
often stained with purple;
lower glumes of sessile spike-
lets with 5-7 conspicuous
intracarinal nerves, 4:5—5°5
mm. long, 1—-1°25 mm. wide,
fairly broadly winged, flat on
the back, shallowly concave
in the lower half :—
Lower glume of sessile
spikelet glabrous los Ga khascandws
Lower glume of sessile
spikelet hairy ... 19. C. khasianus
var. 2agensis
Pedicel of the lowest pedicelled spikelet in
the sessile raceme grotesquely swollen :—
Panicle narrow, interrupted, congested, red-
dish ; sessile spikelets 5-6 mm. long,
concave at the base; nodes bearded ;
hairs on joints and pedicels, grey, conspi-
cuous ... 22. C. coloratus
Panicle very effuse, spreading and drooping,
pale green or grey ; sessile spikelets 3°5—
4°5 mm. long with one or two shallow
depressions in the lower half; nodes
glabrous .. 23. C. tvavancor-
ensts
1, Cymbopogon nardus (Linn.) Rendle, in Cat. Welw. Afr. Pl. 2,
155 (1899).
Andropogon nardus Linn., Sp. Pl. ed. 1, 1046 (1753).
A tufted perennial aromatic grass with many fibrous roots from the
thickened base. Culms up to 2°5 m. tall, erect or slightly geniculate at the
base, leafy, stout, terete, smooth and pinion polished, more or less tinged
with red, simple, often with swollen nodes. Leaf-blades often over 1 m.
in length, up to 1:5 cm. broad, linear, tapering to avery long acuminate,
almost filitorm point, tapering below to a narrow base, coriaceous in tex-
ture, glabrous on both surfaces except a triangular area on each side at the
extreme base of the lower surface, which is covered with a very dense
white tomentum which appears tocovera glandular patch, smooth on the
upper surface, minutely scabrid on the lower surface, coarsely serrate on the
margins, glaucous on the lower surface ; sheaths usually shorter than the
internodes, those on the culms tight, clasping, smooth and glabrous, auricled
at the top, strongly ribbed, smooth and glabrous, polished, those at the
base very long, very broad below, rather loose, coriaceous, slipping from
the culm, often tinged with red ; /igw/e chartaceous to coriaceous, 2—3 mm.
long.
Inflorescence an ample decompound, very congested, finally drooping
panicle, up to 60 cm, long, branched and rebranched, each unit or internode
904 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
of the panicle supported by a spathe-like sheath which is usually provided
with a rudimentary leaf at the base of the panicle, but gradually becoming
more spathe-like as the tip of the branches are reached, eventually ending
in a spatheole which subtends a peduncle crowned with a pair of race
mes, one subsessile, the other shortly pedicelled ; spatheole 12-20 mm.
long, elliptic when flattened and acute at both ends, many-nerved, hyaline
on the margins, smooth and glabrous, turning reddish ; peduncle
3 mm. or more, filiform, slightly dilated at the tip, glabrous ; racemes
12-15 mm. long; joints and pedicels slender, compressed, ciliate along the
margins. Lowest pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme homogamous,
d' or neuter, the pedicels of the pedicelled spikelet not swollen but shorter
than the others, the remaining pairs of spikelets in both racemes hetero-
gamous. Slermaphrodite spikelets 4-4:5 mm. long, oblong or oblong-ob-
lanceolate, acute in outline, awnless, with a very short bearded callus. Lower
glume shape and size of the spikelet, 2-keeled from the middle upwards,
narrowly winged on the keels, scabrid on the wings, smooth and glab-
rous elsewhere, flat on the back in the upper half, shallowly concave
in the lower half; wAper glume boat-shaped, 3-nerved,; keeled in the
upper half, rounded below, scabrid on the keel, elsewhere smooth and
glabrous, ciliate on the margins above. Lower floret empty; lemma a
hyaline 2-nerved scale, ciliate on the margins above, 3°5 mm. long ; Aalea
absent. Upper floret g ; lemma a hyaline scale 3 mm. long, cleft to
the middle into two lobes, awnless and apparently nerveless; palea
absent ; styles 2 ; stigmas plumose ; stamens 3; anthers 1°5-2 mm. long.
Pedicelled spikelets almost 4 mm. long, elliptic-oblong acute in outline, 4.
Lower glumes shape and size of the spikelet, somewhat flattened on the
back and keeled, 7-nerved between the carinals, suffused with purple or
ereenish, smooth and glabrous, save on the keels which are scabrid
above ; upper glume shallowly boat-shaped, 3—nerved, smooth and glab-
rous, ciliate on the margins below. Lower floret empty ; lemma a hyaline
scale 3.5 mm. long, broadly elliptic in shape, ciliate on the margins and
base; falea absent. Upper floret 3; lemma a narrow hyaline scale
2°5-3 mm. long or absent altogether; Aalea absent; stamens 3; anthers
2-2°5 mm. long.
By far the greater quantity of citronella oil produced in Ceylon is
derived from this plant which is locally called ‘ lenabatu.’ A smaller
quantity is obtained from the grass Cymbopogon wintertanus which is
called ‘ mahapangiri’ and ‘Old Citronella-grass’’ by the local inhabitants.
C. nardus yields an oil which is said to be inferior to that distilled
from C. wintertanus, but the former has several advantages over the
latter. For example, it is hardier, has a longer life span, flourishes in a
less fertile soil and needs less cultural care than Mahapangiri ; and more-
over, in the peculiar climatic conditions in Ceylon, gives a much larger
yield of oil, These are very great advantages and explain why the
acreage under C. zardus in the island is so overwhelmingly large.
On the other hand, the quality of the oil is inferior to that produced in
Java (from C. winterianus), and the total quantity of geraniol and citro-
nellol in equal volumes is much less. Guenther suggests that it is only
the low price of the Ceylon citronella oil that enables it to compete with
the much superior Java oil.
C. nardus (Linn.) Rendle is only found in cultivation, As Stapf re-
marks, the awnless sessile spikelets are apparently normal, but do not seem
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 905
readily to set seed, and in some of the specimens the flowers are imperfect
being male, while in others the spikelets are infested with Ustzlago.
Harvesting the grass is carried out three times in the year, a proce-
dure which effectively prevents the clumps from flowering. ‘This actually
is preferred, since flowering is said to cause the clumps to deteriorate.
Another species of Cymbopogon, C. confertiflorus (Steud.) Stapf
(Andropogon nilagiricus Hochst.) grows in Ceylon, though it is far more
common in Madras. ‘This species has for long been considered to be the
ancestor of the cultivated C. navdus. Sir Joseph Hooker, who worked
out the Ceylon grasses for Trimen’s Flora, definitely was of this opinion
and Stapf agreed with his conclusions. Actually, it is difficult to imagine
what other conclusion could be reached once the species are seen side by
side. The panicles of both are almost exactly similar in shape, size and
density. Indeed, were it not for the awned spikelets and their slightly
larger size, it would be impossible to separate C. confertiflorus from
C. nardus.
There are, therefore, no solid grounds for keeping the two separate, as
distinct species, and it is here proposed, in accordance with Stapf’s con-
clusions in MSS., to reduce C. confertzflorus to the status of a variety of
C. navdus (Linn.) Rendle. .
The distribution of the two is as follows: var. nardus,
Ind. Or.: Ceylon; without precise locality Macrae; Walker;
Thwaites 2733 ; Bandarawalla 2 Dec. 1904, /owz¢t/ under C. A.
Barber’s numbers 2383-2386, 2388, 2389 ; Royal Bot. Gar. Pera-
deniya, 19 May, 1907, D¢vector—distributed by O. & Baker;
Craig, Bandarawalla, 28 June 1904, Jowz¢¢—wild on the patanas ;
ibidem, 3 May 1907, Jowzt/; ibidem, 17 Nov. 1904, Jowzé# ;
ibidem, 1 Nov. 1904, Jowztt; ibidem, 31 Oct. 1906, Jowézt¢ ;
ibidem, 9 Oct. 1906, Jowztt ; ibidem, 1 May 1908, Jow/7¢¢.
var. confertiflorus (Steud.) Stapf var. nov. a typo spiculis aristatis
recedit.
Andropogon nilagiricus Hochst. in Hohenacker, Phan. Ind. Or. no 932
(1851) nomen nudum.
A. contertiflorus Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 384 (1854).
A. nardus Linn. subsp. xzlagiricus Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6,
604 (1889).
A. nardus Linn. var. duridus Hook. f. Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 206 (896),
Cymbopogon confertitlorus (Steud.) Stapf in Kew Bull. 1906, 318
(1906).
Ind. Or.: Madras; in montibus Nilagiri, 1851, Hohenacker 932
(type of Andropogon nilagiricus Hochst. and of A. confertitlorus
Steud.) ; Nilgiris, Schmidt; Madras Coll., Zhomson 2036;
Coonoor, 1900 m., June 1883, /..S. Gamble 11726; S. E. Wynaad
900 m., November 1884, J. S. Gamble 15452; Deonla, 1300 m.,
November 1884, J. S. Gamble 15576; Nilgiris, 1899, Bourne ;
Lidcot, Kodaikanal, Pulneys, 10 July 1898, Bourne ; Ootacamund,
10 January 1902, Bourne; slopes of the Pulneys, 1,000-1300 m.,
18 November 1905, Lowrne; Coonoor, October 1910, MWeebold
11998 ; Pulney Hills, 1914, Sazlzeve 833 ; Salem District, Yercaud,
2 March 1927; K. C. Jacob 18067A—it was introduced to Yer-
eaud from Ceylon.
906 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Ceylon: Bandarawalla, 1500 m., /ow7tt 2382, 2387, 2390, 2391,
received from C. A. Barber ; many specimens sent by J. P. Jowitt
from Bandarawalla, Col. 1906-1908, some raised from material
sent from Palghat (Madras).
2. Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt, in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gdns.,
Peradeniya, 4, 189 (1908).
A tufted aromatic perennial grass with superficial fibrous roots. Culms
stout, erect, over 2 m. tall, terete, smooth and polished, leafy, glabrous
at the nodes. Leaf-blades linear, gradually tapering to a long membranous
acuminate tip, up to 1 m. long, 1:5 cm. wide, coriaceous, green or yellow-
green above, glaucous below, smooth and glabrous, sharply scabrid-serrate
along the margins; skeaths smooth and glabrous, striate, yellow or
turning purplish-red, those of the culm tight clasping, shorter than the
internodes, those at the base very short, loose, slipping from the culms ;
ligule scarious, often lacerate, ciliate.
Inflorescence a very large decompound panicle, over 30 cm. long and
as broad, erect, finally drooping, consisting of a branched and rebranched
axis, giving rise to branches of the third and fourth degree which finally
end in raceme pairs supported by proper spathes ; spathes 12 mm. long,
narrow, many nerved, dull reddish, membranous on the margins ; racemes
20 mm. long, one sessile or short-, the other longer-pedicelled, with the
two lower spikelets of the Sessile raceme homogamous, or neuter, the
pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet not swollen, the remaining pairs in both
racemes heterogamous, divergent but not epinastically deflexed ; joints
3 mm. long, slender, widened above into a toothed cup; pedicels some-
what shorter, otherwise similar. Sesszle hermaphrodite spikelets 3°5-5'5 mm.
long, oblong-acute. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, flat on
the back, 2—keeled, definitely 1-3—-nerved between the keels, smooth and
glabrous, save on the narrow wings at the tip which are scabrid; upper
glume navicular, smooth and glabrous, keeled in the upper half, rounded
on the dorsal surface below, 3-nerved. Lower floret empty ; lemma a
hyaline lanceolate scale 3 mm. long, ciliate on the margins above; Aalea
not seen. Upper floret ¢ ; lemma narrow, 3 mm. long, hyaline, divided
into two very short ciliate lobes; dalea absent; awz 3 mm. long;
column 1°5 mm. long, very weakly twisted; styles 2; st¢gmeas plumose ;
stamens 3; anthers 1 mm. long. VPedicelled spikelets 3°5 mm. long,
lanceolate-acute in shape. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet,
slightly keeled at the apex, rounded on the sides, about 9-nerved, scabrid
on the keels at the apex ; wAper glume equal in size, 3-nerved, smooth
and glabrous, ciliate on the margins at the apex. Lower and upper
florets represented by a single hyaline scale 3 mm. long, wrapped round
three stamens ; anthers 2 mm. long ; lodicules 2, truncate-cuneate.
Ind. Or.: Ceylon; Pillagodda Valley, Buddegama$.P., 50 m., 11
February 1908, 4. W. Winter—Mahapangiri; cult. at Bandara-
walla, Jowztt 14—Mahapangiri ; Thw. Enum. C. P. 2733, comm.
Dr. Trimen February 1884—the common ‘Maana’ grass of
Ceylon; Bot. Gdn, Peradeniya, obtained from Mr. Breitstein,
Galle, April 1898—the old citronella grass, called winter’s grass.
Cymbopogon winterianus has been referred to under C. zardus as the
other grass ‘the old Citronella grass,’ cultivated in Ceylon, which also
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 907
yields citronella oil. In Java this species is by far the most commonly culti-
vated, and it produces a much superior type of oil than C. zavdus. While
C. nardus is preferred as the source of citronella oil in Ceylon, under the
local conditions prevalent there, C. wzzterianus is the species which is chosen
for all the plantations of citronella grass which have been formed in Java,
Formosa, Guatemala, Honduras and elsewhere. ‘These plantations carry
a very large acreage of grass, and many tons of oil are produced annually.
The main constituents of the oil are geraniol, citronella and citronellol.
The percentages of these substances are very much higher than in the oil
obtained from C. xardus.
With regard to the question whether C. wzuterianus is a distinct
species, or should be considered as a variety of C. nardus only, the follow-
ing facts may be recorded :—
(1) The panicles of C. wintertanus are much more effuse and ample
than those of C. xardus.
(2) The nervation of the lower glume of the hermaphrodite spikelets
of C. winterianus is very distinct, and the lower glumes themselves seem
to be of a firmer texture. }
(3) The leaves are broader and shorter in C. winterianus.
While this enumeration of differences may not sound very impressive,
they do, when taken together, continue to give the plant a very different
facies, and I have, therefore, decided to maintain C. wznterianus asa
distinct species.
3. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf, in Kew Bull. 1906, 357
(1906).
Andropogon citratus DC. Cat. Hort. Monsp. 78 (1813).
A. citriodorum Desf.in Tabl. Ecole Bot. ed. 2, 15 (1815) nomen nudum.
A. roxburghit Nees in Wight, Cat. no. 1699 (1833) nomen nudum, et
in Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 395 (1854).
An aromatic perennial grass, throwing up dense fascicles of leaves
from a short oblique annulate sparingly branched rhizome. Czdms up
to 2 m. tall, smooth and glabrous, solid below, pruinose below the nodes.
Leat-blades linear, long-aitenuate at both ends, tapering at the tip to a long
acuminate or setaceous point, up to 90 cm. long, by 2 cm. wide, with a
strongly marked mid-rib, white above, prominent below, firm, glaucous
green, smooth on the surface in the lower two-thirds, rough on the
margins and on the surfaces towards the tip ; sheaths terete on the culms,
coriaceous, quite glabrous and smooth, striate, thinner on. the margins,
those of the barren shoots much broader below and overlapping, smooth
and glabrous ; /igudes not more than 2 mm. long, chartaceous, rounded or
truncate.
Inflorescence a large, loose, decomposed, nodding panicle, up to 60 cm.
long, 4—9-noded, branched and rebranching, each division issuing from a
spathe-like sheath with or without a leaf until the final ramification is a
peduncle issuing from a spatheole and carrying a pair of racemes ; spathe-
oles very narrow, linear-lanceolate when flattened, 14-18 mm. long,
reddish to rich russet in colour; peduncles 6-10 mm. long, glabrous ;
joints of the fragile raceme slender, 2-3 mm. long, ending in a denticulate
cup, somewhat compressed, ciliate on both sides, hairs 3 mm. long ;
pedicels similar but shorter; racemes 2-nate, finally spreading at right
angles or epinastically deflexed, 14-24 mm. long, usually tinged with
908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
purple, loosely villous, one subsessile, the other shortly pedicelled, hairy
in the fork. Lowest pair of spikelets in the sessile raceme homogamous,
o’, pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet not swollen, all remaining pairs in both
racemes heterogamous. Hermaphrodite spikelets linear or linear-lanceolate,
acutely acuminate, 5-6 mm. long, unawned. Lower glume chartaceous,
size and shape of the spikelet, flat or shallowly concave on the back, con-
cave at the base, 2-keeled, scaberulous on the keels, intracarinal nerves 0
or 1; upper glume boat-shaped, rounded on the back below, keeled up-
wards, smooth and glabrous. Lower floret empty ; Jemma a hyaline-linear,
oblong, scale 3-4 mm. long, 2-nerved, ciliate above; palea absent. Upper
tloret oF lemma linear-acute, about 4 mm, long, usually entire and awnless,
at the most with a small bristle from the 2-lobed tip; styles 2; stigmas
plumose ; stamens 3; anthers 2 mm. long. Pedicelled spikelets S$ or neuter,
linear to subulate-lanceolate. Lower glume 7-9-nerved; upper glume 3-
nerved. Florets reduced to a hyaline scale.
Burma ; Mergui, September 1834, Griffith 303; Tenasserim, D. Helfer.
Ind. Or.: Madras; 1699, Herb. Wight; Herb. Rottler. Ceylon;
cult. at Craig, Bundarawalla.
This species, known as the West Indies Lemon-egrass, is found in
cultivation only. In the area under consideration it is cultivated on a
restricted scale in Ceylon for its oil. It is, however, often grown as a pot
plant both in India and Burma (Rhind, Grasses of Burma), where it is used
as a flavour for curries and kept in the house ‘because it smells nice’.
According to Ferguson in his Grasses Indigenous to Ceylon, it is the centres
of the leaf-buds which are used to flavour curries, and these are sold in
every bazaar in the island. It is planted on a vast scale in various parts
of South America, in Africa and in Indo-China.
The main constituents of the oil yielded by this species resemble those
obtained from East Indian Lemon-grass, Cymbopogon tlexuesus, but it
contains less citral and is less soluble in alcohol. It is used for the same
purposes.
4. Cymbopegon martinii (Roxb.) Wats., in Atkins., Gaz. N. W.
Prov. Ind. 392 (1882).
Andropogon martinit Roxb., Flor. Ind. 1, 280 (1820).
Cymbopogon martinianus Schult., Mant. 2, 459 (1824).
Andropogon pachnodes 'Vrin. in Mem. Acad. Petersb., ser. 6, 2, 284
(1833).
Cymbopogon pachnodes (Trin.) Wats. in Atkins., Gaz. N. W. Prov.
Ind. 392 (1882).
Andropogon schoenanthus var. genuinus Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan.
6, 609 (1889).
A. schoenanthus var. martinii Hook. f. Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 204 (1896).
An aromatic perennial grass from a short stout woody rootstock.
Culms erect, up to 300 cm. tall (fide Bullock), terete, smooth and glabrous,
even at the nodes, polished, simple or sparingly branched. Leaf-blades
linear-lanceolate or lanceolate tapering to a long filiform acuminate point,
cordate or at any rate rounded and amplexicaul at the base, flat, up to
50 cm. long, the upper very much shorter, by 1-3 cm. broad, very glabrous,
glaucous or pruinose below, smooth, rarely scaberulous on the surface,
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 909
coarsely scabrid on the margins, with a median nerve which is prominent
below; sheaths shorter than the internodes, very glabrous, smooth, striate, |
auriculate above, those of the culm tight and clasping, those below looser,
falling from the culms and breaking up into fibres ; ligules oblong, scari-
ous, 2-3 mm: long.
Inflorescence a linear-oblong false decompound panicle, up to 30 cm:
long by 5 cm. wide, often much smaller, loose, or dense and interrupted at
the base; the primary axis carrying 2-3 branches at each node, each of these
ending in a spatheole which carries a peduncle crowned with a pair of
racemes, each internode of the axis subtended by a bladeless sheath ;
spatheole 1-8 mm. long, turning orange, orange-red and finally reddish at
maturity, elliptic-acute in shape when flattened, many-nerved, hyaline on the
margins ; peduncle 1:5-6 mm. long or longer, wiry, slightly dilated above,
smooth and glabrous; racemes epinastic at maturity, 15-18 mm: long; one
subsessile the other shortly pedicelled. Joints 1°5=2 mm. long; linear-
subclaviform, flattened on one face, convex on the other, densely ciliate
along the margins; pedicels similar but slightly longer, both ending in
toothed cups. Lowest pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme homo-=
gamous, o or neuter, pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet grossly swollen, all
other pairs of spikelets in both racemes heterogamous. Aermaphvrodite
spikelets excluding the wings, elliptic-oblong or obleng in shape, 4-4.5 mm.
long with a short bearded callus acute at the tip, 9. Lower glume shape
and size of the spikelet, 2-keeled in the upper half, winged on the keels,
flat on the back above, but with a narrow slit-like furrow in the lower half
which appears as a rib on the inner surface, emarginate or 2-lobed at the
tip, smooth and very glabrous, greenish yellow or straw-coloured ; upper
glume as long as the spikelet, boat-shaped, rounded below, keeled above,
with a comparatively broad wing on the keel, smooth and glabrous.
Lower floret empty ; lemma a hyaline scale, 3 mm. long, nerveless or very
faintly 2-nerved, ciliate on the margins in the upper half; palea absent.
Upper tloret 2; lemma about 3 mm. long, hyaline, very narrow, cleft to
the middle above, awned in the slit; palea absent; stamens 3; anthers
J-1°5 (2) mm. long ; awz 16 mm. ionee column 8 mm. long, iavisted|:
styles 2; stigmas pilose. Pedicelled spikelets 3, elliptic-acute in shape,
3°5-4 mm. long. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, many-
nerved, smooth and glabrous, 2-keeled in the upper half and scabrid on
the keels ; upper glume as long, 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous. Flores
reduced to a hyaline oblong scale, 2-nerved, ciliate on the flaps, wrapped
round three stamens with anthers 1-2°25 mm. long.
Ind. Or. : Assam; Khasia, Sohiung, 1400 m., 29 October 1872,
C. B. Clarke 19141 ; Dhake, 1 June 1871, tdem 16735 ; Manipur
State, Imphal, 800 m., 28 October 1945, A. A. Bullock—cleared
hillside; tufted grass 10 ft. high; Naga Hills, Sakhabama,
1300 m., 27 October 1935, WV. L. Bor 6664 ; ibidem, 8 August
1942, Slap 16122.
Central India ; Rajputana, Merwara, 4 January 1886, /. / Duthie
4921 and 4921a; Chota Nagpur 600 m., 21 November 1890,
J. J. Wood 173; Nimar District, May 1902 ; Basim District, south
of Berar valley, &. Fernandez ; Nagpur, Wardha, 19 December
1902, R. E. P. Herbarium 17923 ; Sylari, Khajin forest, 29 Octo-
ber 1909, &. A. Haines 2404; N. Chanda, Sathbaini Pahar,
H. H. Haines 3630; Indore, H. H. Haines 2865 ; Amnasti,
10
910 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Berar, 30 November 1902, & G. Fernandez 3; Airjhar forest
16 November 1910, H. AH. Haines 3628— cotton soil.
Western India; Mt. Abu 1300 m., November 1888, /. S. Gamble
21010 ; Dharwar, Haveri, 1 January 1890, W. A. Talbot ; Dhar-
war, Yelvigi, C. A. Barber 6138; Singhur, 20 October 1907,
W. A. Talbot sn.; Mt. Abu, Gurusikur, 25 October 1916,
Blatter 2665 ; ibidem, Pergaon, 28 October 1916, Blatter 2648
and 2544.
Eastern India; Bihar, Monghyr, Wallich 8795; Singbhum, 11
November 1902, A. AH. Haines 480; ibidem, Birda forest
November 1898, H. H. Haines 89b; ibidem, Noada, 450 m., 15
November 1883, C. B. Clarke 34251A ; ibidem, October 1894,
Mokim 1401 ; Saranda, 600 m., January 1881, /. S. Gamble 9121;
S. Damuda Ghats, November 1880, /..S. Gamble 8624 ; Koderma
forest, Hazaribagh, 15 November 1916, H. AH. Haines 5308 ;
East India, Bengal, Griffith ex Herb. Lehmann 1845 ; Pathagutta,
W. Mymensingh, 26 September 1868, C. B. Clarke 7814 ; Punka-
bari, 15 November 1870, C. 2. Clarke 13842.
North-west India; Pathankote, 150 m., 9 September 1874, C. B.
Clarke 21962; Beas, Chenab, Doab. October 1840, 7. Thomson ;
Rawalpindi, 500 m., September 1928, AR. AR. Stewart 10112;
Rajmahal, Jacguemont 166 ; Sakesar, northeast slope, 900 m.,
10 November 1902, /. R. Drummond 14545; Karnal, 5 October
1886, J. Rk. Drummond 21107-21114.
North-west Himalaya; Kashmir, Jhelum Valley, 600 m., October
1875, C. B. Clarke 27378; Chamba 900 m., 3 October 1874,
C. B. Clarke 24295; Hilcote, Caran Range, Hazara, 2 September
1899, /nayat; Shohal, Kagan, 9 August 1899, /zayat; Chamba,
between Kulel and Musroond, 4 September 1896, G. A. Gammie
18475; J F. Duthie 20709; Susal pass, Black Mountain, 7585,
J. F. Duthie; Baluchistan, Wain Tangi forest, 1100 m., 11
November 1888, /. A. Lace 3967.
Central Himalaya ; Simla, J/acguwemont 1516 ; ibidem Collett leg.
1902 ; ibidem, Haripur, 1000 m., 4 November 1877, /. S. Gamble
5730A ; ibidem, Giri valley 1600, September 1877 Collett 5388A ;
Almora, Mundakini river 900-1800 m., WZajor Madden ex Herb.
Hoox.; Garhwal, Adh-badhri, 1400 m., Stvachey G Wiinter-
bottom 3; ibidem, June 1845, 7. Thomson; ibidem, Kanda,
Mandal Range, 31 May 1902, JZzayat 26010; Tehri, 1300 m.,
14 September 1948, W. Koelz 21778 ; Nepal, Watlich 8794 N.
Northern India ; Saharanpur, Siwaliks, November 1892, /. S. Gam-
ble 23995; Dehra Dun, Maidan, December 1890, /. S. Gamble
22363; Saharanpur, November 1845, 7: Thomson; below
Mussoorie, 27 July 1899, /. #2 Duthie 23036; Aglar, Mussoorie,
August 1931, R. A. Stewart 12334; Bundelkhand, 17 December
1886, /. - Duthie 6564.
Madras; Coimbatore, Hanore R. F., Kollegal, 10 February 1924,
Kk. C. Jacob 17312; Salem District, Yercaud, 2 March 1927,
K. C. Jacob 18068 ; Kistna District, Kondapalli Hill, 31 July 1907,
KX. C. Jacob 7989; Cuddapah, 800 m., Feb. 1883, /. S. Gaméle
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. ey
10843; Pulneys, Saulzéve 792; Coimbatore, Satzymungallam,
March 1902, Bourne ; ibidem, Burgur Hills, March 1902, Bourne
6429; Nilgiris, near Ooty, May 1940, &. Barnes; ibidem, Hohe-
nackery 933; Coimbatore, September 1900, Bourne 2548 ;
Kodaikanal Ghat, 9 July 1898, Bourne 1046, 1343, 1344, 1345;
Burliar, Nilgiris, 12 February 1901, Bourne 2544.
Cymbopogon martiniz is possibly, from one aspect at least, the most
interesting of all the Indian Cymbopogons, and for this reason, it is the
only one of them all which exists in two remarkably similar forms, each
form being the source of an oil which is quite different from that of the
other.
These two forms, mofia and sofia from their vernacular names, can be
distinguished from one another in the field by certain vegetative characters,
and also by their odours when crushed. In the herbarium, nobody has
so far succeeded in demonstrating that they differ morphologically in any
material respect from one another.
The only botanist who has investigated these two forms of C. mar-
tint? is, as far as I can gather, Burkill, who published an interesting
account of a journey he made in 1908 in Berar and the neighbouring
areas to study this particular species. His paper [Proc. and Jour. Asiat.
Soc. Bengal, 5, n.s., 3, 87-93 (1909) ] is entitled, ‘ First Notes on Cymbo-
pogon martini Stapf’, but unfortunately this seems to have been the only
paper published by him on the subject.
Burkill discovered that the two forms were so different in the field
that after a short time he had no difficulty in distinguishing one from the
other, even at a distance. ‘These differences he summarises as follows.
In motia the upper surface of the culm leaves makes a right or obtuse
angle with the culm ; the grass grows-in scattered patches, and there are
few radical leaves at the base. In sofia, by contrast, the upper surface
of the culm-leaves makes an actite angle with the culm, the grass grows
in dense masses and the radical leaves are many. The two make
different demands upon the habitat which has an effect upon their distribu-
tion. Motia, for example, demands more sun and less moisture than the
other form. Although these preferences for habitat do tend to make the
areas of distribution separate, these areas do meet and overlap.
In places where such an overlap occurs, Burkill was confident that
certain specimens showed a mingling of the field characters and also
odours which could be described as a mixture of the two odours charac-
teristic of each form. He assumed that these must be hybrids by which
he tacitly suggests that these two forms are distinct species, as indeed,
they would have to be if only some morphological difference could be
found to separate them in the herbarium:
The form motia is the source of palmarosa oil, a valuable commodity
which is exported in large quantities from India to Europe and America.
The main constituent of the oil obtained from the variety moftza is gera-
niol in a yield of 80-90 per cent. of the distillate. The oil is used largely
in the manufacture of soap, to which it gives a lasting odour of roses:
Guenther mentions that it is also used for flavouring tobacco.
Oil of ginger-grass also contains geraniol, but only 36-66 per cent. of
its bulk. The remaining constituents are carvone, dipentene and limone,
This oil is used as a cheap perfume.
912 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
5. Cymbopogon caesius (Nees) Stapf, in Kew Bull. 1906, 341; 360
(1906).
Andropogon caesius Nees in Wight, Cat. nos. 1700a, 1700b (1833)
nomen nudum; et Nees ex Hook. et Arn. Bot. Beech. Voy. 244 (1838)
descr.
A. schoenanithus subsp. genutnus var. caestus Hack. in DC. Monogr.
Phan. 6, 610 (1889).
_ A. schoenanthus var. gracillimus Hook. f. Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 205
(1896).
An aromatic perennial tufted grass with a short rhizome. Czlms up to
2 m. tall, usually erect but occasionally geniculate, with many buds at the
base, with wiry, terete, glabrous and polished internodes which are longer
than the sheaths, glabrous at the nodes. Jéeaf-blades linear-acuminate
from a rounded but not cordate base, up to 30 cm. long, 1 cm. broad,
ending in a long attenuate membranous tip, glabrous, smooth even on the
margins, light green or sometimes faintly glaucous, very minutely ciliate
along the margins, drying reddish or russet; sheaths at first clasping and
tight, eventually slipping from the internodes, smooth and glabrous,
striate ; /igw/e membranous, becoming firmer with age, up to 3 mm. long,
rounded at the top.
Inflorescence a narrow spathaceous panicle up to 20 cm. long, 4 cm.
broad, usually fairly loose but occasionally congested; axis wiry, smooth
and glabrous, 4-6-noded; branches 3-4-noded; ultimate branches carry-
ing a spatheole from which emerges a peduncle crowned by 2 racemes ;
peduncles filiform, 5-7 mm. long, glabrous ; spatheole narrowly lanceolate,
acuminate 12-20 mm. long, turning yellowish or reddish ; racemes 2-nate,
12-18 mm. long, divergent, eventually epinastically deflexed, one subsessile
the other with a bare base; base of the subsessile raceme Swollen and
fused to the swollen pedicel of the lowest pair spikelets ; joints of the
fragile racemes about 2 mm. long, filiform, somewhat compressed, hairy
on the sides and the back with snow-white hairs up to 3 mm. long, ending
in the crenulate cupular tip; pedicels’ similar to the joints but shorter ;
homogamous spikelets at the base of the sessile raceme one pair. Herma-
phrodite spikelets oblong, slightly wider above the middle, subobtuse
3°5-4 mm. long, glabrous. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet,
flat on the back witha fine median groove in the lower half, 2-keeled,
keels narrowly winged from the middle upwards with 2 fine intracarinal
nerves on each side towards the keels ; wpfer glume narrowly boat-shaped,
acute, rounded below, keeled above with a very narrow wing on the keel,
3-nerved. Lower floret empty ; lemma oblong, truncate, 2-nerved, hyaline,
ciliate ; falea absent. Upper floret & ; lemma about 3 mm. long, 2-fid to
the middle, awned; jalea not seen; awz 10-14 mm. long; column chest-
nut=brown, 5-6 mm. long; styles 2; stigmas plumose, purple; stamens 3;
anthers 2mm. long. FPedicelled spikelets %, linear to lanceolate-oblong,
4-5 mm. long, green, turning rosy. Lower glume shape of the spikelet,
convex on the back, 10-nerved ; upper. glume similar, 3«nerved. Flovets
reduced to a hyaline lemma enclosing the three stamens; azthers 2 mm.
long.
Ind. Or. : Madras; Herb. Wight, 1700b (type of Andropogon caestus
Nees 8 gluma 4-nerve); Herb. Wight, 1700a, 1806, 3348, 3090;-
Madras Collection, Zhomson 1629, 102; Chingleput, November
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 913
1885, J. S. Ganeble 17180; Adyar, July 1886, /. S. Gamble 17627;
Coimbatore, 7 November 1900, C. A. Barber 2558, 2588, 209;
Tinnevelly, Courtallum, 29 June 1901, C. A. Barber 3315 ; Kurnool,
19 Oct. 1901, C. A. Barber 248; Coimbatore, Canganur, 10 Aug.
1902, C. A. Barber 4455; South Arcot, Mar. 1903, C. A. Barber
6060 ; Bellary Farm, Jan. 1905, C. A. Barber 6577; Tinnevelly,
Aulankolam, 30 June 1904, C. A. Barber 3346; Kistna Dist.,
Hanumantapalli, 12 Aug. 1907, C. A. Barber 8180; Bellary, Sept.
1908, Bourne s.n.; Near Coimbatore, Mar. 1902, Bourne; Cudda-
pah, July, Bourne; Kalyandrug, August, Bourne; Coimbatore,
Sullipalayam, 4 Sept. 1910, C4#.C. Fischer 2165; Travancore,
Shencottah, 8 Sept. 1913, Calder & Ramaswami 721; Nellore
Dist., 25 July 1914, Ramaswamz; Chingleput, Vandalur, Herb.
Madras, 11612; Chittoor Dist., Horslykonda, 6 May 1918, Madras
Herb. 15483 ; Bangalore, 31 Oct. 1923, Sudborough s.n. ‘Kachi’
grass; Salem Dist., Hosur Range, Mar. 1926; Coimbatore,
Kollegal, 8 Jan. 1930, Maganathan 19401.
Rao & Sudborough [Jour. Ind, Inst. Sc. 8A: 8 (1925)], investigated the
properties of the oil obtained from a grass abundant in the neighbourhood
of Bangalore, known as Kachi grass. They very properly took the precau-
tion of sending a specimen of the grass they were experimenting with to
Kew, in order that its identity could be established. ‘The specimen was
identified as Cymbopogon caesius, and there is no doubt that the specimen,
, still at Kew, is that very species. |
Rao and Sudborough found that the chemical composition of the oil
approximates very closely to that of the variety of Cymbopogon martiniz,
known as sofza or ginger-grass. In fact, both of the oils contain as their
principal constituents dipentene, lemonene, geraniol and perillic alcohol.
Small quantities of the oil are, apparently, distilled locally, but there has
been no attempt to build up an industry in this particular oil. .
The grass itself has a wide distribution in Madras State, but is not
found elsewhere in India. It is particularly common about Bangalore and
on the Mysore plateau generally. It resembles C. martinzz in the sessile
spikelets, but the habit and vegetative parts diverge widely from one
another. C. caeszus is on the whole a glaucous plant with narrow leaves
rounded at the base, the panicle remains a yellowish or glaucous green
colour at maturity. C. martiniz, on the other hand, has dark green leaves
(at least on the upper surface) very broad and cordate at the base and the
panicle turns red, often a bright red, at maturity.
6. Cymbopogon polyneuros (Steud.) Stapf, in Kew Bull. 1906,
351 (1906).
Andropogon versicolor Nees in Wight, Cat. no. 1705 (1833) nomen
nudum ; non Steud.
Cymbopogon versicolor (Nees) Wats. in Atkins. Gaz. N. W. Prov. Ind.
392 (1882).
Andropogon polyneuros Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 385 (1854).
A. schoenanthus subsp. SEES var. versicolor Hack. in DC. Monogr.
Phan. 6, 610 (1889).
A perennial aromatic caespitose grass from a knotted woody rootstock.
Culms up to 120 cm. tall, often closely tufted, erect, terete, woody, smooth
914 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
and glabrous, simple. Leaf-blades linear, attenuate to a long acuminate
filiform tip, sub-cordate at the base, apparently smooth and glabrous even
on the margins, somewhat glaucous, up to 30 cm. long, 10 mm. wide;
sheaths on the culm tight, clasping, very glabrous and smooth, those of
the basal internodes rather loose, scarious, persistent ; /Zgade membranous,
becoming chartaceous, up to 4 mm. long.
Inflorescence an erect oblong panicle, very often the raceme pairs
racemosely arranged, never branched to more than the second degree,
30 cm. long or less, up to 3 cm. broad ; joints of the axis terete, smooth
and polished, glabrous, dilating below the node ; spatheole 2°3 cm. long,
natrowly elliptic-acute, smooth and glabrous, many-nerved, turning red ;
peduncle 6 mm. long, smooth and glabrous; racemes 1:5-2 cm. long,
divergent forming a straight line, one subsessile, the other pedicelled ;
joints of the raceme 2 mm. long, compressed and 2-angled, long ciliate on
the angles, slightly dilated above into a 2-tooth cavity; pedicels almost
exactly similar. Lower pair of spikelets of the subsessile raceme homo-
gamous, 0’, pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet not swollen and adnate,
remainder of the spikelet pairs in both racemes heterogamous. Herma-
pbhrodite spikelets 4-4°5 mm. long, oblong-elliptic-acute, often suffused
with various shades of mauve or purple. Lower glume shape and size of
the spikelet, 2-keeled from the middle upwards, with 2 intracarinal nerves
and no central nerve, smooth and shiny on the back, flat or slightly convex
in the upper half, in the lower half with a deep slit-like groove running
from the base to the centre of the glume, appearing as a rib on the inner
surface, winged on the keels, scabrid on the margins of the wings; wpfer
glume boat-shaped, keeled in the upper half, winged on the keel, and
scabrid on the wing, otherwise smooth and glabrous, polished, 3—nerved.
Lower floret empty ; lemma a hyaline ciliate elliptic-acute scale, 3-3.5 nim.
long, 2-nerved; falea absent. Upper floret 9; lemma narrow, hyaline, cleft
to the middle, awned in the sinus; palea absent; awzx 16 mm. long;
column chestnut-coloured, twisted, 10 mm. long; stamens3; anthers 2 mm.
long ; styles 2; stigmas 2, purple, plumose; Jodicules 2, truncate-cuneate.
Pedicelled spikelet 3, elliptic-acute in shape. Lower glume shape and size
of the spikelet, 9-nerved, keeled in the upper half, scabrid on the keels,
otherwise smooth and glabrous; upper glume 3-nerved, membranous,
boat-shaped. Florets reduced to a hyaline scale and wrapped round the
3 stamens ; azthers 2-2:5 mm. long.
Ind. Or.: Madras, Nilgiris, 1851, Hohenacker 933—type of Andro-
pogon (Cymbopogon) nardoides 8 minor Nees; Herb. Griffith
6769 ; Herb. Wight 1705—Andropogon (Cymb.) versicolor Nees ;
Pykara, 2000 m., 1883, J. S. Gamble 11834; Burliyar 1000 m.,
Nov. 1889, /. S. Gamble 22555; Ootacamund, 2000 m., Sept.
1884, J. S. Gamble 15326; ibidem, Aug. 1885, /. S. Gaméle
16648 ; Doodabetta, Sept. 1889, Bourne; Herb. Wight 3094;
Nilgiris, 1834, Pervottet 1269; ibidem, Schmzdt, Govt. Bot.
Garden, Ootacamund, Dec. 1903.
According to Guenther [obviously quoting from the 7vopical Agricul-
tuvist, 873 (1901)], this grass is known as Delft grass from the fact that
it is found growing on an island of that name, lying between Ceylon and
India, in the Palk Strait, where it is said to be a valuable fodder for
horses. ‘There are no specimens at Kew from this place, so that Iam not
THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC.. 915
able to confirm his statement, but if the grass found on Delft Island is
actually C. polyneuros it is growing at an elevation quite strange to it,
as will be seen from the distribution given above. According to Stapf
(Kew Bull. 1906, 345), this plant grows at high elevations in the Nilgiris
and in Ceylon. I have not, however, found any specimens from Ceylon at
Kew which could be called C. polyneuros. The type specimen is at Kew,
and is distinguished by a superficial resemblance to C. martinzz, but the
lowest pedicel in the subsessile raceme is not swollen. As Stapf says,
the glaucous leaves are more or less suffused with purple, and the upper
spikelets on the raceme are also suftused with purple.
There is a further difference, namely, the oil derived by distillation from
the grass bears no resemblance to palmarosa or ginger-grass oil, but hasa
pleasant penetrating odour of anise or fennel. The yield is said to be low.
7. Cymbopogon osmastonii R. N. Parker, in Fedde, Repert. Sp.
Nov. 31, 126 (1932).
A perennial Caespitose grass. Culms up to 120 cm. tall, erect, terete,
slender, polished, smooth and glabrous, even at the nodes, simple, with
intravaginal innovation shoots. Leaf-blades flat, linear, long-acuminate
ending in a filiform to setaceous point, up to 18 cm. long, 7-10 mm. wide,
rounded or subcordate at the base, semi-amplexicaul, smooth and glabrous
on both surfaces, smooth on the margins in the lower half, coarsely
scabrid in the upper half, the upper erect not spreading, sheaths of the
culms shorter than the internodes, tight, clasping, smooth and glabrous,
striate, the lower sheaths looser and not twisted (fide Parker) ; Higules
very short, scarious, rounded above, hardly 1 mm. long.
Inflorescence a narrow oblong panicle, 15-25 cm. long, about 3 cm.
broad, about 7-noded ; internodes of the axis up to 12 cm. long at the
base, gradually decreasing towards the tip, smooth and glabrous, terete
below, becoming 2-angled towards the tip; branches at the nodes 1-3,
usually branching only once and then ending in a spatheole which contains
a peduncle crowned by a pair of racemes; spatheole 8-14 mm. long,
glabrous, many-nerved, green or turning red, narrowly elliptic-acute when
flattened, hyaline on the margins; peduncles up to 10 mm. long, smooth and
glabrous, somewhat dilated at the apex; racemes 7-10 mm. long, divaricate
eventually epinastically deflexed, one sessile or subsessile, the other shortly
pedicelled ; joints and pedicels up to 1°75 1mm. long, linear, somewhat
compressed, densely ciliate on the edges with very short (0°5 mm.) hairs.
Lowest pair of spikelets in the sessile raceme homogamous, 0, pedicel of
the pedicelled spikelet not swollen, remaining pairs of spikelets in both
racemes heterogamous. Hermaphrodite spikelets 2:5-3 mm. long, with a
short bearded callus, elliptic-acute in outline excluding the wings, greenish
or purplish. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, 2-keeled in the
upper half and winged on the keels, smooth and glabrous, flat in the
upper half but with a slit-like furrow in the lower half which appears as
a rib on the inner surface, nerveless apart from the keel nerves, scabrid on
the wings ; wpper glume as long, boat-shaped, rounded on the back in the
lower half, keeled above with a narrow wing on the keel, 3-nerved, smooth
and glabrous, scabrid on the dorsal wing. Lower floret empty ; lemma
2-2°5 mm. long, eliiptic-acute, faintly 2-nerved, ciliate on the margins ;
palea absent. Upper floret 2; lemma extremely narrow, cleft at the tip
into two setaceous lobes, awned in the sinus ; Aalea absent ; awn imperfect
916 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
about 2 mm. long; styles 2; stigmas plumose, purple; stamens 3; anthers
1-1:25 mm. long. Fedicelled spikelets almost 3 mm. long, 4, strongly
nerved, golden brown or purplish. Lower glume shape and size of the
spikelet, obscurely 2-keeled above, 9-nerved, smooth and glabrous but
scabrid on the keels ; wpfer glume boat-shaped, rounded on the back, 3-
nerved, membranous. //orets reduced to a hyaline elliptic-acute scale
wrapped round the 3 stamens ; azthers 1°5 mm. long ; lodicules 2, fleshy,
truncate-cuneate.
Ind. Or.: Uttar Pradesh, Kheri District, Osmaston 1430 (Type in
Herb. Dehra Dun.) ; ibidem, October 1931, Forest Ranger.
The specimens of this grass at Kew come very close to C. martinzz,
in so far as the leaves are concerned, but differ from it in the awnless
spikelets , in the lowest pedicel of the subsessile raceme not being swollen,
and in the smaller sessile and pedicelled spikelets. It somehow gives the
impression of being diseased, though the spikelets do not appear to
harbour any fungus. As Parker truly remarks, the grass is perhaps closest
to C. polyneuros, but even so, its facies is very different, and judging by
the specimens at Kew, the short, squat, pedicelled spikelets and the
awnless condition, are quite sufficient to separate them. It is cultivated —
in the Botanic Garden at Dehra Dun.
(To be continued)
LOCAL AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF COMMERCIAL
FISHES OF BOMBAY?
BY
C. V. KULKARNI, M.Sc., Ph.D.
Assistant Director of Fisheries, Bombay
Correlation and standardization of the common or local names
of fishes present a difficult problem the world over, but it is all the
more baffling in a multi-lingual country like India. To avoid the con-
fusion, recourse must be had to- scientific terminology, but even here
the correlation oi scientific and local terms, which is essential, does not
exist. This condition makes confusion worse confounded, and persons
aspiring to study fisheries on a scientific basis and to keep records ina
systematic manner are completely at sea.
Fishes of different species or even different genera have sometimes
a single local name, while the same fish may have different names in
adjoining localities or at different stages of its growth. What is known
as ‘Halva’ in Bombay (Black Pomfret) is termed ‘ Saranga’ in Malvan
and the ‘Halva’ of Malvan (Silver Pomfret) is the ‘Saranga’ of the
Bombay market. Similar confusion is prevalent in respect of many
other fishes also. Determined efforts are therefore necessary to reduce
this confusion as far as possible.
Similarly, some of the scientific names are changed on account of
international rules of nomenclature and the law of priority. Even terms
of common usage, such as Stvomateus and Serranus, are changed to
Pampus and Epinephelus, which are rather difficult to get acquainted
with, at the outset. Some publications use the older names, whereas
others resort to changed nomenclature, causing bewilderment in the
minds of readers. It is, nevertheless, necessary that scientific workers
should be familiar with these changes. References to these taxo-
nomic alterations are scattered through different publications, which
may not be easily accessible.
It is proposed, therefore, to give, as far as possible, the latest scien-
tific names along with their local (Bombay) and English equivalents.
Whenever terms prevalent at Karwar (Kannad), Malvan (Marathi-
Konkani) and Bulsar (Gujarati) are available they are also mentioned.
These terms are indicated by the capital letters of the respective
languages preceding them, namely K, M and G. Most of the taxono-
mic changes have already been accepted and published by such eminent
authorities in ichthyology as Drs. Weber and de Beaufort in their
memorable volumes on ‘The Fishes of the Indo- Australian Archipelago ’
and Dr. Herre.2. The nomenclature used by Day in his ‘ Fishes of
1 Published with the kind permission of Dr. S. B. Setna, Director of Fisheries,
Bombay, towhom I am indebted for his constant encouragement in the compi-
lation of this paper.
2 Herre, A.W.C.T. (1941): A list of Fishes known from the Andaman Islands,
Mem. Ind, Mus. XMI: 331-493.
918 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 51
India’ and in the Fauna of British India volumes on fishes, is aiso
mentioned for the sake of correlation, as these publications are the
only references commonly available to students of Indian ichthyology.
Scientific and local names cf oysters, crabs, clams, etc., although they are
not fish in the strict scientific sense, are included in this list as they are
also ‘ fishery products’,
While furnishing the list, references to families and other scientific
classes and sub-classes in which fishes are grouped, are purposely
omitted in order to make the list simple.
Instead, broad groups, such
as sharks, herrings, mackerel, etc., are retained for easy reference.
It is hoped the list will be of practical utility to both students and
laymen.
Scientific name
(K = Kannada name;
SHARKS,
Scoliodon sorrakowah (Cuv.)...
= Day: Carcharias laticau-
dus (Kner.)
Carcharinus
(0. G.)
==: Day :
no plerus
Carcharinus limbatus (Mull.
& Hnl.)
= Day: Carcharias limbatus
Galeocerdo arcticus (Fbr.)
= Day: Galeocerdo tigrinus
Rhynchobatus adjiddensis
(Fork.)
melanopterius
Carcharias mela-
Sphyrna zygena (Linn.)
= Day: Zygena malleus
Pristis cuspidatus Latham
Dasyatis (Himantura) uarnak
(Forsk.)
= Day: Trygon uarnak
Aetomylaeus maculatus (Gray)
= Day : Myliobatis maculata
Muraena (Gymnothorax) pseu-
duthyrsoidea (Blkr.)
= Day: Muraena pseudothyr-
soidea
Muraenesox talabonotdes (Blkr.)
Bombay and local
mame
English name
M = Marathi-Konkani name;
G = Gujarati name)
SKATES AND Rays
Son Mushi ;
Keon Slouhineey 9
M: Mori; G: Moosi
Khada; K. T'amsi
Balda or Pisori;
K : Khaksi
Waghbeer ;
G: Magra or Patari
Ranja or Lanj;
Ge Vaca Ol
Buthar
Kanar; K: Variocha
Nali or Win;
G: Vehar
Waghya Pakat;
G : Warkhol
Bolad or Wagli;
K : Wagha
EELS
Kilis
Wam
Sharp-nosed Shark
Biack-finned Shark
Tiger Shark
Guitar Fish
Hammer -headed
Shark.
Saw Fish
Marbled Sting Ray
Bat Ray
Black Eel
Common Eel
NAMES OF COMMERCIAL FISHES.OF BOMBAY 919
Sczentific name
Bombay and local
English name
name
MARINE Cat FISHES
Arius gagorides (C. V.)
= Day: Arius sona
Arius jella Day
Arius dussumieri(C. V.) ...
Arius sagor (Ham. Buch.) ...
Shigala ; Marine Cat Fish
K : Shede;
G : Khaga
Shighala ; Marine Cat Fish
G : Dharawa
Shingatt; K: Shede Marine Cat Fish
Shingala Marine Cat Fish
HERRINGS, SARDINES AND RELATED SPECIES
Cotlia dussumiert (C. V.)
Thrissocles mystax (Schn.)
= Day: Angraulis mystax
Thrissocles malabaricus ( Bl.)
= Day: Engraulis mala-
baricus
Sardinella longiceps (C. V.) ...
= Day : Clupea longiceps
Kowala coval (C.)
= Day: Clupea lile
Sardinella fimbriata (C. V.)...
= Day: Clupea fimbriata
Stolephorus malabaricus (Day)
= Day: Spratelloides mala-
baricus
Tlisha elongata (Benn.) va
= Day: Pellona elongata
Llisha feligera Ai
= Day: FPellona feligera
FIilsa tlisha (Ham.)
= Day: Clupea ilisha
FHiilsa toli (C. V.)
= Day : Clupea toli
_ Bhing ; G@: Modar
Mandeli Golden Anchovy
Kati Anchovy
Kati Anchovy
Tarli, Haid, Kanat;
K : Boige or Tarli
Bhiljee ; K: Berza
Oil Sardine
White Sardine
Pedwa; K: Hesdi, Sardine
Pedi
Katati; G: Phansti White Bait
Katati;G: Phansti White Bait
Kati White Bait
Palla or Pala ; Indian Shad
G: Chaski or
Chaksi
Giant Herring
PERCHES, GROUPERS, SNAPPERS, ETC.
Lates calcarifer (B1.)
Epinephelus tauvina (Forsk.).
= Day: Serranus salmoides
Serranus malabaricus (Bl.
schn.)
= Day: Serranus bontoo
= Day: Serranus semipunc-
tatus
= Day: Serranus pantheri-
nus
Cock-up or Nair
Fish ; Sea Bass
Giant Grouper
Khajura or Jitada ;
K : Guri; G: Gari
Hekru, Gobra
Hekru, Gobra Speckled
Grouper
920 JOURNAL,
Scientific name
Epinephelus maculatus (Bl.) .
— Day: Serranus tears
Lutjanus johni ( Bl.)
—= Day: Lutianus johnit
Lutjanus johnitz
Lutjanus voseus Day
= Day: Lutiantis rvoseus
Pomadasys maculatum (Bl.) ...
= Day: Pristipoma macu-
lalum
Pomadasys hasta (Bl.)
= Day: Pristipoma commer-
sont
Therapon jarbua
Pseudosciena diacanthus (Lac.)
= Day: Sctena diacanthus
Pseudosciena sina (C.V.)
= Day: Scz@na sina
= Day: Sctena vogleri
Pseudosciena soldado (Lac.) ...
— Day: Sciena miles
Johnius dussumiert (C.V.)
= Day: Sciena glauca
Otolithes ruber (Bl. Sch.)
= Day: Ofolithus ruber
Otolithes argenteus (C.V.) ...
= Day: Ololithus argenteus
Otolithoides brunneus (Day) ...
= Day: Sczenotdes brunneus
Bombay and local
name
Hekru
Chavari tamb
Tambusa ;
K: Kemmasu
Karkara
Karkara
Navhera, Nayada
CROAKERS
Ghol; K: Gholi
Ghol
Ghol
Dhoma
Dhoma ;
G: Dhangari;
Kk: Kudtali
Dhoma ; Dhodi;
Dhoini
Koth
RIBBON FISHES
Trichiurus savala Cuv.
Trichiurus haumela (Forsk) ...
Wagti
Baga
HorsE MACKEREL
Atule kalla C.V. =
= Day: Caranx kalla C. V.
Altule mate C.V. oe
= Day: Caranx atfinis
Megalaspis cordyla (L.)
= Day : Cavanx rotileri (B). )
Atule djedaba ous
= Day: Caranx djeddaba
Kala bangada
Lalbi or Kala
bangada
Karkata bangada
3 Lalbi or Shitap
BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Linglish name
Spotted
Grouper
Snapper
Red Snapper
Grunter
Grunter
Target Perch
Jew Fish
Jew Fish
Jew Fish
Croaker
Croaker
Dori
Silver Ribbon
Fish
Gray Ribbon
Fish
Horse Mackerel
do
do
do
NAMES OF COMMERCIAL FISHES OF BOMBAY 921
Sczentific namie
Bombay and local
NAME
POMFRETS AND THREAD FINS
Pampus argenteus (Eupht.)
= Day: Stromateus
eus (Euphr.)
Pampus chinensis (Euphr.) ...
= Day : Stromateus sinensis
Cantor
Pavrastromateus niger (Bl.) ...
= Day: Stromateus niger
Polynemus indicus Shaw.
Eleutheronema tetradactylum
(Shaw)
= Day : Polynemus Dydie-
tylus (Shaw)
CinerY=
Saranga; Paplet,
K : Manju ;
G: Vichuda,
Pipad ;
M: Halva
Kalwad (Saranga);
K; Manju;
G: Vichuda
Halwa;
K : Karimanju ;
M: Saraga
Darha or Dadha
Rawas; K. Ramsi
Linglish name
Silver Pomfret
White Pomfret
Black Pomfret
Monk Fish or
Giant Threadfin
Bahniin or Indian
Salmon
TRUE MACKEREL, SEER FISH AND TUNAS
Scomberomorus guttatus (BI.
Schn.)
= Day: Cybtum guttatum
Scomberomorus commersont
(Lac.)
= Day: Cybium commerson ti
Scomberotdes tala C.V.
= Day: Chorinemus toloo
Rastrelliger kanagurta (C.)
= Day : Scomber microlepido-
tus Ruppell
Euthynnus alletteratus attinis
(Cantor)
= Day: Thynnus thunnina
Schl.
Thunnus macropterus ;
= Day: Thynnus macropterus
Euthynnus pelamts (1) :
= Day: Thynnus pelamys
Surmai, Towar or
Iswan ;
K: Arkale
Surmai, Towar or
Iswan ;
K: Arkale
Dagol;
Kk: Halaminu
Bangada
Kuppa or Gedar ;
K: Buegdi
Kuppa, Khavyala
Gedar
Kuppa, Khavalya
Gedar
GOBIES AND Munb SKIPPERS
Parachaeturichthys ocellatus
(Day)
= Day: Gobzus ocellatus
Awaous stamineus (Val.) ...
= Day: Gobtus striatus
Kharbi
Kharbi
Seer Fish
Seer Fish
Port-hole Fish
Mackerel
Tuna
Tuna
Tuna
Gobies
Gobies
922 JOURNAL,
Scientific name
Periopthalmodon schlossert
(Pall.)
= Day: Periophthalmus
schlossert
Boleophthalmus dussuniiert
(Eo)
Boleophthalmus boddaerti
(Pall.)
Mugil cephalus Lian. vse
— Day: Mugil oeur Forsk.
Mugil speigleré Blkr.
Mugil engeli Bikr,
= Day: Mugil kelaarti
Gunther
BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.
Bombay and local
name
Nivti ;
G: Levta
Nivti ;
G: Levta
Nivti ;
G: Levta
MULLETS
Boi or Mangan,
Pilsa ;
K : Shevta ;
G: Magiyan
Bhadavi or Boi
Bhadvi or Boi
SOLES AND PLAICE
Psettodes erumet (Bl. Schn.) ...
Pseudorhombus arstus (H.B.)...
Cynoglossus lingua (H.B.)
Cynoglossus dispar (Day)
Bhakas
Lepti or lep;
G : Gipti
Gipti, Lep, Shivra
Shivra, Lep
OTHER MARINE FISHES
Chirocentrus dorab (Forsk.) ...
Drepané punctata Linn.
Scatophagus argus (Bl.)
Upenoides sp.
Tylosurus strongylurus (V.
Hass)
= Day: Belone strongylura
V. Hass.
Hemirham phus leucopterus .0
Harpodon nehereus (Ham.)
Sparus berda Forsk.
= Day: Chrysophrys berda
Rachycentron canadus ots
= Day: Alacate nigra
flistiophorus gladius (Brouss.)
Leiognathus tactatus Lac.
= Day: Aguula tasciata
Lactarius lactarius (Bl. Sch.).
= Day: Lactarius delicantu-
lus
Karli or Datal;
_K: Bale
Chand
Vada; G: Kaski
Chiri
Toli
Toli
Bombil ;
G: Bumla or
Gulchi
Khadak palu ;
G: Kharapla
Sakla or Modosa;
K : Morvasa
‘Tadmasa
Katati
Saundala
SOCIETY,
Vol. 51
English name
Mud Skipper
Mud Skipper
Mud Skipper
Mullet
Mullet
Mullet
Indian Turbot
Sole
Sole
Sole
Silver Bar
Moon Fish
Scat
Goat Fish
Fullbeak Gar Fish
Halfbeak Gar Fish
Bombay Duck
Black Sea Bream
Sword Fish
Silver Belly
Big-jawed Jumper
NAMES OF COMMERCIAL FISHES OF BOMBAY 993
5 \ y
Scientific name Bombay and local
ame
Sillago sthama (Forsk.) Murdi, Renvi;
| K: Nagali;
G:; Murda
Bregmaceros meclillandt Tenali, Khada or
‘Thompson Netali
FRESH WATER CATFISHES
Mystus Soon (Sykes)...
= Day: Macrones slider
ghala
Mystus cavasius (Ham.)
= Day: Macrones cava-
SZUS
Mystus gulio (Ham.) a
= Day: Maerones gulio
Wallago attu (Bl.)
Ompok bimaculatus (Bl.) ...
= Day: Callichrous bima-
culatus
Szlonopangasius
(Sykes)
= Day : S7lundia sykes7z
Heteropneusteus fossilis (B).)
= Day: Saccobranchus
fossilis
Labeo rohita (Ham.)
Labeo calbasu (Ham.)
Labeo fimbriatus (Bl.)
Guile catla (Ham.)
= Day: Catla loeRomand
Tor op eave
= Day: Barbus tor
Tor musullah
= Day: Barbus tor
Puntius jerdont Day
= Day: Barbus dobsont
= Day: Barbus jerdont
Puntius kolus Sykes
= Day: Barbus kolus
Puntius savana (Ham.)
= Day: Barbus savana
Cirrhina mrigala (Ham,) ...
childrent
Shingala or Katia
Shingati
Shingati
Shivda or Pahdi;
G: Padin
Vanj or Valanj
or Googawari
Shilan or Shiland
Nal Shingali
CARPS
Rohu
Calbasu or
shi ;
G: Kanchhi or
Cowcchi
Tambir
G: Bhilji or Belzi
Catla
Kano-
Mahseer,
Waris;
G: Kudna
Mahseer, Masalya;
G: Kudna
Khavalya or Potil
Khadra,
Kolshi
Darai or Khaval
Mrigal or Mirga
English name
Whiting or Lady
Fish
Long-nose Catfish
Catfish
Catfish
Mulley or Wallago
White Catfish
Stinging Catfish
Rohu
Calbasu or Kalbose
Copper Carp
Catla
Mahseer
Mahseer
Jerdon’s Carp
Kolshi
Olive Carp
Mrigal
924 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Bombay and local
Sczienttfic name
Sete name
English name
SNAKE=HEADS (MuURRELS)
Chana marulius (Ham.) ... Murrel Murrel
— Day: Ophicephalus
marulius (Ham.).
Chana striatus (Bl.) 2 rp ¥
— Day: Ophicephalus
striatus (Bl.)
Chana leucopunctatus +e 3 i
(Sykes)
— Day: Ophicephalus
leucopunctatus (Sy kes)
Chana gachua (Ham). ... Dhokh, Daku
= Day: Ophicephalus
gachua (Ham.)
OTHER FRESHWATER FISHES
Mastacembelus armatus
(Lacep. ) cao fete Spiny Eel
Anguilla anguilla(Ham.)... Ahir Freshwater Eel
—Day: Anguilla benga-
lensis
Glossogobius giuris (Ham.)... Kharabi Freshwater Goby
= Day: Gobtus giuris
(Ham.)
Notopterus notoptevus(Pallas) Chalat ; G@: Patre Feather Back
= Day: Notopterus kapi-
vat
Garra mullya (Sykes) .. Mullya Stone Carp
= Day: Discognathus
lamta
Rasbora danicontus ... Dandavan Rasbora
Lepidoce phalus thermalis
(C.V.) Muri Loaches
= Day: Lepidocephalich-
thys thermalis
Nemachilus botia var. aureus
Day fas) AMTTERES Loaches
Etroplus suratensis .. Kalundar Pearl Spot
ESTUARINE FISH
Oshhronemus goramy ve GOuramt Gourami
= Day: Osphronemus
olfax
PRAWNS AND SHRIMPS
Penaeus indicus (EB. Edw.).:. Kolambi; Prawn
K: Sunkata ;
G: Cholla
i; ne
NAMES OF COMMERCIAL FISHES OF BOMBAY 925
Scientific name
Penacus
Man)
semisulcatus (de
Leander siyliterus (M. Edw.)
Leander potamiscus (Kamp.).
Metapenacus
(Faber)
Acetes indicus (M. Edw.) ...
Palacmon carcinus (Faber),
MOnwO0CEVOS
Bombay and local
name
Kolambi ;
K: Sunxata;
G: Choila
Kolambi ;
Kk: Sunkata;
G: Cholla
Kolamb1;
Kk: Sunkata;
G: Cholla
Kolambi
Kolim
Zinga;
G: Sondiya
LOBSTERS AND CRABS
Panulizus ornatus
var. decorutus Heller.
Punulirus tasciatus (Fabr.)
Scytla serrata (Fork.)
Neptunus pelagicus Linn. ...
Shevand .
Shevand
Chimbori ;
G: Karachla
Ghodi ;
G: Kamal Karachla
CLAMS AND OYSTERS
Ostrea gryphcides (Sch.)
Ost ea cucullata (Born.)
Ostrea discordea (Gould.)
Meretrvix meritvix
Paphia malabarica
Tapes sp.
CHANKS AND PEARL OYSTERS
Placuna placenta
Xancus pyrum
= Jurbinella pyrum
CUTTLE FISHES AND SQUIDS
Sepia sp.
Loligo sp.
Nel
Kalu
Kalu
Kalu
Shivali or Tisari
Shivali or Tisri
Shivali or Tisari
Thale or
Chandkule ;
G: Kasarachhip
Shankh or Chank
Makul
93
English name
Prawn
Prawn
Prawn
Prawn
Shrimps
Freshwater
Prawn
Rock Lobster
Common Lobster
Stone Crab
Blue Crab
Oyster
Oyster
Oyster
Clams
Clams
Clams
Window-pane
Oyster;
Seed Pearl
Oyster
Chank or Conch
Cuttle Fish
Squid
OBITUARIES
A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER
Dunbar Brander was one of the last of the great shikaris of the
India Forest Service under the British Administration. His service ,
which extended from 1900 to 1921 was entirely in the Central Provinces.
Brought up at his home at Lossiemouth in Scotland where he had
ample opportunity for learning and loving the art of shooting, he
entered the forest service after his studies at Cooper’s Hill and in
Germany. In India he took full advantage of his opportunities for
sport where his fame as a shikari soon became known. One of his
last shoots in India was when he ran the Duke of Connaught’s camp
in the sal forests of Balaghat early in the year 1921. During the
whole of his service he was collecting material for what he used to
describe as his magnum opus, his book on the ‘Wild Animals of
Central India’ which is now a classic. Any form of hunting appealed
to him whether big game, wild fowl or pigsticking in the Wardha
District with the Nagpur Hunt. His knowledge and experience of
wild life was very great, extending to the big game of Africa which
he visited while on leave. |
Those who knew him found him a most amusing and entertaining
companion. In stature he was not large but he was by no means a
weakling. He had a great sense of humour and in spite of a pose of
truculence he was one of the kindest of men. Like most Scotchmen
of his time he knew his Bible well and never forgot it.
JAMES W. BEST:
DR. MAURICE SUTER
We record with regret the death on August 26, 1953 of this old
and valued member of the Society. Dr. Suter came to India before
World War I, and directed his own company, Maurice Suter & Co.
Ltd. Afterwards his firm became amalgamated in the huge combine
which traded under the name of The Havero Trading Co., and of-.
which Dr. Suter was the first General Manager upto the time of his
retirement in 1932 (?) In retirement Dr. Suter travelled widely in
India and abroad. He was essentially an open air disciple, and
whenever possible, spent most of his spare time in the jungle, or by.
a stream or lake. He was a most widely read man and could discuss
almost any subject with authority. Physically he was unusually active
for a man of his years, and his death was very untimely.
He had a very valuable collection of Indian butterflies and moths,
and closely co-operated with the late Mr. T. R. Bell of Karwar. He
made investigations for the Government of India on some fishing
subjects and several of his notes were published in the Journal. He
was continually catching butterflies all over India, but more particularly
in the Tessa Valley, Mussoorie and Sikkim. Dr. Suter sent many
bo
OBITUARIES 927
specimens to schools in America. He was an excellent shikari, and
had all sorts of game to his credit. Many years ago he had a hand-
to-hand fight with a panther and eventually killed it with a hunting
knife. He was in hospital for several months recovering from the
severe clawing he got, and he carried these scars with him to his.
grave. He was a splendid linguist and spoke many vernaculars fluent-.
ly. He was known to many villagers and peasants for miles around
Poona and was a familiar figure to them all as some years ago he
camped extensively all over the Deccan. As a fisherman, he was
known in and beyond India. He had fished in Ceylon, the Great
Barrier Reef off the Australian Coast, New Zealand and Japan. He
was considered by many as one of the leading authorities on fishing
in India, and many wrote or consulted him personally for advice.
N. J. HAMILTON
% x x *
In his keen and continuing interest in the glories of Nature, his
cheerful acceptance of age and its troubles, Dr. M. Suter was an
example to all of us.
We shared our love for the mountains; eagerly as any boy, he
would ask questions about my wanderings, and in return relate his
own experiences in the hills of Garhwal and Kumaon, the Sikkim
border, and the Indian forests. More than once, as he glanced at
his famous collection of butterflies, he regretted that they had not
been left free to flit from flower to flower. So also, perhaps, with
his ‘shikar’; the passing years mellowed into the quieter pursuits
of painting, of cooking, still with the same expertise, the same jozc
de vivre bubbling forth, now and then a gruff chuckle.
To have lived “Anas, 6 have seen, to have observed, bearing malice
towards none—man could not desire a nobler memorial.
ASHOKA MADGAVKAR
REVIEWS
1. ANIMAL ECOLOGY. By W. H. Dowdeswell, m.a. Pp.
xv+207 (7$”x5”), with 16 halftone plates and 45 line illustrations.
London, 1952. Methuen & Co. Ltd. Price 12s. 6d.
The author, a senior biology master at Winchester College, has
dedicated the book to ‘the many young biologists who have contributed
unknowingly to the writing of this book’! Students of biology in
India sorely need a similar dedication.
Ecology is specialised Natural History which examines in detail
the relationship between the different animals themselves and _ their
physical environment. The examples given in the book have been
drawn from the British Isles, but even a cursory reading of these
makes one realize the gross ignorance that prevails regarding ecoloa-
gical matters in India. Parties of students and others, do sally forth
from time to time, armed with nets and other paraphernalia and return
with a number of specimens of various kinds—such trips are for
collecting only and we have yet to see a serious effort to study animal
communities and their relationship to their environment. The material
available in India is many times greater than in England and we
hope that books of this nature will induce students and others to
utilize their efforts more valuably than with the mere collection of
the specimens for identification and labelling in laboratories.
The section on the statistical significance of samples and the biblio-
graphy are of particular value.
s
: H.A.
2. BIRD MIGRANTS. By Eric Simms, DiFic.; M.A.) M-B.0.U;
Pp. 212 (83”%x52?”), 14 maps and diagrams and 22 photographs.
London, 1952. Cleaver-Hume Press Ltd. Price 15s. net.
The arrival and departure of different birds at specific seasons of
the year has not passed unnoticed in India and we find references to
them in our oldest literature.
Migration is not confined to birds, and many animals including
man in his more primitive form, have a set pattern of seasonal move-
ment. Our knowledge of the movements of fish in great oceans is
still in its infancy and the migrations in the life histories of the
eel and the salmon are two solitary problems which have been solved.
Bird migration has always been more conspicuous and no one can
fail to wonder how their large numbers find their way to distant parts
of the world, and after travelling over many thousands of miles
of unknown territory return to the same house or garden to build a
nest or spend the season. The problem has always fascinated a large
number.
The British Isles are particularly well situated to enable bird wat-
chers to observe and study migrations and in recent years a more
reliable check is being kept of their movements with the assistance of
aluminium and other forms of rings or bands.
REVIEWS 929
Man, however, is still guessing how birds find their way. Homing
pigeons are guided by sight and have to be ‘trained’ to the country
over which they are to return. There can, however, be no doubt that
many birds fly over quite unknown country, according to a set pattern.
The young and their parents often travel separately or by different
routes and the young birds therefore, cannot be profiting by che
experience of their elders.
Kramer’s recent theory suggests that birds orientate themselves
by means of the sun. But this is not a simple explanation, as birds
are known to migrate long distances both by day and by night when
the sun is not visible.
The present volume is illustrated with several excellent photographs
by Eric Hosking and the whole should set an example of the kind
of ornithological work which still remains to be done in India.
H.A.
3. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON SOUTHWESTERN ASIA. By Henry
Field. Pp. i-xvi, 1-106 (11.2” x 8.6”). Florida, 1953. University of
Miami Press. —
‘This Bibliography of 3,016 selected titles has been compiled to
serve the specialist and student of this area ranging from Istanbul to
the Hindu Kush on the north, and from Aden to the Makran coast
on the south, from the Suez Canal on the west to the eastern boundary
of Afghanistan.’ Though previous literature is also listed, it is said
to have been compiled with special reference to the period 1940 to
1952.
This is a useful bibliography, that has been compiled with great
care and with much research. It is bound to be of great service to
those interested in the natural sciences of the area.
The distribution of the references is as follows: Numbers 1-1680
Anthropogeography ; Numbers 1681 to the end, Natural History, of
which the following sections of Zoology are listed: General Zoology
(1681-1715); Arthropods (1716-1861); Birds (1862-2007); Fish (2008-
2090); Mammals (2091-2194); Mollusks (2195-2357); Reptiles and
Amphibians (2358-2441). From No. 2442 to No. 3016 botanical
references are given.
In the introduction the author gives a list of the more important
bibliographical works for the area covered in the Bibliography. in
the chapter on journals and books consulted, the author gives a
comprehensive list of the works for each of which he adopts a
shortened abbreviation of his own; on purpose he does not follow
the international list of scientific periodicals, and this results in con-
siderable saving of space without undue difficulty in the identification
of the sources.
As to the presentation of this Bibliography, the book has been
reproduced by photo offset from a typewritten copy; it is a neat and
pleasant book; this method of reproducing books seems to be rather
popular in America, where the costs of printing are generally much
higher than in India. The same system has been followed in Biological
Abstracts and in Phytologia, to cite but two examples.
930 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
The names of the various authors are given in roman types; if
the same were printed in either italics, if at all possible in a modern
typewriter, or in capitals, the names would stand out more clearly
and would make study of the book easier; similarly when an author
has been cited once, any subsequent reference to the same is given but
with the omission of the author’s name; personally I would like to see
the name of the author given for each paper, and this could be
done without lengthening the book or making it more expensive.
For the rest this book fills a great need. I hope that one day in
the near future we shall see similar books on the various fields. of
natural history in our country.
Hy SANDARPAURS Sie
4.. THE PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA—
A Compilation. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1a, (Retd.). Pp. i-xv+
173 (94” x61”). Bangalore City, 1953. The Bangalore Press.
Complete sets of bound volumes of the Society’s journals are
becoming increasingly rare; and in any case such sets may appear
somewhat uninviting in their shelves unless One knows exactly where
to find what one wants. As far as wild life preservation is concerned,
however, these drawbacks have been removed. Most of the important
contributions on this subject which have appeared in the Journal up
to Vol. 50, No. 4, are reprinted in Col. Burton’s valuable compilation,
while those which are not actually reprinted are repeatedly referred
to in the Summarised Index and elsewhere. ;
The Inspector-General of Forests has remarked that it is a ‘peciliar
paradox of life that is so puzzling to the human mind that the man
who destroys wild life should be the man who loves it most’. Of
no other man in India, surely, can this be so true as in the case
of Col. Burton, who after so many years spent in shikar has devoted
the latter years of his life entirely to the cause of preserving the
animals and birds which had provided so much interest and_ sport.
It should be added here incidentally, that Col. Burton does not deny
the present and future generations the right to indulge in sport: it
is against indiscriminate killing for meat and profit by illegal means
and in contravention of existing laws and rules that he is justly in-
-dignant.
The Compilation was made at the instance and aubshished through
the generosity of H. H. The Rajapramukh of Mysore. Five hundred
copies have been printed and distributed free to all those who are
officially connected with the preservation of wild life. Should there
be a further demand, I am informed that a second printing might
be made. | RF is
Contributions from Col. Burton’s own pen in this Compilation
are significant, as his several papers on wild life preservation during
recent years find their rightful place in the book. And in addition
his Summarised Index is perhaps one of the most useful parts of
the book, as it spotlights all the important items, with a short ex-
“ plariatory note and the necessary references.
With regard to the general layout ‘of the book, the Summarised
Index could well have been placed at the end, and the summaries
REVIEWS . 931
of some of the articles now appearing in .the Preface might well
have been prefixed to the articles themselves. The list of ‘Contents’,
too, is not strictly illustrative of the actual contents of the book,
as many of the items listed here are not reproduced in the book.
If ever there is a second edition, as surely there should be, a general
index at the end would be a welcome addition.
For those who need to become fully acquainted with the complete
background to wild life preservation in India, the book is a mine of
information and an indispensable vade-mecum. It should be studied
by all members of State Wild Life Boards: it should be read and
digested by all Forest Officers entrusted with the preservation of wild
life. |
I know personally that this compilation has meant an immense
amount of work for Col. Burton at a time when, having reached the
age of four score years and more, his time could have been spent
in a more leisurely way. I think, however, that he was happiest
when busiest in the cause so dear to him; and this Compilation was
a fine farewell gift to India and to the mute denizens of her plains
and forests on the eve of his retirement from this country.
BARAG:
5. THE INDIAN AQUARIST. Official Publication of the
Aquarist Society of India, 251 Hornby Road, Bombay 1. Vol. I,
17
No. 1, August-September, 1953. Pp. 35 (84”x54”); illustrated.
BULLETIN OF THE BOMBAY AQUARIUM SOCIETY.
(Premier Registered Society in the East). Vol. I, No. 1, September-
October, 1953. Pp. 16 (9” x52”); illustrated.
These two bulletins, that have just begun publication, are the organs
of two independent ‘societies, each with different scope and means.
The Aquarist Society wishes to cater for the amateur aquarist who
finds great pleasure in the keeping of fishes and water plants. The
Bombay Aquarium Society aims at a more scientific study of the pro-
blems connected with aquaria and aquatic life. Both. societies with
their bulletins are heartily welcomed among the educated public of
Bombay.
The Aquarist Society was formed three years ago, and has been
assuing a cyclostyled news-sheet for about three years. The present
bulletin is a great advance on the previous news-sheets. The
printing is excellent; the illustrations numerous and well printed. To
give an idea of the bulletin and of the activities of the Aquarist Society,
I shall list the articles that appear in the first number. After a letter
-of introduction by our Chief Minister, Bombay State, there is a short
editorial explaining the circumstances under which the present bulletin
is being offered to the public; The Theory and Practice of Cleaning
Home Aquaria by Dr. C. W. Coates, Curator and Aquarist, New
York Zoological Society; Collecting Fishes in South-East Asia and
Study of their Natural Environments by Alfred H. Marsack; Hints
and Tips; My favourite Fish, Scataphagus argus by R. M. Captain;
‘An Albino Betta in California by Gene Wolfsheimer; Apistogramma
veitzigi by R. W. Andrews; The Editor’s Quiz Box; Breeding. the
932 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Barbus tetrazona by V. L. Navalkar; A Mexican Platy Became the
Turkish Black Fury by Myron Gordon, Geneticist of the New York
Zoological Society; Book Reviews; The Society’s Album consisting
of five pages of good illustrations; Beginner’s Page; Gleanings;
Shop News; Mail Bag.
The Bulletin of the Bombay Aquarium Society in its first number
contains the following articles: Editor’s Notes; Report of the
Secretary; President’s Inaugural Remarks; Fish Foods by Dr. S. B.
Setna; Native Aquarium Fishes by Dr. C. V. Kulkarni; Adjutants
and Assailants by Dr. S. B. Setna; Mail Bag; Officers for 1953;.
Who’s Who.
For those interested in aquarium fishes and aquatic life in general,
both societies with their respective bulletins offer great scope. It
is a matter of pride for Bombay that two such societies can thrive
in our city, and live in harmony. Both societies are doing excellent
work, as can be seen from their bulletins. We wish them both every
success and long life.
With the opening of the Taraporevala Aquarium under such
beautiful surroundings, the study of fish life has been much encouraged
in our city. The success of the Exhibition ‘Fish Fantasy’ put up
by the Aquarist Society a short time ago was an unqualified success.
These are indications that the public of Bombay is beginning to take
an active interest in this highly educative and pleasant hobby of fish
and aquarium keeping.
H. SANTAPAU, s.3.
The following books have been added to the Society’s library since
September 1953:—
1. THE Funci—A description of their Morphological Features and
Evolutionary Development (Translated from the German by Frederick
Lyle Wynd). By E. A. Gaumann (Hafner Publishing Company, 1952).
2. InsEcts—The Year-book of Agriculture 1952. Alfred Stefferud
—Editor (United States Department of Agriculture, Washington,
1952).
. AN ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF THE ROTHSCHILD COLLECTION OF
FLeas (Siphonaptera) in the British Museum (Natural History),
Tungidae & Pulicidae, Volume I. By G. H. E. Hopkins and Miriam
Rothschild (The Trustees of the British Museum, 1953). (A compli-
mentary copy from the Trustees).
4. THE Birps or DELHI AND District—Reference List—compiled
from Sir N. F. Frome’s notes, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol.
47 (2), with additions Vol. 48 (2), and notes by Mr. H. G. Alexander-
By H. G. Alexander. 1950. (A complimentary copy).
5. Birps oF CEYLON, 2. By W. W. A. Phillips. (The Associated
Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd., 1952). (A Review copy).
6. Brrp Micranrs—By Eric Simms (Cleaver-Hume Press Ltd.,
1952). (A Review copy).
7. PARROTS AND PARROT-LIKE BIRDS IN AVICULTURE. By The
Marquess of Tavistock. (F. V. White & Co.). (Presented by Dr-
J. Austin Kerr).
REVIEWS 933
8. AnrmaL Ecotocy. By W. H. Dowdeswell. (Methuen & Co.
Ltd.). (A Review copy).
The following bound volumes were presented to the Society’s library
by Mr. Humayun Abdulali:— _
LEPIDOPTERA Exotica, or Descriptions and illustrations of Exotic
Lepidoptera—By Arthur Gardiner Butler, (1869-1874). (Janson & Sons
1874).
REVISION OF THE HETEROCEROUS LEPIDOPTERA OF THE FAMILY
SPHINGIDAE. By Arthur Gardiner Butler. (From the Transactions of
the Zoological Society of London, Vol. 1x, Part x, 1876).
A CorRECTION.—‘ LIFE OF THE SHORE AND SHALLOW SEa’ by Douglas
P. Wilson, listed in the additions to the Society’s Library in Vol. 51,
p. 719 is not a review copy but was presented by Dr. F. R.
Goldschmidt.
WETS GLAI CEA UN TOW S, INI igs
1. ON THE FEEDING HABITS OF. BEARS
I wish to bring to the notice of naturalists certain interesting
observations of mine, made in June, 1953, on the Kambakam Hill
(2,540 ft. above mean sea level). The place is thickly wooded and
infested with panthers, bears and other wild animals. Amidst
various pugs and other marks found there, one series of markings
particularly attracted my attention. These are shallow pits, about
a foot and a half long and about half a foot wide, the bottom sloping
from the surface at one end to a depth of about three inches at the
other end. They are, however, not seen in large numbers; I noticed
cnly two or three on my way. I learnt from the local inhabitants,
that such pits are dug by bears. Foot-prints and impressions of
nostrils of bears, associated with the pits, also confirm it. A scrutiny
of the pits for evidences (at least as impressions) of prior existence of
vegetable matter there, has revealed nothing of the kind.
It is known that bears dig up and eat certain underground plant
parts, but the shallow pits, made by them in the open, call for an
explanation. Surely the bear would not waste its energy by digging
at a wrong place. Induced by these thoughts I have made enquiries
of my guide and other local inhabitants, on the food habits (known
to those people) of bears and the purpose served by the shallow pits.
Only one explanation is acceptable to me, and that is that the bear
(which eats ants) exposes the moist earth, lying underground, for
the ants to gather, and that the animal comes there again for feasting
on the ants. so gathered. Though it sounds curious, I have not been
able to find any better explanation. Perhaps similar observations
have been recorded by others?
(GOVERNMENT Museum,
MADRAS, M. S. CHANDRASEKHAR
july 9, 1953.
{Mr. R. C. Morris comments on the above as follows:—
‘Mr. Chandrasekhar’s description of the diggings is typical of
those by bears for grubs and ants’ nests of the type commonly found
either under flat stones or hard soil-pans. Bears have an acute
sense of smell and can locate grubs even 2 to 3 ft. below ground.
Diggings of the same description are made by Ratel in dry stream
beds; and also sometimes by Pangolin, though usually not so wide
as described in Mr. Chandrasekhar’s ‘note.’ Eps. |
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES B35
2. ALBINO SAMBAR
In November 1951, I was near Gunaithittu in the Talamalai
Range, North Coimbatore, and saw a single white Sambar stag with
five normal coloured hinds. On a previous trip in May 1951 I saw
a single white hind with two normal coloured ones. This is the
first time that I have seen albino sambar. The shikaris of the local
Malasa tribe informed me that they have frequently seen white
sambar of both sexes.
1 hope that efforts will be made to protect them as far as possible.
15, PERUMAL KoiL STREET,
Fort, B. SUBBIAH PILLAY
COIMBATORE,
January 4, 1952.
3. MYSTERY PREDATOR
I was interested to see the article ‘Mystery Predator’ by Mr.
. P. Gee in the last Journal, Vol. 51 (3), p- 732.
Last February one of my guinea-fowl was killed in the mali-bari
by a Jungle Cat (Felis chaus) which was seen by my staff. Part of
the body was eaten and the rest buried in three different places
including an egg which would have been laid that day.
This, may be the solution to the mystery.
HORPUKHURI TEA ESTATE, |
Miyikajan P.O., . D. G. MESTON
ASSAM, 3
Wctober 15, 1953.
4. WILD LIFE CONSERVATION—THE PROBLEM ON
THE DEER
There has recently been controversy in England about hunting
the wild red deer of Exmoor. A contributor to the Sunday Times of
August 16th, 1953 (Exmoor’s ‘Problem of the Deer’), having obviously
complete local and general knowledge of the subject, writes that
some have a strong feeling against hunting the deer, but reminds
those in favour of abolishing the staghounds that this would not be
wholly beneficial to the animals they desire to protect. He acknow-
ledges that the deer must be kept down in the interests of the many
owners and cultivators of various crops raised both within the borders
and on the confines of the forest; and points out that the erection
and maintenance of deer-proof fences would be extremely costly; that
ihe trapping would not be selective and must be rejected on humane
grounds; that whenever hunting has declined poaching has flourished ;
and poaching, if unchecked, means the end of the deer; for the
poacher flouts the two basic biological principles observed- by -the
936 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Hiunt—the selection for its quarry of warrantable stags and obser-
vance of a close season for propagation of the species. Some, he
says, argue that the hunted deer experiences extreme terror, but this
is doubtful, for it is easy to credit animals with human emotions.
Once the obnoxious scent and noises of pursuit are removed the deer’s
alarm ceases. (Sportsmen of experience in India know that this is
so, and not only in regard to deer.) He also remarks that it is
the custom of the Exmoor Hunt to kill the harboured stag with a
humane killer so that any charge of cruelty must hinge upon the chase
itself.
Another contributor points out that those who wish to abolish
hunting the deer (by staghounds as on Exmoor and in the New
Forest) are, however, unwillingly or unwittingly doing their best to
abolish the wild red deer by affording scope to the poacher; and is
convinced that in an increasingly crowded and hungry world, where
man becomes more and more the master of all animals except himself,
no large land animal will in the long run be able to survive unless
it ministers conspicuously to the profit, the pleasure or the appetites
of man.
All the above, with the exception of the use of the humane killer,
has been expressed by the present writer in one way or another in his
varicus writings or contributions to the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society during the past few years. So we see that
the principles of the conservation of game animals are much-the same
in both western and eastern countries. .
Another contributor to the Sunday Times argues that the first
contributor’s article is merely an apologia for hunting the deer; and
another from Oxford states that during the last war, according to
the Minister of Agriculture, 60 per cent of the deer in the country
of the Devon and Somerset Hunt were killed in organised shoots;
and that in 1951 the same Hunt organised some shoots and
the Master wrote in a weekly journal: ‘Shotguns in responsible
hands were used under the Joint Master’s standing order limiting
the range to ten yards. The result was perfectly satisfactory.’ All
conversant with the subject in India well know that this latter method
could not be used and would be in no way satisfactory in this country.
c/o Lioyps BANK,
PICCADILLY, R. W. BURTON,
Lonpon W.1, Lt.-Col., 1.4. (Retd.).
September 18, 1953.
5. BAYAS AND FIRE-FLIES
I was informed that the Baya weaver-bird illuminated its nest by
means of firelflies, but I took this to be a tall story until one day I
saw a number of these nests hanging from a palmyra palm and also
a fallen one on the ground. This nest was a female nest, i.e. one
with a pocket in the middle. In tearing this nest apart to discover
its shape and construction internally, I saw blobs of mud or clay
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 937
stuck to the inside wall of the nest. Three fire-flies had their heads
and half their bodies buried into this mud. These had undoubtedly
been caught by the mother bird and stuck into the mud to give
illumination to the nest which they did, even when dead.
c/o NGWEDAUNG MINE SYNDICATE,
BAWZAING, R. M. ALDWORTH
PLO). IElBEO, Sasoon
BURMA,
October 14, 1952.
|We wrote to Mr. Aldworth asking him to confirm if the fire-
flles embedded in the mud were dead or alive and we have received
a reply which reads :—
‘I would inform you that I found these fire-flies dead but the
underside posterior portions were still emitting incandescent light.’
The emission of light in fire-flies and glow-worms has been known
ac a physiological process which can only occur while the animal is
alive. The present observation is difficult to explain.—EDps. |
6. ON THE RE-OCCURRENCE IN CEYLON OF BLYTH’S
PIPIT—ANTHUS CAMPESTRIS THERMOPHILUS ({JERDON)
Although a good lookout has been kept in recent years, the only
record of the occurrence in Ceylon of Blyth’s Pipit was Legge’s
reference to a single bird that he collected near Virgel on the coast
of the Eastern Province in October (before the year 1880) and which
he described in his ‘Birds of Ceylon’ on page 628 under the name
of Corydalla striolata, the large Meadow-pipit.
On February 1st this year (1953) one was secured by Mr. E. C.
Fernando Junior son of the late Taxidermist to the Colombo Museum,
at Boralesgamuwa about 12 miles south of Colombo, on the west
coast. This bird was sent to the Bird Room of the British Museum
(Natural History) while I was in England on furlough, and I had
the opportunity to examine and compare it with Indian specimens.
of the same species in the reserve collections of that institution.
Yhere is no doubt as to the identity of this specimen which consti-
tutes an interesting record of the re-appearance of the species in
Ceylon. It appears to be either a rare straggler or possibly an
occasional winter visitor, associating with Richard’s Pipit (A.
novaeseelandiae richardi) a common winter immigrant on the pastures
of the coastal areas during the period October to February. With
regard to the collecting of this Pipit, I am informed that it was
shot in the paddy fields near Kesbawa, about 3 miles inland from
the coast. When first seen the bird rose straight up into the air,.
then glided downwards almost to the ground, then up again. This
flicht was repeated several times and Mr. Fernando, noting the
peculiar behaviour and that the bird was slightly larger in size than.
G33: JOURNAL, BOMBAY-NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the common Indian Pipit {A. novaeseelandiae malayensis) and also its
shrill cry when rising, collected it. It would appear probable that
this bird was indulging in its nuptial flight, prior to its migration
northwards to its breeding habitat.
‘TONACOMBE, 7
NAMUNUKULA, AVG WAS ZN RAS DUE IE INES:
CEYLON, 1
September 25, 1953.
Wa ese D SEI DY AUR DIB! SNA Side ED) AWIUEID) Sib IBJ8.S
Hearing the roar of an approaching swarm of wild bees on the
move, I looked up and saw them crossing a clearing in the forest
at tree-top height. Escorting them on the flanks of the swarm were
four or five Crested Tree Swifts (Hemiprocne longipennis) which
appeared to be snapping up bees from the outside of the swarm.
Unfortunately the swarm was only in view for a few moments.
J have seen many swarms of wild bees on the move at various
times, but have never seen these birds preying on them before. Are
there any other records?
FOREST OFFICE,
BRUNEI, 133, 18.5 SUMDY IL ISUUBIS
(VIA SINGAPORE),
August 5, 1953.
8. MOVEMENTS OF LESSER FLORICAN [SYPHEOTIDES
INDICA (MILLER)]
The banding of the Lesser Florican in Bhavnagar State, Kathiawar,
was a five years’ scheme by His Highness the Maharaja Saheb of
Bhavnagar commencing from 1943. An account of it was published
in the December 1943 Journal (Vol. 44, p. 299). Subsequently, my
paper on the behaviour, display and habits of the Lesser Florican
was published giving some records of recoveries. )
A male bird banded with a copper ring bearing the inscription
‘Inform Maharaja of Bhavnagar,” BHF. No. 203, on 27-8-45 in the
Trapaj locality, Bhavnagar State, was recovered on 23-8-53 in the
locality of Badudi—Bhal, Gohilwad, Saurashtra. This bird was
released again with a new band bearing No. BHF. 4o4 on 24-8-53
at Bhavnagar.
Dit Banar,
BHAVNAGAR, K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI
August 29, 1953. ‘
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: =. . Benen 939
g- LESSER FRIGATE BIRDS. (FREGATA ue
; | IN BOMBAY !
_ On Monday June 29th, and again on Sunday July 5th, 1953, I
saw Frigate birds (I°regata minor) on the west side of the Colaba
peninsula between the point opposite Prongs Lighthouse and the Naval
Wireless Station.
(A single bird was observed for about a quarter of an hour on
Monday June 29th. It was soaring over the partially covered reef
and moving sideways in the strong wind. No other birds were close
to it, though a party of crows were flying low over and settling on
rocks about 4oo ft. to the southward of it.
Identification was, I think, pretty sure. Large dark brown bird
with a grey-white throat and part of breast, distinctly forked tail
which opened up to show the fork when the bird moved sideways
in the wind. The beak with a curved tip was more sharp than
that of any gannet.
On Sunday July 5th, two birds were seen close to the Colaba
Point. I could not get as close as to the one on Monday; but was
able to note that the darker of the two was the smaller, probably
a male, and that both showed distinctly forked long tails as they
floated in the wind. The birds kept close together, rarely more than
a few yards apart. ,
I understand that these ‘man-o-war hawks’ do not often move
to this part of the coast.
COMMODORE’S HOUSE, Ha #209
COLABA, Ree Via) <RAWEEOR
BOMBAY.
July 15, 1953.
[On June 26th, 1945, Mr. C. McCann had first reported seeing an
example at Bandra Creek, which was being chivvied by crows, but
it was not published at the time since it was merely the sight record
of a species that had never occurred here before; neither had any
confirmation been received since. The distribution of the Western
race aldabrensis, to which our birds presumably belonged, is given
in the Fauna (Birds, 6: 297) as: ‘Aldabra, Seychelles, Glorioso. <A
female was obtained by Nicoll in Ceylon.’ Commodore Yaylor’s des-
cription of the bird and its deeply forked tail now leaves no doubt as
to the correctness of his as well as Mr. McCann’s diagnosis. By a
remarkable coincidence, moreover, the very next morning after the
record was received by us, Mr. Salim Ali also observed a solo Frigate
Bird flying quite low over his residence on Pali Hill, Bandra, so that
even without binoculars its identity was unmistakable.—Ebs. |
10. BIRDS OF NEPAL
Through the kind permission of the Government of Nepal the
author has been able to carry on a study of the birds of that country
for the past four years. Our first expedition to Nepal was from the
end of October, 1949, to January 31st, 1950. It was sponsored by the
940 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
late H. B. Conover, Associate Curator of Ornithology at the Chicago
Museum of Natural History. On this initial trip the author was
accompanied by Carl E. Vaylor, m-p., R. 2. Bergsaker and H.
Bergsma. We visited the western districts of Butwal, Palpa, Baglung
and Pokhara where we gathered some 720 specimens representing 256
species as identified at the Chicago Museum.
Three private trips were subsequently taken. From December
1951 to February 1952, the author’s wife, Bethel H. Fleming, M.p.,
and Carl W. Friedericks, M.p., carried on medical work while the
author and his 14-year old son, Robert L. Fleming II, continued the
project in ornithology. Most of the time was spent in and around
Tansen; Pokhara was revisited in February. A total of 375 skins
were taken, representing 133 species of which 24 were additions to our
Nepal list. On our next visit the author was again accompanied
by his son and Richard B. Parker, students of Woodstock High
School and members of the Woodstock Natural History Society. We
worked in the south-western districts of Kailali and Kanchanpur and
made a short trip into the hills of Doti. Here we gathered about
400 specimens (from November 1952 to January 1953) including
about 100 species new to our list. A fourth visit made by the author,
his wife and son, was to the Central Valley (January-February, 1953).
Some 150 skins were prepared of which about 25 were of those which
we had not had before.
NEPAL COLLECTIONS
The most comprehensive collection of birds ever to be made in
Nepal was that of the British Resident, Brian Hodgson, from 1821 to
1843. Species totalled 563. No extensive work was done until fairly
recently when Ripley visited Nepal in 1947-49 and took 1,600 skins
representing 331 species. During the past six years Colonel and
Mrs. Proud have recorded well over 300 kinds of birds in the Central
Valley and have collected over 250 of them. Our present total is near
410. These are in the Chicago Museum while other birds from Nepal
are in the U.S. National Museum, the American Museum, the Peabody
Museum and the British Museum.
Among our birds there appear to be one or two new sub-species
such as a laughing thrush similar to Garrulax affinis affinis, found at
9.000 ft. below Tukche and a Pompadour Green Pigeon from the
Butwal teraz. At least one and perhaps others have never been re-
ported before from Nepal. Mrs. Proud identified Hodgson’s White-
gorgetted Flycatcher which Bob Fleming II got this winter at
Godaveri in the Kathmandu Valley.
INTERESTING LOCALITIES AND SPECIES
ONIN AAO Or Worl aili amc MaAmeinampmn, We
worked the area around Dhangarhi, Kailali, for three weeks.
Surrounding Dhangarhi were open cultivations, rice fields, here and
there a reedy pond beyond which lay scrub jungle and virgin forests.
Here we found the Redwhiskered Bulbul, Bluebearded Bee-eater,
Indian Courser, Wryneck, Starling, Bank Myna, Indian Shama,
Yellow-eyed and Bengal Redcapped Babblers and many others.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 941
From Kailali we travelled in stages by ox carts to Barmdeo Mandi
in the extreme southwestern corner of Nepal. En route we stopped
at Bilauri, the chief town of Kanchanpur, known for its numerous
ungulates and carnivora. Here were the Swamp Partridge,
Cormorants, Pallas’s Fishing Eagle, Peafowl, River and Blackbellied
Terns. In the valley above the Sarda River we found the Ruby-
throat, Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo, Crested Swift and Purple
Heron. As far as adding new species to our list, this teva: area was
most rewarding. .
2. Butwal. The heavy forest at the base of the Siwalik Range
‘was especially rich in woodpeckers. These included the Mahratta
Woodpecker and the Great Slaty Woodpecker several of which we
watched for some time as they called and drilled into tall trees
bordering a small ‘stream. Here we found the Shama and the
Orangeheaded Ground Thrush, both of which proved to be more
abundant farther west. In the scrub jungle around Butwal were
Purple Sunbirds, Pigmy and Jungle Owlets and the Sirkeer Cuckoo.
Four or five miles up the road towards Tansen, in and around
Ranibas (2,500 ft.) the greatest amount of bird life was found. The
Orangebreasted Chloropsis inhabited every tree. The Blackbreasted
Sunbird, Bronze Drongo, Bluethroated Barbet, Trogon, Broadbill,
Golden Bush-robin, Green Magpie and many others made up this
bird paradise.
3. Tansen. The Srinagar Forest on the northern slopes
above Tansen was a place which we combed thoroughly for six weeks.
The area was about one square mile in extent. We were well
acquainted with the birds here including one Nepal Kalij hen which
dared to live so close to civilization. Of all the. species represented,
perhaps the most interesting was the Spiny Babbler. Actually only
three of our 15 Spinys were taken from this forest. They were
from three separate groups. One of them was at the edge of a
terraced field; there were four birds in all. Another party of two
or three was under a brow of a hill in grass and among shrubs. A
third, consisting of two Spinys and two Scimitar Babblers was in
scrub oak among damp ferns. In most cases the Scimitar Babblers
were with or not far away from the Spinys. Farther west in the
foothills of Doti where we collected nine Spinys, they were also in
company of Scimitar Babblers. We ran onto them daily in almost
the same places in parties from two to seven. Their calls, consisting of
several kinds of notes, were rather subdued. The most characteristic
sound as they hopped around on the ground in a group like Seven
Sisters was a low chur-r-r-r-r, chur-r-r-r-r-r. The louder sound was
like el el el ele. One morning several were out in the open near an
empty shed. I heard the second call and as I stalked them they
whirred to cover. When I got quite close to them, the warning
chur-r-r-r was given again. It was all on the same note and sounded
almost like a whistle. The birds would then fade out of sight only
to peep out -behind vegetation not far away. It was lots of fun
watching them. They liked certain fallow fields thick with an
Artemisia shrub. When disturbed at the edge of cultivation they
would fly quickly to low trees in a neighbouring field and from
We
942 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
there move one after another up the hill. When on the ground
in thick under-growth they seemed to melt out of sight only
to reappear not far away. It soon became apparent that the males
had much whiter throats than the females and at times almost
resembled miniature Chinese Waterhens the way they glided along.
4. Tukche and Vicinity. Tukche is a large village
along the Kali Gandak River at g,ooo ft. to the north of the
Dhaulagiri and Annapurna Ranges. The most common bird there
was the Tibetan Sparrow. Wrens were occasionally found in the
stone walls bordering cultivated fields. Early each morning the
Redbilled Chough flew down from the towering cliffs above the
village into the streets. The bills and tarsi of these birds were much
more massive than those from Kulu, Northern Punjab. Both the
Tibetan and the Himalayan Snowcocks inhabited the ridges at 16,000
and 17,000 ft. while the Snow Partridge was found a little lower
down.
The first snowfall of the season in 1949 was on December 11th.
A strong wind was blowing and as the snow began, hundreds of
birds sought shelter in the hedges and shallow valleys along the
river about five miles north of Tukche. There was the Beautiful
Rosefinch, the Altai Accentor, the Rufousbreasted Accentor, Gilden-
stadt’s Redstart, the Chukor Partridge and others which we could not
identify. It was said that the Tibetan Partridge would also be found
at the edge of the river but we took it at 13,000 ft. a few days
before the snow fell. In this area the Tibetan Tit-Warbler and the
Whitethroated Redstart were also present.
5- Pokhara. Lake: Pehra Tal is the, home. of the ‘Great
Crested Grebe. Here also were the Gray and the Blackbacked
Forktails, the Green Heron, Spurwinged Plover and a number of
ducks. A Spiny Babbler was collected along one of the streets in
the town while another was taken from a small flock at the base of
a hill to the north-east of the parade ground. Numerous wagtails
flew about the rice fields while the Haircrested Drongo was frequently
seen in the silk cotton tree.
6: Kathmandu Valley., Some -more than. half ~ the
species seen in the Valley in winter are also represented in Western
Nepal. The most memorable scenes centred around the great oaks,
Quercus semecarpifolia, where several kinds of birds clustered on the
trunk of a tree drinking the sap which flowed down over the bark.
On the 8,o00-9,o00 ft. ridges of Phulchauk, where these trees were
numerous, we found the Cutia, Hoary’ Barwing, Stripethroated
Yuhina, Yellowbrowed Tit and the Chestnut-headed Flycatcher-
Warbler. Higher were the Yellowbilled Magpie and the Darjeeling
Woodpecker. .
The lower valleys around Godaveri were most rewarding. Here
was the Pitta, Striated Bulbul, Scarlet Finch, Rufousthroated Shrike-
Babbler, Graysided Babbler, Quaker Babbler, Striated Babbler, Large
Niltava, Plainbacked Mountain Thrush, the Nepal Kalij Pheasant and
the Rufousthroated Hill Partridge. At Naggarjung we found the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 943
Spottedwinged Grosbeak. The Green Shrike-Babbler was on Shivpuri
while dippers at Sunderijal, by February, were feeding their young.
The question has frequently been asked,-‘How many kinds of
birds are there in Nepal?’ From our experience we would say that
we have collected about two of every three species seen. That would
make the number for Western and Central Nepal at least 600. A
rough estimate of 200 in Eastern Nepal would bring the total to
800, more or less. Although a partial study has already been made,
a great deal of work remains to be done. As complete a collection
as possible should be made, not only for a foreign institution which
is expert in taxonomy but also for the National Museum at Kathmandu
where visitors may see at a glance what is found in that country.
Much of the field work of the past few years has been done only
during winter or spring. \A round-the-year study of seasonal migra-
tions and shift in bird populations should be made for Eastern and
Western Nepal as the Prouds are doing for the Central Valley.
Nidification and habits of numerous species are as yet practically
unknown. The life histories of such birds remain to be done. Such
problems as these constitute a real challenge to anyone who studies
the ornithology of Nepal.
WoopDsTocKk SCHOOL,
MUSSOORIE, ROBERT L. FLEMING
May 15, 1953.
11. THE USE OF POISONOUS SPRAYS
‘The Shooting Correspondent’ writes to Sport & Country (17th
September, 1952) that for several years ‘selective’ weed killers ‘have
been in use to destroy weeds in corn crops or on grassland. They
are highly complex chemicals which generally kill most of the
broad-leaved plants but have little or no effect on the cereals and
grasses. ‘There are quite a lot of these chemicals differing slightly
in their properties and nature, but broadly speaking they can
be divided into two groups, those containing nitro compounds and
those of which the active principle is a hormone or growth-distort-
ing substance. The hormones such as MCPA and 2-4D, seem to
have little or no effect on animals and birds even when eaten in
considerable amounts on sprayed vegetation, so they can be regarded
as harmless so far as direct poisoning of game is concerned. The
nitro compounds are the nasty ones, mostly yellow liquids con-
taining a substance called Di-nitro cresol (DNC for short). In
many instances where a spray of this type has been used on young
corn, pheasants, partridges, hares, rabbits and lots of small birds
have been picked up dead. They can be poisoned by eating the sprayed
weeds or simply by walking about in the corn and absorbing the stuff
through their skins. ... If we must use DNC, surely it could
be confined to those cases where it is the only thing that will
do the job?
But I am afraid that we have by no means reached the climax
of this grim story of chemical farming. Only this week I heard
from a farmer in Gloucestershire who had picked up literally a
94.4, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
sack-full of game and other birds after a field of brussels sprouts
had been sprayed with one of the new ‘systemic’ phosphorus in-
secticides for the control of aphis. These chemicals are far more
poisonous in minute quantities ‘than any weed-killer. They are
absorbed by the plants and are so powerful that they can kill the
insects feeding on those plants for weeks afterwards, so what
chance has a partridge after eating a bit of chick or leaf-hopper
in such a field?
No sportsman or lover of wild life would wish to limit the fullest
production of food from our farms, and there is no doubt that these
sprays result in the saving of considerable losses from weed com-
petition and insect damage. But are we being a little too hasty
in the wide-spread use of such powerful and_ indiscriminate
killers?’
There is need in India for the warnings expressed above to be
borne in mind by all advisers and users of chemical sprays for purpose
of control of both insect and vegetable life. It has been observed
in One part of India that the use of chemical sprays as an anti-malarial
measure has resulted, by reason of beneficial reaction on the physical
condition of the inhabitants of the area in a marked increase in the
population !
c/o Litoyps Bank Ltp.,
PICCADILLY, R. W. BURTON,
Lonpon W.1, Lt.-Col, 1.4. (Retd.).
September 18, 1953.
12. EGG-LAYING OF THE BLOODSUCKER LIZARD
(With a photo)
The reason why the harmless looking reptile in this picture got
itself photographed may be of interest to readers of the Journal.
My wife, who has a way of picking on these things, came upon
the creature one afternoon, evidently in a state of great agitation.
It was digging away with its forefeet and thrashing with its tail.
When I arrived in response to an urgent summons, I found my
wife’s behaviour more alarming than the reptile’s, so I photographed
her first (not for publication) and then turned my attention to the
newt world. After I had taken my first I noticed a white spheroid
in the hole it had dug. I realised in a flash that I was photographing
a lizard laying eggs. While I was thinking of the thrill my pictures
would cause in the world—first ever photograph of a lizard laying
eges, first on Everest and so on—another and yet another rolled into
position. brave
This was too much; it was all absolutely offered, I hurried in
for a magnifying lens and thereupon did everything possible to dis-
courage helpless creation from performing its allotted task. It stirred
its tail feebly, an exercise, I later realised, that must have caused
it excruciating pain. The sequel deserves telling. We watched
cautiously from behind the garage. When the animal had relieved
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 945
itself, covered the eggs and retired, my wife pounced on them. ‘There
Oe
were eighteen in all. Later, my boy unearthed them and had a messy
time playing marbles.
GANGTOK, ANONYMOUS
July 8, 1953.
13. PYTHON CAPTURING CHINKARA
Recently I had an unique chance of seeing a python attack and
bring down a chinkara.
There is a park of about 1,000 acres round this century-old castle
and it is mostly of thick scrub jungle type with a lot of grass. Small
hills are dotted all over the place. It is about 800 to 1,000 ft. above
sea-level. Rainfall is rather poor, and in summer the place gets very
dry but we get all sorts of game in this Motisari Park. Panther,
wild boar, nilgai, hyena, chinkara and of course plenty of small
game. I went for a walk in the evening of the 4th September with
Her Highness, my small dogs and our dog-boy. We saw some
chinkara grazing and we stopped to admire them when they were
scattered by my dogs. I was watching a fine male standing with
a doe when suddenly I heard a scream and down the doe came. The
scream was quite unlike the scream or the bleating of a chinkara.
I saw something black and tan rolling away while the screams con-
tinued. I rushed after it. It must have rolled away at least fifty
yards from where the chinkara was brought down. To my surprise
when I reached the dying feeble gasping sound I saw a huge python
coiled tightly round the body of the doe. The coils were getting
tighter and tighter crushing the breath out of the doe. The python
had caught the chinkara just above the knee, It was crushing the
946 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUR AEST Site tS OCTET SViol-mor
throat of the chinkara with the coils of his tail end while the greater
crush and grip was being applied round the body crushing the ribs.
While we were watching this my Park Guard arrived. He had also
heard the cries and he thought it was the big panther killing a wild
boar. When he saw the python coiled round he got so excited that
he took off his coat and threw it on the coiled mass saying, ‘Sire
let’s catch him alive’. The python was taking no notice of us and
I sent my dog-boy to get my jeep and more help. We never noticed
the python unwind itself under the coat but to our surprise we heard
a hissing sound and the python flew at the chowkidar. It very
nearly caught his thigh. I had my axe walking-stick in my hand
and | automatically jumped and gave a blow which went home deep
into the python. This I suppose checked the python and it could not
reach the guard. After that many more blows were given. The
python measured 11 ft.
Now here are a few questions. Does a python start rolling away
after it brings down its prey? Is the death cry of an animal different
to its pain cry?
My old shikari informs me that my father shot a python here
in 1917 which measured 18 ft. What is the record for Kathiawad?
Are pythons found even in such dry scrub jungles? They are not
common here at all. We have only killed about six in the last fifty
years.
HINGOLGADH CASTLE,
JASDAN, (KATHIAWAD), RAJA OF JASDAN
September 20, 1953.
|In a subsequent letter the Raja of Jasdan writes that the ground
where the python struck was level. Though the ground sloped gently
a little further he does not think that the rolling took place because
of this slope. He suggests that the python has to roll in order to get
coiled round the animal and that the first impact starts the process.
The python is ordinarily a jungle inhabitant but is met with in
many parts of India where there is a relatively sparse growth on low
rocky hills. It is possible that forests once existed in these places
and have now been cut down.
The largest Indian python was recorded by the Maharaja of Cooch-
Behar from Assam as measuring 19 ft. 2 in., while others measuring
19 ft. have been recorded from Assam, Travancore and Ceylon.—Eps. |
14. A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANCHOVIELLA
HETEROLOBUS (RUPPELL) AND ANCHOVIELLA
ZOLLINGERI (BLEEKER) IN INDIAN SEAS
While working at the Westhill Biological Station, Malabar, in
1933, I came across two species of White-bait occurring commonly:
in the landings of fish in the area. Except for noting the fact that
both these species had not previously been recorded on the west
coast of India, nothing more could then be observed or studied due
to other work. In 1941 I had another opportunity to work at Westhill
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 947
and during this period I made a fairly detailed study of these two
species, which revealed that they were Anchoviella heterolobus (Ruppell)
and Anchoviella zollingeri (Bleeker). Dr. S. L. Hora, Director,
Zoological Survey of India, kindly confirmed this identification.
Day' in his Fishes of British India described three species of
White-bait under the genus Engraulis Cuvier, as occurring in the
seas and estuaries of India and distributed up to the Malay Archipelago.
They are Engraulis indicus (v. Hasselt), E. commersonianus (Lacépéde)
and E. tri (Bleeker).
Weber and de Beaufort® mention five species of White-bait under
the genus Stolephorus Lacépede, as occurring in the Indo-Australian
Archipelago. These five species comprise of Stolephorus tri (Bleeker),
S. commersoni Lacépéde, S. indicus (v. Hasselt) S$. heterolobus
(Ruppell) and S. zollingeri (Bleeker). The distribution of S. heterolobus
and S. gollingert is noted by them as Red Sea, Sumatra, Lombok,
Java, Ambon and Australia.
Herre®-’ described Stolephorus heterolobus from the South Sea
Islands, Andamans and Mergui Achipelago. Fowler* revised the
genus Stolephorus Lacépede and described it under the new genus
Anchoviella. He showed the distribution of the two species (Ancho-
viella heterolobus {Ruppell) and A. gollingeri (Bleeker) as follows :—
Anchoviella heterolobus (Ruppell) soo, INGO! (SEAL, Weise Ibaxchies,
Australia and_ the
Philippines.
Anchoviella gollingeri (Bleeker) ... Hast Indies, HMormosa
and Polynesia.
Misra® has extended the distribution of the former species ‘to
India, Burma, Siam and Fiji. I have, since my work at Westhill,
examined the Anchoviella catches from Vizagapatam and Tuticorin
regions and found Anchoviella heterolobus and A. sollingeri well
represented there also. This confirms the distribution of A. heterolobus
in the Indian Seas, and extends the range of A. zollingeri to these
waters.
These two species are clubbed together and called ‘Karinethal’ in
Malabar. Anchoviella heterolobus is normally caught from inshore
waters together with Anchoviella tri, A. commersonu and A. indicus,
but Anchoviella gollingeri occurs only beyond the 15 fathom line,
The development of Anchoviella heterolobus has been worked out
by Dr. Devanesan and myself’. Its eggs are elongated and elliptical
without a knob and have a small yellow oil globule. The vertebral
and caecal variations and the food of the five species of Anchoviella
occurring in Malabar are now under detailed analysis at Westhill
Biological Station and the results will be published elsewhere very
soon.
DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES,
MapRAS 14, S. VARADARAJAN
August 8, 1953.
948 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
REFERENCES
1. Day, F. (1889): Fauna of, British India: Fishes, I.
2. Weber, M. & de Beaufort, L. F. (1913): Fishes of Indo-Australian Archi-
pelago, II.
3. Herre, A: W. (1936): Public, Feld Mus. Nat. Hast: Zool. A4 +353.
4, — — — (1939): Rec. Ind. Mus., 44: 330,
5. — — (1940): ibid., 42: 1.
6. === = (1940) ibid) AD) 10)
7. — — — (1941): Mem. Ind. Mus., 13: 335
8. Fowler, H. W. (1942): Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 138: 698:
9. Misra, K. S (1947): Rec. Ind. Mus., 45° 402
10. Devanesan, D. W., & Varadarajan, S. (1942); Prec. 29th Ind. Sci. Cong.,
Selore
r5. RARE: OCEAN SUN-FISH—MASTURUS LANCEOLATUS
LIENARD IN BOMBAY WATERS?
(With a photo)
The sight of an unusual fish among the catch landed at one of
Bombay’s fishing docks, on January 4th, 1953, caused some excitement
among the fishermen there. The specimen was taken by the fisher-
men to Rev. Brother Navarro of the St. Xavier’s High School, who,
in turn, invited me to examine it.”
The specimen was identified to be a Pointed-tailed Ocean Sun-fish,
Masturus lanceolatus Lienard of the family Molidae. The fish was
a juvenile specimen of the species weighing about 20 lb. and measur-
ing 37 inches in total length. Fish of this type are rarely met with
in our waters, and the captured specimen has been mounted and
exhibited in the school museum.
Ocean Sun-fishes or Head-fishes, as they are sometimes called,
are known for their grotesque rounded bodies and gigantic size,
drifting listlessly on the surface of oceans. They represent the family
Molidae in which only three genera are included. Mola mola one
of the commonest member of the family, attains a weight of 1,200 Ib.
and a length of 8 ft. (Jordan, 1905; p. 425). Masturus lanceolatus
Lienard is known to attain a length of 10 ft. (Fraser-Brunner, 1951).
Ranzania laevis Nardo, which represents the third genus also grows
to a large size.
Being oceanic in habit, Sun-fishes are not commonly encountered
near the continental shelf, the few specimens that are landed having
drifted into inshore waters by sheer accident. Whitley (1934) recorded
only. a few specimens of Ranzania laevis Nardo from Australian
waters and Deraniyagala (1944) recorded five specimens from Ceylon.
According to the latter author, the Ceylonese specimens belong to
the genera Mola Cuvier and Rangania Nardo. No specimen of
Masturus, the third genus of the family Molidae, has so far been
1 Published with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Bombay.
*T am grateful to Brother Navarro for inviting my attention to this unique
find and giving me facilities for identification and description.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 949
recorded from these countries. Neither has any representative of
the whole family been recorded from Indian (Bharat) waters. |
Occurrence of a small Sun-fish was recorded by Day (1888, p.
809) but its identity could not be established as he did not have
an opportunity to examine the fish. He stated, ‘The Colombo Museum
sustained a great loss during my absence last year; a small Sun-fish,
Orthagoriscus was brought for sale, but was unfortunately rejected’.
In the Fauna of British India (Fishes) Vol. 1 (Day 1889; p. 499), genus
Orthagoriscus has been recorded but no description of the species is
available. Deraniyagala (op. cit.) also has not confirmed the identity
of the first Ceylon species.
Juvenile specimen of Masturus lanceolatus Lienard
Dr. Hora, Director, Zoological Survey of India, in a letter to me,
stated that there was no published record of any species of Sun-
fish from Indian waters. Dr. Misra (quoted by Hora), however,
stated that a specimen of Mola mola was landed by Japanese divers.
at Nicobar Island in 1929-30, but unfortunately the specimen was
not preserved for lack of a preservative. The present find is, thus,
950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the first record of any member of the Molidae family from Indian
waters. A short description of the specimen is furnished below :—
Masturus lanceolatus Lienard
DO ACs Ore a Dig On24
The fish is laterally compressed but in profile it is almost orbi-
cular in shape, with an asymmetrical, pointed tail which is the
characteristic of the genus. The lines of dorsal and ventral profiles
are evenly arched, the snout is rounded; even the jaws being flush
with the general rounded profile of the body. The distance from
the tip of the upper jaw to the orbit is 80 mm. The teeth in each
jaw are fused into a single element. The gills open on either side
of the body into vertical slits at the base of the pectorals which are
situated fairly high up on the body. The eyes are large and oblong,
the longitudinal diameter of the orbit being 38 mm., while the vertical
diameter is 35 mm. The height of the body is 475 mm. and standard
length is 762 mm., the total length being 925 mm. There are no
scales or spines on the body, the dermal covering being granular or
leathery in texture.
The finfolds of dorsal, anal and caudal fins are continuous but the
finrays of each fin can be determined by careful observation. The
extremity of the caudal fin is not “‘thumb-like’ as stated by Gudger
(1937, p. 3), but gradually tapers as depicted by the same author
(p. 39), in the case of Kluzinger’s dried stuffed 65-inch specimen
from the Red Sea. The central caudal lobe is, however, somewhat
asymmetrical, being slightly above the central axis; there being 10
fin-rays below the axis of the extremity and 6 above it. The central
lobe of the caudal consists of 8 fin-rays which are separated in the
middle by a longitudinally running band of brownish-red, smooth
skin tissue terminating distally. The tips of the dorsal and anal
fins diverge dorsally and ventrally and are 990 mm. apart in the
present specimen. The pelvic fins are absent. The pectorals are
comparatively small in size.
The colour of the fish is dark grey on the back, becoming
gradually silvery-white on the abdomen. The fins are dark grey. At
the base of the fins also there is a band of brownish red smooth
skin, which is different from the general granular texture of the
dermis of the body. It is seen as a wide dark patch at the base
of the dorsal and anal fins and as a circular band at the base of
the caudal.
TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION, C. V. KULKARNI
BOMBAY 2.
REFERENCES
Day, F. (1888): Fishes of India, London; p. 809.
— — — (1889): Fauna of British India—Fishes.: Vol. 11; p. 499.
Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1944): Some Whale Sharks and Sun-fishes captured off
Ceylon. Journ, Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliv (3): 426-430.
Fraser-Brunner, A. (1951): The Ocean Sun-fishes (Family Molidae). Bull. Brit.
Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool., Vol. 1 (6): 89-121.
Gudger, E. W. (1937): The structure and development of the Pointed-tailed Ocean
Sun-fish Masturus lanceolatus. Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., xix, 10th, pp. 1-95.
Jordan, D. S. (1905): A guide to the study of fishes, New York.
Whitley, G. P. (1933): Studies in Ichthyology, No. 7.. Rec. Austral, Mus,,
xix (1); 108,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 951
16. OCCURRENCE OF THE BRINE SHRIMP
ARTEMIA SP. IN BOMBAY
(With a text figure)
The Brine Shrimp, Artemia, is well-known to students of biology
for its adaptability to highly saline media and the phenomenon of
parthenogenesis, which it exhibits. Parthenogenesis, put into
plain language means development of an individual from an egg with-
out the intervention of the male element. The occurrence of brine
shrimps in India was not, however, known till May 6th, 1952, when a
large number of fully developed Artemia were collected from salt
pans at Vadala, on the outskirts of Bombay. Reference to literature
indicates that the only area close to India, from where the Brine Shrimp
is recorded is the Tibetan region, where Bond (1934)', collected a
few specimens at Tso-Kar during the Yale University expedition.
Apart from the biological significance attached to the discovery
at Vadala, the occurrence of brine shrimps in Bombay is of
considerable practical significance to aquarists. Eggs of Brine
Shrimp are a boon in the raising of tiny fry. The eggs, packed
in tubes, are at present imported by aquarists from foreign countries
for feeding their pets. When baby fish are expected to hatch, Brine
Shrimp eggs are put into slightly saline water. In about 30 hours
tiny larvae are ready as food for baby fishes. Collection of Brine
Shrimp eggs and the despatch to aquarists in different parts of the
world is a thriving trade in California. Occurrence of this crust-
acean in our waters should open up a new vista to our aquarists,
who can collect both adults and eggs locally. Being tenacious, the
adult shrimps can also be kept for a long time for feeding’ larger
aquarium fish.
A- Female Artemia: x 22;
B- Male Artemia: « 22;
C - Early larva of Artemia (Nauplius) : _X 200.
a
* Bond, R. M, (19384): Mem. Conn. Acad, Arts & Sci., Vol. x, Article 5 (Yale
Univ. Exped.).
952 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
The Indian Artemia are tiny creatures half an inch in total length
and cherry-red in colour when full grown. They swim upside down,
as if with back strokes, like typical Phyllopods. Younger forms
are pale whitish in colour. There is a pronounced sexual dimorphism,
the male (Fig. B) having well developed claspers and the female possess-
ing prominent ovisacs (Fig. A). Besides, the males are smaller than the
females and are far fewer in numbers; about 98% of the population
being females only.
Preliminary observations indicate that the Indian species of Artemia,
like its foreign congener is very specialised, thriving normally in
salinity of over 160°/00, the salinity of normal sea water being only
35°/00. Its osmo-regulatory mechanism is also very wonderful as
specimens placed directly from such highly concentrated saline water
into fresh tap water (O salinity) lived for 3 days without any apparent
discomfort.
Eggs of Brine Shrimp generally remain dormant for more than
a year and hatch out when the optimum salinity is reached. In dry
condition they are known to remain viable for 12 years. Detailed
observations on the viability of eggs of the Indian Brine Shrimp, its
life cycle and development will be studied later, but initial observations
show that these eggs float in concentrated water of salt pans and
wash up on the sides. Whether they hatch out immediately when
water of lower salinity is taken into the pans in the following fortnight
during the normal process of salt manufacture, has not yet been
established. Experiments in the laboratory show, however, that some
of the eggs hatch out on the second day in water of salinity of 65°/oo.
Eggs which were yet within the egg pouches (ovisacs) were viable,
for when a few mature females were crushed and put into slightly
saline water the eggs from the ovisacs hatched on the third day.
After hatching, the embryo remained suspended from the egg capsule,
encased in the embryonic membrane for some time before it actually
began to swim about. The newly hatched larva passes through the
typical Nauplius (Fig. C) and Metanauplius stages.
Further observations on the systematics and bionomics of these
shrimps are in progress.
I am indebted to Dr. S. B. Setna, Director of Fisheries, without
whose encouragement this discovery would not have been possible.
TTARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION,
BOMBAY 2, C. V. KULKARNI
September 30, 1953.
17. OCCURRENCE OF NEPHILA MALABARENSIS
IN BOMBAY
(With a text figure)
Recently I secured an interesting Argyopid spider from an ex-
pansive orb-web that lay stretched between the tiled roof of Matunga
Road Booking Station and a nearby tree (Pithecolobium saman).
Attracted by the immense size of the web which was about 6 sq. ft.
[ searched for the inmate for a number of days without success,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 953
Last week (30-6-1953) while returning late in the evening at about
7.30 p.m. I fortunately located the spider just coming out of its hiding
place and repairing the web. A large-sized spider it was, with long
Eyes and
Fangs
Nephila malabarensis Walck.
stout legs and the abdomen of a general black colour with bright
orange dots and streaks. I tried to bring it down with my umbrella
but the spider cleverly receded and concealed itself in the narrow
interspace between the batten and the tile. With some difficulty I
managed to drop it into a bottle containing denatured spirit (for at that
time I could not obtain any other better media like glycerin and
formalin or pure spirit) and carried it home. In the Genatured spirit
the spider lost much of its original bright colour; the dark turned
pale brown and the orange to pale yellow or even white. |
On a closer examination, however, it was found that the legs
were somewhat longer than in the case of Avaneus and further the
protarsi and tarsi definitely longer than the patellae and tibiae. Now,
the last mentioned characteristics are those which at once distin-
guish the genus Nephila from Araneus (Pocock, Fauna of British
India).
~The species of Nephila commonly met with in Bombay, especially
in’ the jungles during the monsoon months is the Giant Wood Spider,
Nephila maculata—which has a cylindrical abdomen and has its legs
about six times as long as its carapace.
The external morphological details of the newly secured specimen
are given below :—
Total length ote Sun BAL save:
Carapace 600 500 ©) SEDAN
Abdomen ABO 500 US taaveal
Palp | ais ate Oyama.
954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Patella © Protarsi &
Tibia Tarsi
First pair of legs! 560 | Zyl footie IO mm. 14 mm,
Second pair of legs ... 29 mm. Qg mm. II mm.
Third pair of legs 555 UG) iano. 6 mm. 7 mm.
Fourth pair of legs 55a Ae igavanl: 8 mm. Ii mm.
Thickness of femur about 2 mm.
Abdomen long oval brownish variegated with orange lines on
sides and dots below. Spinnerets form a normal rosette below at
the hind end of the abdomen. Mandibles stout and black. Carapace
somewhat convex and reddish brown in colour. Median eyes
whitish forming a normal quadrangle and laterals black and conti-
guous. Sternum V-shaped and yellow. Clypeus proxmially yellowish
and distally blackish. Legs: femur and tibia yellowish, pro-tarsi
and tarsi thin and long distally blackish covered with fine hairs, joints
striped black and brown.
It is obvious from all the above characteristics that the specimen
generally agrees with the description of Nephila malabarensis Walck.
The interest of the specimen lies in the fact that it is for the
first time that I have come across this species in Bombay.
c/o THE CEMENT MARKETING Co.
OF INpDIA LTD.,
1, QUEEN’S Roapb, Fort, T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM
BOMBAY-1,
July 16, 1953.
18. NOTES AND QUERIES ON LAND LEECHES
The two notes published in Vol. 50, No. 2 of the Journal suggest
that a general article by an expert on the biology and habits of land
leeches would interest many members of the Society; it is difficult
for the laymen to find the answer to queries such as these :—
1. How many species of land leech are known to science?
2. Land leeches are unknown from Africa and the Americas:
true or false?
3. Where do they go in the winter time?
In the tropics they are active all the year round; but in a monsoon
climate they disappear entirely for about six months, during the
cold dry winter. Do they get through this period in the form of
eggs? or by burrowing into the soil? How do they survive the
snow and frost at the upper limit of their range.
4. What is the normal food of a leech?
Humus? Soil?
5. What is the significance. of a blood meal to a leech?
' About 4 times as long as the carapace—a feature of N. malabarensis.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 955
The vast majority of leeches can never have the good fortune
tG secure a meal of blood all through their lives.
6. How high off the ground do leeches climb?
Has anyone ever recorded seeing a leech climbing the bole of
a tree {as opposed to tall grass, herb, or low shrub)? For botanical
purposes I have examined the boles of many trees recently in a Borneo
forest of normal leech density, but have yet to see a leech Chm)
one.
7. What evidence is there to support the idea that feccies may
at times drop onto hosts from overhanging vegetation?
In travel books one frequently comes across bald statements that
‘leeches dropped on us from the trees’. If the writer were to say:
‘While walking behind my companion ‘X’ I counted 23 leeches take
a free drop at him, of which 15 landed on his head and shoulders
but 7 scored near misses behind’, or ‘Every now and then there
was a soft plop as a leech took a free drop at one of us, but
miscalculated the range and hit the path’ the circumstantial detail
would carry conviction. The mere finding of a leech on one’s neck
is no evidence that it dropped from aboye—it is much more likely
to have climbed from below.
Dr. Brooke Worth states that this dropping theory ‘can be
imagined’ but points out some of the difficulties. It should be
possible to test it experimentally, by placing large numbers of leeches
on an overhead branch and then walking up and down underneath.
I can only say that I have been looking for the flying leech for 20
years, in Kumaon, Nepal, various parts of Burma, and in Borneo,
without having the good fortune to find one of these air-borne
d:visions.
8. How far off can a leech sense its host?
This again could be determined by experiment. Dr. Brooke
Worth states that it cannot be assessed whether a leech’s search is
merely on a tactile basis, or an actual olfactory experience. If it
is not olfactory, how is it that a leech, from a distance of 2 or 3
vards, will advance in a direct line towards a man standing perfectly
still, and if the man takes a pace to the right or left, the leech will
change the direction of its advance accordingly?
Travellers’ tales suggest that if a man were to lie down and
sleep in the forest without taking any precautions he might be
sucked dry by leeches. This would obviously depend on the radius
of the circle of attraction, and on whether leeches (like ants) can
summon their brethren from ever increasing disiances (this seems
unlikely).
The following random notes may be of interest; I cannot claim
to have studied leeches, except in so far as they forced themselves
on my attention.
956 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Econ! oleny® onte, Evaun daeleneexoynuerse
In South-east Asia land leeches seem to be confined to the
following forest types :—
Champion Classification Richards Classification!
1. Tropical wet evergreen Tropical rain forest
2. Tropical semi-evergreen do.
3. Sub-tropical wet evergreen Sub-tropical rain forest
4. Wet temperate Montane rain forest
5. Moist temperate ig >
Leeches are further confined to primary forest in the above types,
cr areas where the primary forest has been cleared without lhe use
of fire. In secondary seres following shifting cultivation leeches (in
my experience) are not found; there are several possible explana-
tions :—
(a) the intense fire wipes out the entire leech population,
(b) or the intense insolation (solar radiation) to which the soil
is subject after the fire and before the vegetation and the rice crop
again affords soil cover, eliminates the humus and the leeches with it.
If a secondary sere were left undisturbed it would eventually (after
several centuries) revert to primary forest, and presumably at some
time in the succession the area would be re-colonised by leeches from
neighbouring forest.
Leeches are not found in certain edaphic climax types of tropical
rain forest; these are :—
Mangrove forests. The daily or periodic flooding of these forests
with sea water is presumably lethal to leeches.
Peat-swamp forests. These cover some 6,000 sq. miles in the
coastal areas of Sarawak and Brunei, and are also found in other
parts of Malaysia. The forests grow on a considerable thickness
of peat (average 20-25 ft.) and is well above reach of the highest
tides; the surface water is fresh, but acid and the colour of strong
tea. Superficially these areas would appear to be a paradise for
leeches, but they are extremely rare; possibly the acidity of the water
does not suit them.
The oak-chestnut forests of the Shan Plateau (Maymyo), which
apparently fall in Champion’s sub-tropical wet evergreen type, are
free of leeches; perhaps the rainfall {50-60 inches per year) is
insufficient. 5
The principal teak forests in Burma are found in the tropical
moist deciduous type; a low ground fire burns through these forests
every year, in February or March, and this must account for the
absence of leeches. It is only where this type of forest merges with
the tropical semi-evergreen, and is too wet. to burn, that leeches
appear.
1 For the Richards Classification see ‘The Tropical Rain Forest’ by P. W.
Richards.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 957
One may deduce therefore that land leeches require :—
(a) Sufficient precipitation to produce a more or less permanently
moist humus layer for 5 to 6 months of the year.
(b) Complete freedom from fire.
(c) Complete freedom from salt-water flooding.
(d) Surface water that is not too acid.
A speciai type of secondary sere in the wet and moist temperate
forests which leeches seem to favour, and which should therefore be
mentioned, is the grassy grazing ground near villages; possibly the
leeches are brought in from surrounding forest by men or animals
and find the micro-climate of these grasslands to their liking.
It may be that different species of leeches have different habitat
preferences; whether anyone has studied this question I cannot say.
Danger from leech-bites. ,
The usual experience seems to be that, provided normal pre-
cautions are taken, leech bites are no more liable to go septic than
any other wound; but if the resistance of the host has been lowered,
e.g. by malnutrition, then sepsis is common; thus Mr. Spencer
Chapman records in ‘The Jungle is Neutral’ that initially leech
bites healed normally, but after some months in the jungle on
inadequate rations they started to go septic.
What does a traveller do if a leech disappears into one of the
“intimate orifices of the body’? I once experienced the entry of a
leech into the rectum; there was no pain or irritation, but some
bleeding after a quarter of an hour or so; as the incident occurred in
the mountains some days’ march from medical aid, I awaited further
developments with some trepidation, but nothing further happened ;
{ only hope the leech found his way out again in due course.
I was recently laid up for a week by a specimen of ‘Larva migrans’
(see Manson-Bahr’s Tropical Diseases) which secured entry into the
jeg through a leech bite; this however is a rare complication.
Leech repellents.
It does not seem to be generally known that two pairs of socks or
stockings will almost invariably defeat a leech; in the absence of
chemical repellents I have found this defence, combined with long
trousers, boots, and ankle puttees, entirely effective, provided that
one can halt every half-mile or so to remove leeches climbing up
towards the waist, having been defeated lower down. The trousers
should be extra long in the leg, like the trousers that are used for
ski-ing, so that they do not pull too high up the leg.
There is a choice of several chemical repellents. Mrs. Bor
(‘Adventures of a Botanist’s Wife’) has a favourite recipe :—
‘In everv account I have ever read of jungle travel the writers
describe their leech troubles and their ways of dealing with them,
vet never have I met or read of anyone who seemed to know the
only way (as we discovered) of defeating leeches. People recom-
mend the use of tobacco leaves stuffed inside socks. and shoes, or
AUC |
958 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
the use of little bags of salt tied to a walking stick, or the applica-
tion of a solution of areca-nut to socks or shoes. We tested all .
these and found them inadequate, not to say useless.
Early in our wanderings my husband devised the only efficient
preventative we have ever known. It was obvious that tobacco
leaves, apart from being uncomfortable, were inadequate because
the leeches could make their way in between the leaves. So we
tried soaking tobacco leaves overnight in boiling water. By next
morning this had produced a strong kind of tea which we poured
cver our socks and shoes, allowing it to soak in. We also applied
it like paint to the porters’ bare feet and ankles, and to the dogs’
feet and ears . .. . Nicotine is deadly poison to leeches, and
though they still came looping towards us across the sodden track
and dropping on us from the trees and undergrowth, they shrivelled
up and died at their first contact with tobacco-soaked skin or cloth.’
The difficulty is to find a repellent that retains its potency even
after repeatedly wading streams. Mrs. Bor goes on to say:—
‘Even four hours’ marching through torrential rain could not
wash off the tobacco tea. Only once did it fail us; that was when
we had to ford a river twenty-five times on a six-hour journey.’
Di-methyl-phthalate was extensively used by the U.S. Army in the
last war as a general insect repellent; its effects do not seem to last
more than 2-3 hours, even without wading streams, so one should
carry a bottle in one’s pocket and apply it periodically. ‘Nature’ in
1952 reported experiments being conducted by the U.S. Army with
a new dope, specially designed for leeches, which was said to last
for days; further news of this product will be awaited with interest.
I have found a mixture of citronella oil and vaseline to be
effective—the vaseline prevents the oil being washed out too easily.
A mixture of Di-methyl-phthalate and vaseline might be worth a
trial. ; |
They say that when in Rome one should do as the Romans do.
‘The Dayak method is to wear nothing but a loin cloth, chew betel
methodically, and aim a well-directed stream of betel juice at any
leech that secures a footing; one reason why this example is not
followed by Europeans is that (according to Mr. Spencer Chapman)
it takes about three months to harden one’s feet sufficiently to go
bare-foot in tropical forest. Natives seem to become curiously
indifferent to leeches. I remember seeing a Sherpa youth come down
from the forests above Tarke Gyang in Nepal, where he had been
collecting firewood; he arrived back in the village with a cluster of
leeches about the size of a golf-ball on top of his right foot—he just
wasn’t interested in removing. them.
ForEST OFFICE,
BRUNEI, B.. E. SMYTHIES-
(vIA SINGAPORE),
August 5, 1953.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES , 959
19. SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR OF LAND LEECHES
(With a text figure)
I do not know of any description of the process of copulation in
jand leeches, so the following observations on what seem to be
copulation, incomplete though they are, may be of interest.
On July 29th, 1953 I was travelling among the foothills of the_
mountain Trus Madi in North Borneo at an altitude of about 4,000 ft.
Land leeches of the species Haemadipsa picta Moore and H. geylanica
(Moquin-Tandon) were frequent and annoying, and I was wearing
rubber and canvas hockey boots, the canvas of which had been im-
pregnated with Di-methyl-phthalate. With this treatment the leeches
will not venture onto the canvas of the boot, but will wander freely
on the rubber parts.
The going was heavy, and during a short halt for rest I was idly
watching two full-grown specimens of H. seylanica, each about
3 inches (7o mm.) long when extended, making their way round the
welt of my left boot. They were going in opposite directions, and
met, head to head, on the toecap. After some preliminary muzzling
the specimens joined, front sucker to front sucker and appeared to
embrace, remaining together until disturbed half an hour later.
Each leech had the hind sucker and the posterior half of the
body in close centact with the boot. The anterior half of each
leech stood out at right angles to the boot and was slightly flattened,
and these two anterior halves were pressed tightly together, ventral
surfaces in contact, and sucker to sucker, as shown in the diagram.
The joined pair were slightly curved, convexity towards that leech
which was slightly the larger. In this position they remained almost
motionless, except for a continuous slight swaying backwards and
forwards and a slight variation in the flattening of the bodies. The
whole process looked very much like a human embrace in the most
passionate Hollywood style.
The embrace continued for half an hour when it became
imperative to continue the journey. The leeches were transferred
960 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 51
to a stoppered tube where after a short break they resumed their
embrace and continued for at least an hour more. Owing to lack
of facilities on the journey, they later died in the tube.
INSTITUTE FOR MEpiIcaL RESEARCH,
KuaLta Lumpur, Jj. L. HARRISON
MALAYA,
August, 1953.
20. THE SPECIES OF CROTALARIA IN BOMBAY
The genus Cvotalaria is a common one in Bombay particularly just
after the rains. The identification of the genus is easy enough, on
account of the typical, swollen pod; but to come down to the species
from the keys provided in Cooke’s Flora is not asimple matter. In
my field work I have made use of the following key of my own and by
its use the determination of species has been rendered a little more
easy. With a view to help other botanists, who may have experienced
the same difficulties, I have been induced to publish the key.
In the use of the key, please note that all the lines headed by the
same number are alternatives, and all these should be studied carefully
before deciding on the species. The presence or absence of stipules
should be noted: and since in some of the species the stipules are
minute or consist apparently of a very fine hair-Jike structure covered
with hairs, one is apt to miss their presence or to confuse them with
the ordinary hairs of the stem,
In coliecting Crotalartas for identification, it should be made a point
in every case to collect both flowers and fruits, especiaily the latter,
Since they form one of the most typical characters of the various
species in the genus.
Kry TO THE SPECIES OF Cyvotalaria
1. Leaves simple:
2. Pods glabrous;
3. Stipules absent:
4. Corolla exserted or longer than the calyx:
5. Prostrate herbs; stems filitorm with
spreading hairs; leaves 6 —15 xX 3 —7
mm.; flowers in leaf-opposed or extra-
axillary racemes; seeds 8 — 10 655 | HAAS
5. Erect herbs; stems not filiform:
6, Stems silky; leaves more or less silky:
7. Leaves pellucido-punctate; seeds
6—12 me alozda
7. . Leaves not punctate; seeds 4— 10 Jzntfolia
6. Stems glabrous; leaves 75-180x
3-18 mm. glabrous; seeds many... Jutescens
4. Corolla not exserted, or shorter than the
Calyx:
8. Racemes capitate:
9. Upper calyx teeth connate «.. 2ana
a a 2h %
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
g. Upper calyx teeth not connate:
10. Leaves much broader than long...
10. Leaves about as broad as long ...
8. Racemes not capitate :
11. Bracts minute, subulate; leaves
oblique at base ae
11. Bracts leafy, lanceolate; leaves
equal-sided at base
3. Stipules present:
12. Pods not longer than the calyx:
13. Seeds 6-8; racemes capitate
13. Seeds 20-30: racemes lax
12. Pods longer than the calyx:
14. Shrubs or undershrubs:
15. Leaves obtuse; stipules and bracts
subulate
Leaves acute or subacute ;
and bracts foliaceous
14. Herbs:
16. Stems and branches glabrous
16. Stems and branches with
spreading hairs -
Pods hairy, silky or velvety :
17. Stipules absent:
18. Pods 1-seeded
18. Pods 2-seeded
18. Pods 3 or more-seeded:
19. Tall herbs with linear leaves; pods
25-30 mm. long
19. Low herbs or undershrubs with small
leaves and pods:
20. Small leafy herbs, 5—7:5 cms. se
seeds 4-8
20. Undershrubs with stiff branches ; :
seeds 3-4
17. Stipules present :
21. Corolla blue and white
21. Corolla yellow, or yellow with purple
1D, stipules
long,
veins:
22. Stems and branches acutely ae
trous :
22. Stems and branches not triquetrous:
23. Seeds 2
23. Seeds 4-6
23. Seeds 10 or more:
24. Racemes all lateral, 1-2-flowered
24. Racemes many-flowered, ter-
minal or terminal and lateral:
Stipules minute; leaves 25-100
x 6--18 mm.
25. Stipules half-iunulate ;
70-130 x 30-50 mm.
Zor
leaves
chinensis
priestleyoides
prostrata
vestita
dubia
calycina
retusa
SCV ICER
stocksit
MY SOVENSIS
VamosISSEmMaA
fulva
7UNCEa
pusilla
burhia
VEVVUCOSA
triquetra
fulva
leptostachya
bifaria
juncea
heyneana
G62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
1. Leaves compound, 3-7-foliolate:
26. Pods hairy or velvety:
27. Calyx teeth exceeding the tube; pods sub-
globose ... medicaginea
27. Calyx teeth equalling the tube; pod sub-
quadangular wee =20l0Nt
26. _ Pods glabrous:
28. Leaves usually 5-foliolate, occasionally
3 to 7-foliolate ; pods 30-+0-seeded we. Gguingueloba
28. Leaves 3 foliolate:
29. Bracts large, ovate; pods 8-10-seeded ;
a prosiraie or ditfuse herb wee OVEXENSES
29. Bracts minute, setaceous; pods 20-30-
seeded; an erect sufiruticose herb ... striata
‘As it is seen from this key, the Mowers of the genus in Bombay are
always yellow, with the only exception of C. verrucosa, a plant growing
in the vicinity of the sea.
ST. XAVIER'S COLLEGE, H. SANTAPAU, s,s.
BomMBAY,
Seblember, 1953.
21. THE ANDROECIUM OF TAVERNIERA
NUMMULARIA DC.
Taverniera nummularia DC. (Papilionaceae) is a common
undershrub growing around Bhavnagar. When the fresh flowers
were examined, it was observed that the stamens were always dia-
delphous, (9)+1, and not monadelphous as given in the descriptions
of the species in Hooker’s ‘Flora of British India’ (2: 140), or in
Cooke’s ‘Flora of the Presidency of Bombay’ (1: 331). .
In the original description of the species, de Candolle (in Mem.
Fam. Legum. 341) states chat ‘Les €tamines sont diadelphes a la
maniére ordinaire, mais la dixieme est quelquefois si bien appliquée
qu’on peut facilement les croire monadelphes, quand on les examine
seches’. This translated means that ‘the stamens are diadelphous
in the usual manner, but the tenth is sometimes so closely appressed
to the others that one may easily take them to be monadelphous
whenever dry specimens are examined’.
I am thankful to Dr. Biswas, Superintendent of the Indian Botanic
Garden, Calcutta, for the above original reference and translation.
Dept. oF BIoLocy,
Sir P.P. INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, M. H. S. MURTHY
BHAVNAGAR, |
September, 1953.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 963
22. THE HERBARIUM AT THE
POONA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
In surveying and studying the floras of various tracts, it is found
essential that plants be preserved and stored permanently. Such
stores or herbariums are institutions of national importance and should
rank with similar national collections of art, historical documents,
etc.
-_ In most advanced countries such herbariums have been attached
and developed in scientific institutions, and botanists are constantly
adding to, altering, classifying and correlating the numerous plant
specimens in them. The collections at the Kew Gardens, London,
where there are thousands of specimens from all parts of the world
are well-known and a place of pilgrimage for plant collectors and
students from all over the world. The herbariums of Holland and the
Soviet Union are also noteworthy.
In India, though naturalists have been interested in plants from
ancient days, the scientific survey and development of herbariums date
with the inauguration of the Botanical Survey of India in the last
decade of the roth century. As the result of the activities of the
survey, sufficient material was collected to warrant the preparation
of regional floras and to build up herbariums at various zones of
the country. For Western India, the Government of Bombay dec’ded
to start the work at Poona and appointed Dr. Theodore Cooke of
the Science College as Honorary Director of the Botanical Survey
of Western India. The Poona Herbarium thus started its work in
1880. The plant collection along with reference library was kept
at the Ganeshkhind Botanical Gardens near Poona and Dr. Cooke
and Prof. Woodrow undertook a vegetational survey of the whole
Presidency. In 1896, Dr. Cooke retired and left for London. Prof.
Woodrow became the Director and published lists of the Bombay
Flora at regular intervals. By 1899 there were nearly 1,395 different
species making a total of about 5,000 sheets in the Herbarium.
Dr. Cooke and Prof, Woodrow were assisted by a series of workers
in plant collection and identification. Messrs. Kanitkar (1891),
Ranade (1893) and Bhide (1898) are some of the noted workers.
Shri Bhide’s name requires special mention. He was pr.marily taken
up as an artist to make plant drawings. Wia£ith his inborn love for
plants and keen eye for identification, he learnt the subject of Botany
in general and taxonomy in particular. From an ordinary artist he be-
eame first the Herbarium-keeper and then the Crop Botanist. The
drawings for various papers on the ‘Bombay Orchids’ appearing in the
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society were by Shri Bhide. His
drawings were also included in Gammie’s book on ‘Cotton’, Wocdrow’s
book on ‘Mango’ and Blatter and McCann’s monograph on ‘Bombay
Grasses’. He collected hundreds of specimens and discovered nearly
a dozen new species. His merit was recognized by the Kew Gardens
and Dr, Cooke rewarded him by giving his name to a newly discovered
plant species (Kalanchoe Bhidei T. Cooke).
The entire Herbarium was destroyed by fire in May 1902, and
the laborious work of twenty years reduced to ashes. Fortunately
964 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, at
however, Dr. Cooke had a duplicate set of the Bombay flora and he
generously presented it to the Herbarium. The work was thus
continued and the Herbarium was shifted to the College of Agriculture,
Poona. :
Prof. Gammie succeeded Prof. Woodrow and added numerous.
specimens to the Herbarium. His contribution is next best to Shri
Bhide’s. After Prof. Gammie (1902), others who worked in the
Herbarium and added their share were Patwardhan (1908), Paranjpe
(1g09), Chibber (1909), Shevde (1909), Burns (1916), Narayana (1922)
and Godbole (1929) whose names very frequently appear on the
herbarium sheets.
Besides the collections made by these workers, the Herbarium,
also benefited by contributions from various sources. A large collection
of plants from the Sikkim and Khasi Hills was presented to the Her-
barium by the Royal Botanical Gardens, Sibpur, Calcutta. Nearly two
hundred moss plants were given by C. Scott in 1897. Contributions
were also made by the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.
Mr. Ryan of the Bombay Forest Department handed over the forest
flora of Thana District collected by him (1908). Talbot’s collection
of North Kanara and his reference library were purchased in 1g1o.
Mr. Willis of Ceylon presented a few specimens of Podostemonacez.
In 1920, Shri H. P. Paranjpe brought as many as 500 specimens
from Mesopotamia. The last important contribution was from the
Maharaja of Cutch, who presented the valuable collection of Jaykrishna
Indraji, the noted botanist of Maha Gujarat.
The Herbarium thus contains a full complement of Angiosperms. The
monocotyledonous plants excepting a good collection of the Graminez
are few in the Herbarium as compared with the dicotyledonous ones.
Besides the Angiosperms, there are nearly seventy-five sheets of
Gymnosperms and seven hundred of ferns. Specimens of mosses (400)
and lichens (20) are also present. The Herbarium thus has got a
total collection of over 40,000 specimens which include as many as
10,000 from Talbot.
Many important works on taxonomy have been written with the
help of this Herbarium. Dr. Cooke’s ‘Flora of Bombay’ is based on
these sheets. Talbot’s ‘Forest Flora’ has been similarly written and
Gammie’s book ‘Indian Cotton’ and Woodrow’s papers on ‘Bombay
Orchids’ would not have been exhaustive without this help. Similarly,
‘The Flora of Gujarat’ by Saxton and Sedgewick, ‘The Key to the
Composite’ by Fr. H. Santapau and ‘The Bombay Grasses’ by Blatter
and McCann are written with the aid of this collection. Rev. Fr.
Santapau’s many papers on various plant families refer to sheets in
this Herbarium. Many eminent botanists and zealous research workers
make use of the Herbarium from time to time.
There are many duplicate sheets in the Herbarium which can be
exchanged for new or other wanted specimens. In the past, some
sheets were given to various institutions in India and Europe.
Representative sets of Bombay plants were supplied to the Economic
Botanists in Nagpur, Bengal and the Punjab. Information on plants.
and plant products is constantly being given to numerous parties.
Poona, : : A. V. GOKHALE
HgLly, @2Ae O5ae S. R. GODBOLE
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 965
23.. GLEANINGS
Animal Dance
Dr. Maurice Burton in ‘The World of Science’ (The Illustrated
London News, July 4th, 1953) quotes a correspondent, Mr. G, A. A.
Wright, as telling how, some years ago in India, he was cycling
along a dusty road, coasting down an incline. Turning a bend in
the road, his wheels making no noise in the thick dust, he interrupted
the organised game of some wild dogs. Dr. Burton asked for more
details and Mr. Wright wrote:—
‘The leader of the pack stood still in the middle of the govern-
ment road. Other six or eight dogs ran in a circle round. the
leader. The diameter of the ‘circle was about the width of the
road. The dogs were evenly spaced round the perimeter of the
circle. Another set of dogs, of approximately equal numbers and
similarly spaced, ran on the same circumference of the circle but
in the opposite direction. When two dogs met, one gracefully
jumped over the other and proceeded on his way. It was like
children dancing round the maypole but, instead of winding to right
and left, leap-frogging over each other. I have the impression
that one set of dogs—I think those going anticlockwise—did all
the jumping but of this I cannot be certain.’
Pest Control
George L. Harrison (from Pennsylvania) writes in The Iteld dated
February 5th, 1953 :—
‘About 15 years ago I read of a successful scheme to reduce
the crow population. The idea was to catch 100 crows in different
parts and on each one to put a numbered ring, ring 1 to be worth
$1,000, ring 2 to be worth $500, and down to go rings to be worth
$5 a piece. The wish to get the $1,000 ring caused many more
crows to be killed.’
Recent issues of The Field have also referred to methods of
eliminating the grey squirrel which is now a pest in England. The
outfit includes an aluminium telescopic pole with which a_ squirrel
drey is poked to ascertain if it is at home or not.
| A similar pole could perhaps be used successfully within city
limits to destroy crows’ eggs during the relatively short nesting
_ season—if we are sure that we can do without the crows scavenging.
The Hearmg of Snakes
In India we have constant discussions regarding the capability
of snakes to hear sounds carried through the air and the following
from the Audubon Magazine (July-August 1953, p. 146) may be of
interest. |
Several correspondents are quoted relating their experience of
snakes being attracted by their squeaking for birds. Dr. C. M.
Bogert, Chairman and Curator, Department of Amphibians and
$66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Reptiles, American Museum of Natural History, deals with this matter
in detail and part of his reply reads :—
‘I do not doubt for a moment that snakes have been attracted
to naturalists who were attempting to attract birds by the squeak-
ing technique, but I see absolutely no reason to attribute the
presence of the snake to the squeaking ... . . in view of the
laboratory investigations that have been made I believe that any
assumption that snakes are attracted by air-borne sounds is
gratuitous . ,
Referring to a captive California boa, which was said to have
lifted its head at the first squeak and faced the direction of the sound,
Dr. Bogert says, ‘without some additional details regarding the
manner in which the experiments were carried out, it is difficult to
say for certain whether the boa responded to the squeaking or to other
stimuli . . .. =. There may be differences between the hearing of
species, and while all evidence points to the conclusion that snakes
do not hear in the ordinary sense of the word, it is difficult to obtain
what may accurately be called conclusive proof. However, I doubt
whether the problem can be_settled by the field naturalist. Suitable
experiments will have to be set up in the laboratory’.
Caterpillars
(From ‘Animal Ecology’ by W. H. Dowdeswell, 1952, page 42.)
‘When local food supplies are exhausted the larvae of the Gipsy
Moth {Lymantria dispar) if not fully grown, frequently indulge in
mass movement to new feeding grounds. Some idea of the size of
their swarms can be gained from the fact that trains on the Canadian
Pacific Railway have been halted on occasions when travelling uphill,
the whee's of the engine skidding on the squashed bodies of millions
of caterpillars.’
NOTES AND NEWS
WILD LIFE IN INDIA
The Executive Committee of the Indian Board for Wild Life held
its first meeting at Kanha Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh from
October 29th to November 2nd, 1953. The members present were:
Dr. S. L. Hora (Honorary Secretary-General of the Board), Maharaj
K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (Honorary Regional Secretary, Western
Region), Mr. E. P. Gee (Honorary Regional Secretary, Eastern
Region) and Mr. S. D. Udhrain (Secretary of the Board). Persons co-
opted were: Dr. P. R. Deshmukh (Union Minister of Agriculture),
Mr. D. K. Mehta (Minister of Forests and Industries, Madhya
Pradesh), Mr. M. D. Chaturvedi (Inspector-General of Forests), Mr.
Lakhpat Rai (Chief Conservator of Forests, Madhya Pradesh), Mr.
Tara Singh, (Conservator of Forests, Eastern Circle, Madhya
Pradesh) and Mr. Horace Alexander. The Union Minister of
Agriculture presided over the meeting.
Included in the agenda was the Constitution of State Wild Life
Boards. It was noted with satisfaction that the State Wild Life
Boards had been set up in the States of Mysore, Assam, Bombay,
Saurashtra and Manipur; and recommendations are being sent to the
other States as to the lines on which Wild Life Boards may be created
and as to the functions of these Boards.
The most important matter discussed at the meeting was that
of national parks, sanctuaries, zoological parks and zoological
gardens. It was recommended that eighteen national parks in fifteen
States be constituted, comprising all the most important centres of
wild life. In particular the following proposed national parks are to
be given top priority :—
Assam ... Manas Sanctuary
Kaziranga Sanctuary
Madhya Pradesh .... Kanha Sanctuary
Taroba Sanctuary
Madras ... Mudumalai Sanctuary
Mysore .... Bandipur Sanctuary
Rajasthan ... Siraska area in Alwar District
Saurashtra ... Gir Forest
Travancore-Cochin ... Periyar Sanctuary
Uttar Pradesh ... Rajaji Sanctuary
Vindhya Pradesh Pe AILC MI eimanea
A Rs. 40 lakh scheme, in which both the Centre and the States
will take part, was recommended, so that these more important places
could be constituted as national parks before the end of the Five-
Year Plan period.
With regard to sanctuaries, it was recommended that nine
sanctuaries and reserves in five States receive special attention from
State Governments so that they may function as effective havens for
wild life.
968 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
It was noted with satisfaction that a zoological park is proposed
to be created near Delhi, and a recommendation was made that Elephanta
Island near Bombay be converted into a zoological park.
A symposium is proposed to be held in Calcutta early in 1954 on
the management of zoological gardens, zoological parks, national
parks and sanctuaries.
Matters concerning wild life legislation in the various States were
discussed, and certain suitable recommendations were made.
The importance of education and publicity in all their aspects as
far as wild life preservation was concerned was fully considered, and
concrete steps have already been and are being taken in this most
important field.
The National Committee in India for Bird Preservation was
integrated with the Indian Board of Wild Life, and will now function
as a wing of the Board under the same Ministry.
A deep-felt vote of thanks was extended to the Madhya Pradesh
Government, and particularly to the Forest Department, which had
so efficiently made all,arrangements for the meeting, which was held
in the beautiful Kanha Sanctuary—more widely known as the Banjar
Valley Reserve.
95 Je, (lela
* * * *
Members interested in photographing Nature in various forms are
informed that the Mysore Photographic Society of Bangalore are
holding an International Salon of Photography 1954 at Bangalore
from the 3rd to the 18th July, 1954, and which will have two sections—
Pictorial and Nature.
Their last date for receiving entries will be 30th May, 1954.
The Bombay Natural History Society is offering a plaque as a
prize for the best exhibit in the Nature Section and it is hoped that
members and their friends will submit entries.
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 10952
President
Mr. GIRJA SHANKAR BaJPAI
Vice-President
Major-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s.
Executive Committee
Wile, [Jo ll, Jabureyy ;
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, 1I.c.s.
Mr, M. J. Hackney
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Mr. S. Moolgavkar : a va ees
Whe, ID. jf, laveclesy sc A. — ... ) Bombay
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, S.J. = aoe
Dye, So 1B, SSAA, Hir<id), a ne au
res eee peal } (Jit. Elon. Secretaries)“
Mr. M, J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer)
Advisory Committee
Le Coll, IR, Ws. Wwieiom, WA. (IRCHCL)) oo ... Bangalore
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, KT., C.1.E., 1.C.S. ... New Delhi
Mr. C. H. Donald, F.Z.S. Scotland
Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., Ea ph.p., DoID\ _ Mysore
Die, Ss Ike Inlora, WsSC. am Pe COLCULLE
Mr. C. M. Inglis, C.M.B.O.U., F.Z.S. — ;.- ... Coonoor
Col. R. C. Morris, F.R-G.S., F.Z.S. Attikan
Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, D.sc. = Be ... Calcutta
ILy.Coll, 1. (Ge NE ieee aaa OPBDoy WoZoSon Wie — F
Bis Soe Nilgiris
(Retd. Ne
Dr. Baini Prasad, D. sc. ... New Delhi
970 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
List of members of the Executive and Advisory Committees elected
for the year 1953:
Vice-President
Major-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.m.s.
Executive Committee
dja tl, aNharesy Sos
Mi Ga Ve Bedelkaranircss:
Mr. M. J. Hackney
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Mr, D. N. Marshall SA: a ce
Min Dell vesizannclaiyapemeee cB: Lee ... ) Bombay
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.j. as
Mle, Tg AN, Siiaveln u ay re) sia
ie Soke Abdulali (Jt. Hlon. Secretaries) .; ;
Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer) :
—
Advisory Committee
Min ee Ga Acharya a AGE wes Ahmedabad
Sir Chintaman ‘Deshmukh} KT!, C:1-E., ¥.C.S. ... New Delhi
Mir CoE Donalds. 25s. te ae ... Scotland
Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L.T., Ph.p., D.D. Mysore
Whey 1B, 1, (Eee Ss a ssh ... Assam
De, Sy, IL, lnl@RA, iD Se, Sie ee ee Oolewita
Mii Cae Vi lin glicniCsM iB OsU inh. Z..S amare ... Coonoor
Cols Ra CMMorrisy F.RiGiS.,) PeZess oes ... Attikan
Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.E., F.Z.S., LA.
(Retd.). AAG ee coe ..4 Nilgiris
Dr Bain Prasads :p:se: sir He ..< New Delhi
HONORARY SECRETARIES’, REPORT POR THE YEAR 1952
THE SOCIETy’s JOURNAL
Volume 50, Nos. 3 and 4 and Volume 51, No. 1 and Indexes
Parts I and II to Volume 49 were published during the year. Volume
so, No. 4 deserves special mention as it commemorates the Golden
Jubilee of the Journal, i.e. the completion of fifty consecutive volumes.
Many interesting and useful articles, some illustrated in colour, as.
also an editorial reviewing the progress of the Journal since its incep-
tion to date, distinguish this number.
MAMMALS
Sir Norman Kinnear’s ‘The History of Mammalogy and Ornitho-
logy, Part I—Mammals’ is of very special interest. It shows that
the scientific study of mammals in India in the first half of the roth
century owes more to Brian Hodgson and Edward Blyth than to any other
naturalist, although a number of other celebrated European travellers
and naturalists preceded and followed them and made significant
piece-meal contributions both as to collection of specimens and
notes.
PROCEEDINGS AND. ACCOUNTS, 1952 971.
From mid-r1oth century on, Dr. T. C. Jerdon, W. T. Blanford,
Dr. John Anderson, A. O. Hume and Sterndale deserve the chief
credit for promoting our knowledge of Indian mammals.
Sir Norman stresses the role of the Bombay Natural History
Society in the advancement of Indian Mammalogy since its foundation,
chiefly through notes and articles published in its journal by naturalist
and sportsman members. The Society’s Mammal Survey of India,
Burma and Ceylon, initiated in 1912 and concluded in 1923, was pro-
ductive of 25,000 specimens. These formed the basis of 55 scicnt.fic
reports by experts at the British Museum, which are indispensable
for students of Indian Mammals.
Two other useful papers on mammals published during the year
are:
1. ‘On the Trail of the Kouprey or Indo-Chinese Forest Ox
(Bibos sauvelt)’ by Dr, Boonsong Lekagul.
2. ‘Races of the Indian Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica)’ by
Messrs. Humayun Abdulali and C, J. Daniel.
The former is an account of the habits and habitat of the recently
discovered Indo-Chinese Forest Ox, and is illustrated with figures
and photographs of its characteristic features.
The latter paper is of taxonomic importance and deals with
colour variation in the same species occurring in different localities.
On the more popular side, Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams con-
cluded his shikar serial ‘Jungle Memories’. The final part ‘Odds and
Ends’ deals with various interesting and instructive shikar incidents
and experiences of the author.
In ‘A History of Shikar in India’ Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton traces
the history of shikar from the pre-Moghul period down to the present.
Brief accounts of other forms of sport, practised chiefly by Britishers
in India, such as Pig-sticking, Falconry, Angling, etc., are included.
The author emphasises again the urgent need for wild life
preservation and suggests ways and means of achieving this. A
useful list of all the game animals in India, Burma and Ceylon, is
appended.
BIRDS
Eleven papers in all were published during the year.
S. Dillon Ripley has two important contributions: 1. ‘A Collection
of birds from the Naga Hills’ and 2. ‘Vanishing and Extinct bird
species in India’.
In the former Dr. Ripley describes his journey to the Naga H_ Ils
together with a map showing his route. 48 days’ collecting yielded
743 birds representing 196 species which are listed with useful
taxonomical notes.
In the latter paper, especially contributed for the 50th Anniversary
number, the following species of birds (illustrated in colour) which
have either become extinct during the last half century or are now
seriously threatened with extinction, are described—Great Indian
Bustard, Jerdon’s Courser, Pinkheaded Duck and Mountain Quail.
All the causes of depletion of these species, Ripley observes, are not
clear, though in the case of the Bustard, direct human persecution
or interference is undoubtedly the immediate cause.
972 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
On bird ecology are the following papers by M. D. Lister: 1. ‘Some
Jungle Bird Associations’ and 2. ‘Some Bird Associations of Indian
Cultivated and Waste Lands’.
The first is a comparative account of birds found in such of ‘the
major forest types in India and Burma as the author visited during
1942-45, while the second describes some bird associations observed
on both cultivated and waste lands during the same period.
R. S. P. Bates and E. H. N. Lowther in their ‘The History of Bird
Photography in India’ follow the development and progress of this
branch of field work from the year rg00 when the first photograph of
an Indian bird was published in the Society’s Journal.
An informative note on photographing birds with the spesd{fach
by Mr. W. T. Loke follows the main contribution, and both the
sections are copiously illustrated with photographs which must rank
amongst the finest camera portraits of Indian birds ever made.
In addition to the above, Mr. W. T. Loke, contributed two more
articles, both of which are illustrated with his usual excellent photo-
graphs. These are: 1. ‘Photographing the Whitebellied Sea Eagle—
Haliaetus leucogaster (Gmelin)’ 2. ‘Kashmir Revisited’.
The articles display the author’s proficiency with his pen as much
as with his camera and his bird watching. They are of special appeal
to the nature lover of the out-of-doors, and to the bird photographer,
expert and beginner alike.
Part II—Birds—Sir Norman Kinnear’s ‘The History of Indian
Mammalogy and Ornithology’ traces the development of the systematic
study of Indian birds which dates back to 1713 when an account was
published by Edward Buckley, an E.I. Company surgeon dealing with
22 birds found in and around Fort St. George, Madras.
Some names have become famous in connection with Indian
ornithology, particularly since the beginning of the 19th century—
Hodgson, Blyth, Jerdon, Blanford and others—and Sir Norman's
‘History’ gives interesting vignettes of the men and their activities.
Hawks and Eagles were Mr. C. H. Donald’s special study during
his many years in India. In the Jubilee number he contributed a
very readable article entitled ‘The Flight of Eagles’. At the end
of it are reproduced two pages of diagrammatic keys to various
birds of prey in flight which should be of great help in identifying the -
species on the wing.
An article on ‘Finn’s Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus Hume)’ by
Humayun Abdulali summarizes the results of an examination of al!
available specimens, literature and information concerning this some-
what enigmatical species.
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
Contributions in this section are unfortunately very scarce and the
study seems to have lost the popularity it enjoyed under the inspiring
aegis of Col. Wall. ‘The History of Herpetology in India’ written
at the editor’s request by Dr. Malcolm A. Smith, for the Anniversary
number, was the only one published during the year.
The beginning of the scientific study of Indian Reptiles and
Amphibians is traceable to the end of the 18th century, with the arrival
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1952 973
in this country. of Patrick Russell and Thomas Hardwicke. Pro-
minent among the others that followed in the footsteps of these pioneers
were Fayrer, Gunther and Boulenger, but the major—and in. many
respects the most important—contribution to Indian herpetology,
particularly as regards habits and life histories, was made by Col.
Frank Wall whose numerous original papers on Indian snakes were
published over a long period of years in pest numbers of the
Journal.
Dr. Smith’s own chief contribution to Indian herpetology, of course,
consists of the three volumes of the Fauna of British India series
published between 1941 and 1943, which is the standard reference work
on the subject. The volume on Amphibia is yet to be compiled.
FisuH AND FISHERIES
Of the seven papers published in this section the following two
are specially noteworthy :
1. ‘Fisheries Research in India’ Part I by N. Kesava Panikkar.
2. ‘Recent Advances in Fish Geography in India’ by S. L. Hora.
Dr. Panikkar discusses the subject under five heads, viz. (1) The
Problems, (2) Introduction and Retrospect, (3) The Research Institu-
tions, (4) Survey of Resources and Statistics and (5) Fishery Biology
and Fishery Management. A brief outline of the various aspects
of the problem are given and of what has been done together with
what remains. An account of the activities of the three Fisheries
Research Stations in India is furnished, and attention is drawn to
the lack of a fisheries research vessel in India which greatly hampers
marine investigations. The paper, which is the first part of a general
survey, is a masterly exposition of the present state of fisheries research
in India.
‘Recent advances in Fish Geography of India’ is the text
of the lecture delivered by Dr. S. L. Hora at the Annual General
Meeting of the Bombay Natural History Society on July oth,
1952. 78
Dr. Hora traces the geological history of the Indian freshwater
fishes and outlines the recent advances made by palaeography in India,
and its bearing on his Satpura Hypothesis for the distribution of
Malayan forms of freshwater fishes to south-west India.
Other important and useful papers on fishes published during the
year are Hora’s ‘Functional Divergence, Structural Convergence and
Pre-Adaptation exhibited by the Fishes of the Cyprinoid Family
Psilorhynchidae Hora’ and ‘History of Transplantation and Introduc-
tion of Fishes in India’ by S. Jones and K. K. Sarojini which is
valuable as a record and for purposes of reference.
K. Chidambaram and G. K. Kuriyan’s ‘Notes on the Grey Mullets
(Mugil spp.) of Krusadai Islands, Gulf of Mannar’, ‘On some Develop-
mental Stages of Caranx kalla Cuv. & Val.’ by S. V. Bapat and
Raghu. Prasad and A. St. J. Macdonald’s ‘Fishing Holiday in North
Garhwal’ conclude a useful batch of papers on fishes. The last is
of particular interest to anglers as it gives a detailed account of
facilities and prospects of trout fishing and feathered eum shooting
in and around the Guhna Lake.
14
G74. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
INVERTEBRATES
Seven papers were published, including parts II and III of ‘Study
of the Marine Fauna of the Karwar Coast and Neighbouring Islands’,
an admirable series which should be of much help to zoology students
in colleges.
M. A. Wynter-Blyth in his ‘Butterfly Collecting in India’ mentions
that the beauty, variety and abundance of Indian butterflies are the
factors that sustain the interest of a collector. He points out that
although the prospects of discovering novelties in India are now
remote, there is a wide and untouched field for ecological studies
open to workers on the early stages of butterflies, and allied
subjects.
Sir Keith Cantlie supplemented his previous paper on Assam by
‘More Butterflies from the Khasi and Jaintia Hills’.
‘The Desert Locust and its Control’ is a joint paper by Hem Singh
Pruthi and R. D. Bhatia giving an account of the life-history, breeding
and migrations of this destructive pest. A review of the Locust
Control organization and its work is included.
‘Mosquito Work in India’ by Sir Gordon Covell (formerly Director,
Malaria Institute of India) reviews the events that led up to Ronald
Ross’s romantic discovery of the mosquito transmission of malaria,
and the subsequent work done in this direction by various other
investigators.
‘Notes on the Crab Fishery of Chilka Lake’ by S. Jones and
KX. H. Sujansingani concludes the list of papers on invertebrates.
BOTANY
Twelve papers were included in this section.
Rev. Fr. Santapau published two parts of his serial ‘Contributions
to the Bibliography of Indian Botany’, which is intended as a com-
plement to Blatter’s ‘A Bibliography of the Botany of British India
and Ceylon’ published in the Journal (Vol. 20, 1909).
In his ‘Notes on the genus Salicornia Linn. (Chenopodiaceae)’
Charles McCann (formerly Joint Curator of the Bombay Natural
History Society) records comparative field and morphological
characters of the two species of Salicornia—the Asiatic Salicornia
brachiata Roxb. and the New Zealand S. australis Solander, and in
‘New Finds of Indian Cucurbitaceae’ H. L. Chakravarty describes
nine new species and one new genus of the family Cucurbitaceae.
Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton’s ‘The Linaloe Tree (Bursera delpechiana
Poisson)’ describes this comparatively recent introduction to the Indian
flora from Mexico now planted in South India and elsewhere and
refers to the commercial importance of this species for the sake of
the valuable oil it produces.
‘The Poisonous and Medicinal inne of India’ by I. C. Chopra
and L. D. Kapoor, embodies a classification of Indian poisonous plants
based on their toxicological properties and their cultivation. The
authors review the work done in this connection by the Indian Council.
of Agricultural Research.
‘Observations on the Distribution of Gymnosperms in Eastern
Nepal’ by M. L. Banerji and ‘The Control of Aquatic Vegetation with
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1952 975
¢¢
2, 4-D’’’ by R. Srinivasan and P, I. Chacko, are other titles in
this section.
One of the most outstanding botanical contributions is Dr. N. L.
Bor’s “The Genus Poa Linn, in India’. It is published in two parts
and gives keys to the identification of 49 species together with line
drawings showing characteristic features.
GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY
M. A. Wynter-Blyth in Part II of ‘A Naturalist in the North-
west Himalayas’ lists some striking plant and animal species met
with on his trek through the valleys of the Beas and the Parbati.
Typical Ibex country is described and illustrated by photographs.
Altogether this is an absorbing article, and the editors wish they
could treat their readers to more of such stuff.
WILD LIFE AND WILp LIFE RESERVES
‘The Management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and National
Parks’ by E. P. Gee, is a comparative account of National Parks in
countries like Britain, U.S.A., Africa, etc., with those in India.
Some helpful suggestions are offered for the guidance of executives
and for adequate measures to conserve wild life in India before it
is too late. Mr. Gee advocates that all important preservation areas
should be directly under the control of an independent and permanent
trust, secure against all ephemeral political considerations and
changing influences.
‘Wild Life Reserves in India: Uttar Pradesh (U.P.)’ by T. N.
Srivastava gives an account of the Kansrao Sanctuary. Appended
to it is a note by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton on Wild Life in India.
GENERAL
‘The Assam Earthquake of 1950’ by E. P. Gee, ‘The Climate of
India’ by S. K. Banerji, ‘A Note on some Natural Barriers in Burma’
by J. M. D. Mackenzie and ‘Deep-sea Oceanographic Exploration in
Indian Waters’ by Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour-Sewell, come under this
head.
In the first paper Mr. Gee describes the Assam Earthquake of
1950 and details the consequent effects on the physiography of that
region—both immediate and long-term.
Dr. Banerji’s paper, a request contribution to our Anniversary
number, is a succinct review of all the factors that go to make up
our climate, and the manner of their operation. It will be of the
greatest usefulness for a proper assessment of locality data in ecological
field studies, whether of plants or of animals.
Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour-Sewell in his very readable article summarizes
all the oceanographic work carried out in the Indian Region, com-
mencing from the ‘Challenger’ Expedition of 1872 upto the present,
and the very considerable contributions to the science made by the
Royal Indian Marine ships ‘Investigator I’ and ‘Investigator II’. Some
of the important results of oceanographic suryey work in the Indian
Ocean are mentioned. |
976 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 51
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Ninety-four notes covering nearly every branch of Indian natural
history of popular as well as scientific interest were published.
Pav BaeGeA DwO NES
‘Butterflies of the Indian Region’ by M. A. Wynter-Blyth, ‘Some
Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs’ by N. L. Bor and M. B. Raizada
and the second edition of ‘Some Beautiful Indian Trees’ by Blatter
and Millard are all in the Press. Efforts are being made to make
them available to members as early as possible. The fourth edition
of ‘The Book of Indian Birds’ is exhausted. The preparation of the
fifth edition is being taken in hand.
Ee xXSPl Espa Tal ONNES
At the request of the Kashmir Government, who desired expert
advice for rehabilitation of their badly depleted wild life Messrs.
Salim Ali and R. C. Morris visited Kashmir as the Society’s repre-
sentatives in October 1952. They surveyed the various game
sanctuaries and submitted a report recommending suitable measures,
which it is hoped are being duly implemented by the authorities.
Mr. Wan Tho Loke, who has been recently elected a Vice Patron
of the Society, financed an ornithological expedition to. Sikkim—‘The
Loke-Salim Ali Sikkim Expedition’—which was in the field between
November, 1952 and March, 1953. ‘The expedition collected about 350
specimens in addition to very useful ecological data concerning bird
life at high altitudes in the Himalayas in winter. The thanks of the .
Society are due to Mr. Loke for his generosity in making the expedition
possible, and to the Government of Sikkim for providing the necessary
facilities for the expedition’s activities.
NATURE EDUCATION
The scheme has been steadily progressing with waxing popularity
and usefulness. Its activities during the year under review were mainly
centred on (i) popular talks on simple natural history topics for
children, (ii) establishment of Natural History Clubs for teachers and
(iii) Nature Study Clubs for children and (iv) arranging field-trips for
both teachers and pupils.
About 2,000 children attended the talk on ‘Plant and Animal Dike
in Ponds and Aquaria’ which was followed by suitable films.
Teachers showed considerable enthusiasm and joined in large
numbers ‘The Teachers’ Natural History Club’. Several field-trips
were arranged under the guidance of men like Rev. Fr. H. Santapau,
s.j., Dr. R. N. Sukheswala of St. Xavier’s College, Dr. P. J. Deoras
of the Haffkine Institute, etc.
‘Nature Study Clubs’ for eile seemed most popular. These
were established in 15 schools. 75 meetings and 3 field-trips for
the benefit of children-members, were conducted by the Nature
Education Organiser and the response of children to these, was
commendable. ;
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1952 Z 977
WILD LIFE PRESERVATION
Mr. Humayun Abdulali, the Society’s representative on the Bombay
State Parks and Gardens Committee, has been busy helping to frame
the Rules for the operation of the Bombay Wild Animals and Wild
Birds Protection Act, 1951. The work is completed and it is hoped
that the Act will come into force at an early date. Both the Act
and Rules are designed with the greatest care and deliberation. With
suitable amendments, as they appear called for, to remove anomalies
and loop-holes they should serve as models for other States of the
Indian Union, and go a long way towards making wild life conser-
vation more effective.
Ravypwwup ACGCCOWNR
The total receipts during the year amounted to Rs. 56,900-4-10
which includes a donation of Rs. 6,000 from Mr. W. T. Loke to
finance the Sikkim Ornithological Expedition and the usual annual
grants of Rs. 8,oo0 and Rs. 4,000 from the Government of India and
Government of Bombay respectively, as compared with Rs. 53,390-2-3
during the last year.
Sales of the Society’s publications showed a small increase as
compared with the previous year; stocks of the fourth edition of
‘The Book of Indian Birds’ were practically exhausted by the end of
the year and it will take some time before the fifth edition will be
ready. The following is a comparative statement showing the different
sources of revenue received in 1951 and 1952:—
Revenue | Revenue Increase Decrease
in in in in
1951 | 1952 1952 1952
Rs. a. p IRS. Bo [Ba || IRS> Bo FOS) IRE Bt {de
Subscriptions soo || CLL O OO} 22072 O Wyss) O —-
Entrance fees a 1,522 0 © 1,460 0 0 os Go? @ ©
Publications :
Books Ten 6,236 0 0 6,799 0 O os O) © —
Journals A OG O 3,708 0 O — SCIELO 0
Interest on Investments Ses O- Y 3,946 0 0 Hil O ne
Sundries, Taxidermy,
Advertisement, etc. 778 0 0 315 0 0 mo 463 0 0
Grants :
Govt. of India ee 8,000 O 9 8,000 0 Of -—-- os
Govt. of Bombay ... 8,000 0 0 4,000 0 0 — 4,000 0 0
Donation—W. 1’. Loke |
for Loke-Salim Ali
Sikkim Expedition... ==. | GOW 0 © /G00 0 @ a
Aotaly ea) 93;590) 0) .0 }) 5659000 0) | 3,544 0 0) 75,034. 0570
Net increase in revenue in 1952 over 1951 is Rs. 3,510.
The total number of members on our books as at December 3rtst,
1952 was 1,083 of whom 226 were life members. Subscriptions for
1952 have so far been received from 721 members. During the year
14-A
978 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
56 new members joined; 6 life members and 5 ordinary members died,
and 39 ordinary members resigned.
STAFF
The work of the staff has been satisfactory and the Committee
wish to record their appreciation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson for
having kindly agreed to take on the responsibility of looking after
the Society’s interests in the U.K. since the death of Mr. Millard.
APPENDIX- TO DHE HONORARY SECRETARTHS RE ORI
COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO AUGUST 1953
During the year 34 new members joined against which 4 died and
26 resigned bringing the number of ordinary members on our rolls
to 861.
721 members paid their subscriptions for 1952 and 618 have so
far paid for this year in addition to which we have 225 Life Members.
A talk was given to members and their friends at the B.E.S.T.
Hall on Friday, February 13th, 1953 on Indian Wild Life by Shri
J. V. Karamchandani, the Wild Life Preservation Officer, Bombay
State. It was followed by Mr. F. W. Champion’s film on Wild Life
in India and Major Jim Corbett’s film on the African Elephants,
kindly lent by the Fauna Preservation Society, London.
A meeting of members and their friends was held at the Durbar
Hall of the Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society (Town Hall) on
Monday, March 2nd, 1953, to welcome the distinguished zoologist
Prof. Dr. Bernhard Rensch of the University Zoological Institute,
Munster, and his four co-workers, who were in India on a zoological,
expedition. :
Dr. Rensch gave an interesting talk on ‘Ecological Bases of
Animal Geography’ illustrated with lantern slides. We hope to
publish the text of this talk in a future issue of the Journal.
To bid farewell to Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, one of our oldest
members and a veteran sportsman and naturalist on his departure from
India, members and their friends met on April 15th, 1953, at the Durbar
Hall of the Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society. Col. Burton
addressed the gathering on ‘Wild Life Preservation in India’, the
text of which will be printed in the Journal for August 1953.
% % : * * *
The Bombay State Advisory Board for the Parks and Gardens —
Department on which the Society was represented has been wound up
and the Kanheri area which was the first attempt at a National Park
has been transferred to the Milk Commissioner for administrative
purposes.
% x * * : %
The Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951
to which several references have been made in previous reports was
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1952 979
brought into effect from May 1st, 1953, under Mr. J. V. Karam-
chandani, who is also Conservator of Forests, Central Circle, Bombay.
Several Honorary Game Wardens have been appointed but the Board
which was to advise Government on matters relating to the Act has
not yet met, nor has any independent wholetime Wild Life Preserva-
tion Officer, as provided by the Act, been appointed. It is hoped
that all his will be done in good time and that this Department will
not share the fate of National Parks.
To our knowledge two prosecutions have so far been launched
under the Act, the first relating to a basketful of partridge offered for
sale in Bombay City during the close season and the other relating
to a barking deer shot with slugs, said to be shot at night out of a
car, in the close season, and without a game licence, constituting
several offences under the Act. While every effort was made to make
the Act foolproof one great difficulty in enforcing it is the general
ignorance regarding it. In the second case the Honorary Game
Warden spent half the day at a police station recording the offence
and attended Court four times to see the accused acquitted. We
have not yet seen the details of the judgment but efforts will be made
to draw attention to the necessity of tightening up the regulations
further, if this should be found necessary.
The ‘Act was passed on the assumption that it would be possible
to run it with the assistance of the sportsmen of the right kind and
it is therefore essential that there should be co-operation among
Shikaris and that those who take upon themselves the activities of
Honorary Game Wardens should be rendered suitable assistance from
all quarters. Until all departments are suitably informed this help
is not available.
The Nature Education Scheme which the Society has been running
for five years with the assistance of a Government grant has been
renewed for ‘another year and Government desire that its activities
should be spread over the whole state and should not be restricted to
the City of Bombay. Efforts are being made to issue publications
containing black and white and coloured illustrations which would
be saleable at a few annas and which would be suitable for distribution
among school children. The Nature Education Organiser has also
been instructed to extend his guided tours which have so far been
centred around the Natural History wing of the Prince of Wales
Museum to the Victoria Gardens and the Taraporevala Aquarium.
The following 69 members have joined since the last Annual
General Meeting :
From 1st August to 31st December 1052
The Principal, Government College, Ajmer; Lt.-Col. L. C. R.
Emmett, mM.B.E., Mariani, Assam; Mr. D. T. Punjabi, Bombay ; Capt.
IR, AL, WHIISOM, TGR, Badeemenceail, Gorakhpur District; Mr.
Mahendra Khatau, Bombay; The Principal, Vijay College, Bijapur;
Shri Girja Shankar Bajpai, Governor of Bombay; Mr. J. J. B.
Sutherland, Calcutta; Mr. Ralph Charles Mowle, Calcutta; Mr. C. H.
$80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 51
Perry, Ghatsila, Bihar; His Highness Maharawal Shri Digveerendra-
sinhji, Bansda; Mr. C. J. D. Greig, Naduvattam, Nilgiris; Dr. B. B.
McInteer, -Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.; (Mr. Archibald, Port
Elizabeth, South Africa; Mr. K. V. Shenoy, Bombay; The Librarian,
India Office Library, Commonwealth Relations Office, London; The
Professor of Forestry, University of Rangoon, Burma; Mr. P. J. De
Larosiere, Bombay; Mr. A. J. Butler, Gauhati, Assam; Sir Alexander
Clutterbuck, G‘c.M.G., M.c:, New Delhi;"=Mry Colin) Hedley Scotts
Koni P.O., Travancore; Mr.-W. E. Kollmyer, Bombay; ‘The
Librarian, Agricultural Institute, Allahabad; Mr. K. Kolandavelu,
Kalipatti, Salem; The Principal, Jai Hind College & Basant Singh
Institute of Science, Bombay; The Divisional Forest Officer, West
Thana, Thana; Miss E. C. Fairbanks, Nadiad; Mr. V. C. Shukla,
Director-in-Charge, M/s. (iAllwyn Cooper, Nagpur; Mr. Feroze
Darashaw Gheyara, Nanpura; Mr. Praphulla Kumar Ray, Pillans-hat,
Jalpaiguri District; Mr. E. G. Willis, Chirala, Guntur District; Mrs.
S. Millard, Tunbridge Wells, Kent, U.K.
I-vom 1st January to 7th July 1953
Dr. K. M. Moghe, Bombay; Mr. J. S. Lall, Dewan, Sikkim State;
Dr. V. G. Khatu, Bombay ; The Deputy Director, Bureau of Agricultural
Information, Lucknow; The Divisional Forest Officer, Working Plans,
E. C., Dhulia; The Divisional Forest Officer, Kolhpur; Mr. K.. J.
Nanavathy, Ahmedabad; Mr. J. H. Burnett, Cinnamara, Assam; Mr.
K. V. Talcherkar, Bombay; The Conservator of Forests, Western
Circle, Naini Tal; The Bursar, Sacred Heart College, Thevara,
Travancore-Cochin State; The Fisheries Development Officer, Bhopal;
Mr. Gerard T. Kenay, Ghum, Darjeeling; Mrs. Syamala Murthy,
Calcutta; Mr. R. Sankaranarayana Pillai, Tirunelveli; The Con-
servator of Forests, Eastern Circle, Dhulia; Mr. Reayat Khan,
Aligarh University, Aligarh; Mr. E. L. Bell, Tavoy, L. Burma; Mr.
ian Page Johnston, Calcutta; Mr. V. M. White, Bombay; Mr. P. L.
Achard, Panighata, Darjeeling; Mr. M. Muthuswamy, Madurai; The
Divisional Forest Officer, Working Plans, N. C., Baroda; The
Librarian, Bontbay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay;
The Conservator of Forests, Western Circle, Nasik; Dr. Dora Ilse,
Head of the Zoology Department, University of Poona, Poona; The
Librarian, U.S.D.A. Library, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico; Mr. Amiruddin
Jabir Ali, Bombay; Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles,
U.S.A.; Miss D. M. Penty, Bombay; The Chief Forest Officer, State
of Ajmer, Ajmer; Mr. D. Freeman, Bombay; The Divisional Forest
Officer, Deogadh Baria; The Vice-Principal, St. Aloysius College,
Mangalore; Mr. J. M. Power, Kotagiri, Nilgiris; Mr. John K.
Howard, Boston, U.S/A., Mr. H. C. Hailstone, Talavadi, South
India. |
981
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ANAHDIS NOILVINGTH HANLIVN
/
ALHIDOS AYOLSIN TWUALVN AVEWO"E
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD IN ‘THE
CONFERENCE HALL OF THE, B.E.S. & T. UNDERTAKING,
ELECTRIC HOUSE, ORMISTON ROAD, BOMBAY, ON FRIDAY
THE vru AUGUST 1953, AT 6 p.m. WITH REV. FR. H.
SANTAPAU, s.j., IN THE CHAIR
1. The Honorary Secretaries’ Report for the year ended 31st
December 1952 having been circulated was taken as read. The Jt.
Honorary Secretary then enumerated the activities of the Society
during the period January to August 1953 (for details see p. 978).
2. The balance sheet and statement of accounts presented by
the Honorary Treasurer were approved and adopted.
3. The Committee’s nominations to the Executive and Advisory
Committees as previously circulated to members, were accepted. In
addition the following two nominations were received and accepted—
Executive Committee—
Mr. J. A. Singh of Bombay—proposed by Mr. G. V. Bedekar
and seconded by Mr. Humayun Abdulali.
Advisory Committee—
Mr. E. P. Gee of Assam—proposed by Col. R. C. Morris and
seconded by Mr. Salim Ali. .
The formal business of the meeting concluded with the showing
of a colour film by Walt Disney entitled ‘Seal Island’ which was
greatly appreciated by all present.
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPEFRY, MANRAS—3-—2-1954. C9455
EDITORS: SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA AND H. SANTAPAU ay
114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY
NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS
Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the 3
editors by observing the following instructions :
1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for
publication to other journals or periodicals, or have already been
published elsewhere, should not be submitted.
2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on
one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.
3. All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be elon
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the us is capitalized. The specific and sub-s c
names always ‘heath with a oral letter even if they refer to a
person or a place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia BUNS
suratensis or Dimeria blatteri.
4, Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used
where identification has been authentically - established by comparison
of specimens oe collected. In all ee cases, or where identi-
fication is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.
5. Photographs for re oe
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34x24 inches
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.
6. Text figures, line drawings and ee should be in Indian
ink, preferably on Bristol board.
7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
ay , alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged
of journals or periodicals noone (italics), and titles of books
bt underlined (roman type), thus:
Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Hiitbner. Trans. ent.
Soc. J pw) Na. *y 100 Gi: 47-70,
Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of Indian ae Bombay
Titles of papers should not be underlined.
8. Reference to literature in the text should be a parotne |
the author’s name and see of publicity thus: (Roepke, 1949).
9. Synopsis: As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific
Information Gpalsrenge (July 1948), cor consider it desirable
that ea entific paper be accompanied by a s is a
the beginning, mec dtately after the title. Mian should eee
factual. It should convey briefly the content of tae ce Bee ; draw
attention to all new information and to the author’s conclusic
It should also indicate newly observed facts, the median and conclusions
of an experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new
finding, theory or technique. It should be concise and nor not
exceed 200 words. |
When the synopsis is complete it should be carefully revised by
the author to clarify PN and further compressed wherever
possible without detracting from its usefulness.
114 Apollo Street, Fort, | Eprrors,
Bombay 1. Journal of the Bombay Natural
roduction must be clear and show ae
THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS.
Mammals.
Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, with many coloured and black and
white plates. Rs. 16.
(Price to Members Rs. 13).
Birds.
Game Birds of India, by E. C. Stuart Baker. Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition.
Rs. 20.
(Price to Members Rs. 15).
Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, with many colour and black and white
plates, 5th edition, revised and enlarged.
(Now under preparation).
Fish.
Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and
Burma, by A. St. J. Macdonald, with coloured and black and white plates.
Rs. 15.
(Price to Members Rs. 12).
Miscellaneous.
Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell, with 2 coloured plates and text eupes.
Rs. 6.
(Price to Members Rs. 4-8).
Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal,
etc. *. Rs. 2-8.
Back Numbers of the Journal.
Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.
Obtainable from:
The Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society,
114 Apollo Street, Bombay 1,
London Agents:
Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,
83/84 Berwick Street,
London, W. I.
TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.
Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and a life Membership fee of
Rs. 500.
Prana Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 25 and an annual subscription
of Rs. 30.
The subscription of members elected in October, November and December
covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following
year.
MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.
The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members -
should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the
amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 32-2-0 to the Society in
Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum
of £2-8-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The
National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C.
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